土木建筑外文文献翻译中英文：地下建筑结构

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土木工程专业文献翻译中英文

The frame structure anti- earthquake conceptdesignThe disaster has an earthquake dashing forward sending out nature, may forecast nature very low so far, bring about loss for human society is that the natural disaster of all kinds is hit by one of the gravest disaster gravely. In the light of now available our country science level and economy condition, correct the target building seismic resistance having brought forward "three standards " fortification, be that generally, the what be spoken "small earthquake shocks does not but constructs in the dirty trick, big earthquakes do not fall ". That generally, what be talked small shocks in the earthquake, big earthquakes refer to respectively is intensity exceed probability in 50 fortifying for 3%'s 63% , 10% , 2 ~ being more is caught in an earthquake, earthquake , rare Yu earthquake.Since building the astigmatic design complexity, in actual project, anti-knock conceptual design appears especially important right away. It includes the following content mainly: Architectural design should pay attention to the architectural systematic ness; Choose rational building structure system; the tensile resisting inclining force structure and the component is designed.That the ability designs law is the main content that the structure denasality designs includes standard our country internal force adjustment and structure two aspect. It is twenty centuries seventies later stage , reinforced concrete structure brought forward by famous New Zealand scholar T.Paulay and Park has sufficient tonsillitis method under the force designing an earthquake chooses value is prejudiced low situationW.hose core thought is: "The beam cuts organization " or "the beam column cuts organization " by the fact that "the strong weak post beam " guides structure to take form; Avoid structure by "strong weak scissors turn " before reach estimate that shearing happened in the denasality in the ability front destroy; Turn an ability and consume an ability by the fact that necessary structure measure makes the location may form the plasticity hinge have the necessary plasticity. Make structure have the necessary tonsillitis from all above three aspect guarantee. That framed structure is the common structure form, whose senility certainly designs that, is to embody from about this three aspect also mainly.1, Strong pillar weak beamDriving force reaction analysis indicates structure; architectural deformability is connected with to destroying mechanism. Common have three kinds model’s consume energ y organization ", beam hinge organization ““, post hinge organization ““, beam column hinge organization "."Beam hinge organization " and "beam column hinge organization " Lang Xianknuckle under , may let the entire frame have distribution and energy consumption heavier than big internal forces ability, limit tier displacement is big , plasticity hinge quantity is many , the hinge does not lose efficacy but the structure entirety does not lose efficacy because of individual plasticity. The as a result anti-knock function is easy to be that the armored concrete is ideal consume energy organization. Being that our country norm adopts allows a pillar , the shearing force wall puts up the hinge beam column hinge scheme, taking place adopting "strong relative weak post beam " measure , postponing a pillar cuts time. Weak tier of post hinge organization possibility appear on unable complete trouble shooting but , require that the axis pressure restricting a pillar compares as a result, architectural weakness prevents necessary time from appearing tier by the fact that Cheng analysis law judges now and then, post hinge organization.Are that V. I. P. is to enhance the pillar bending resistance , guidance holds in the beam appear first, the plasticity cuts our "strong common weak post beam " adjustment measure. Before plasticity hinge appearing on structure, structure component Yin La District concrete dehiscence and pressure area concrete mistake elasticity character, every component stiffness reduces a reinforced bar will do with the cementation degeneration between the concrete. That stiffness reduces a beam is relatively graver than accepting the pillar pressing on , structure enhances from initial shearing type deformation to curved scissors shape deformation transition , curved post inner regulation proportion really more curved than beam; The at the same time architectural period is lengthened, size affecting the participation modulus shaking a type respectively to structure's; Change happened in the earthquake force modulus , lead to the part pillar bend regulation enhancing, feasible beam reality knuckles under intensity rise , the post inner bends regulation when plasticity hinge appearing on thereby feasible beam enhancing since structure cause and the people who designs the middle reinforced bar's are to enhance.. And after plasticity hinge appearing on structure, same existence having above-mentioned cause, structure knuckles under mistake elasticity in the day after tomorrow process being that process , post that the earthquake enhances strenuously further bend regulation enhancing with earthquake force but enhance. The force arouses an earthquake overturn force moment having changed the actual post inner axis force. We knuckle under the ability lessening than axis pressure in standardizing being limited to be able to ensure that the pillar also can lead to a pillar in big the bias voltage range inner , axis force diminution like value. The anti-knock norm is stipulated: Except that the frame top storey and post axis pressure are compared to the strut beam and frame pillar being smaller than 0.15 person and frame, post holds curved regulation designing that value should accord with differencebeing，that first order takes 1.4 , the two stage takes 1.2 , grade-three takes 1.1. 9 degree and one step of framed structure still responds to coincidence,，intensity standard value ascertains that according to matchingreinforced bar area and material really. The bottom post axis is strenuously big, the ability that the plasticity rotates dispatches, be that pressure collapses after avoiding a foot stall producing a hinge, one, two, three steps of framed structure bottom, post holds cross section constituting curved regulation designing that value takes advantage of that 1.5, 1.25 compose in reply 1.15 in order to enhancing a modulus respectively. Combination of the corner post adjustment queen bends regulation still should take advantage of that not to be smaller than 1.10's modular. Curved regulation designs that value carries out adjustment to one-level anti-knock grade shearing force wall limb cross section combination , force the plasticity hinge to appear to reinforce location in the wall limb bottom, the bottom reinforces location and all above layer of curved regulation designing that value takes wall limb bottom cross section constituting curved regulation designing value , other location multiplies 1.2's by to enhance a modulus. Prop up anti-knock wall structure to part frame, bottom-end , whose curved combination regulation design value respond to one, two steps of frame pillars post upper end and bottom post take advantage of that 1.5 composes in reply 1.25 in order to enhancing a modulus respectively. All above "strong weak post beam” adjustment measure, reaction analysis indicates , big satisfied fundamental earthquakes demand no upside down course nonlinearity driving force. Reinforced bar spending area, the beam in 7 is controlled from gravity load, the post reinforced bar matches’ tendon rates basically from the min imum under the control of. Have enhanced post Liana Xiang all round resisting the curved ability. At the same time, 7 degree of area exactly curved regulation plasticity hinge appears on disaster very much, plays arrive at advantageous role to fighting against big earthquakes. In 9 degree of area, adopt reality to match reinforced bar area and material bending regulation within intensity standard value calculation post, structural beam reinforced bar enhancing same lead to enhancing bending regulation within post designing value, under importing in many waves, the beam holds the plasticity hinge rotating developing greatly, more sufficient, post holds the plasticity hinge developing insufficiency, rotate less. Design demand with the beam. Reaction and 9 degree are about the same to 8 degree of area , whose big earthquake displacement , that post holds the plasticity hinge is bigger than rotating 9 degree much but, the beam holds the plasticity hinge appearing sufficient but rotate small, as a result "strong weak post beam " effect is not obvious , curved regulation enhances a modulus ought to take 1.35 , this waits for improving and perfecting going a step further when the grade suggesting that 8 degree of two stage is anti-knock in connection with the expert.2, Strong shear weak curved"Strong weak scissors turn” is that the plasticity cuts cross section for guarantee on reach anticipate that shearing happened in the mistake elastic-deformation prior to destroy. As far as common structure be concerned, main behaviors holds in the beam, post holds, the shearing force wall bottom reinforces area , shearing force wall entrance to a cave company beam tools , beam column node core area. Show mainly with being not that seismic resistance is compared with each other, strengthening measure in improving the effect shearing force;Aspect adjusting a shear bearing the weight of two forces.1)effect shearing forceOne, two, three-level frame beam and anti-knock wall middle stride over high ratio greater than 2.5 company beam, shearing force design value amongthem, first order choose 1.3, two stage choose 1.2, three-level choose 1.1, first order framed structure and 9 Due Shan respond to coincidence. Coincidence one, two, three steps of frame post and frame pillar , shearing force being designed being worth taking 1.4 among them, one step , taking 1.2, three steps of take 1.1 , one-level framed structure and 9 Due Shank two steps responding to.One, two, three steps of anti-knock walls bottom reinforces location the shearing force designs that value is among them, first order takes 1.6 , the two stage takes 1.4 , grade-three takes 1.2, 9 Dud Shank respond to coincidence. The node core area seismic resistance the beam columnnode , one, two steps of anti-knock grades are carried out is born the weight of force checking calculation by the scissors , should accord with anti-knock structure measure about 3 step, correct 9 degree of fortify and one-level anti-knock grade framed structure, think to the beam end the plasticity hinge already appears , the node shearing force holds reality completely from the beam knuckling under curved regulation decision , hold reality according to the beam matching reinforced bar covering an area of the growing modulus that intensity standard value calculation, takes advantage of that at the same time with 1.15 with material. Other first order holds curved regulation according to the beamdesigning that value secretly schemes against , the shearing force enhances a modulus being1.35 , the two stage is 1.2.2) Shear formulaThe continuous beam of armored concrete and the cantilever beam are born the weight of at home and abroad under low repeated cycle load effect by the scissors the force experiment indicates the main cause pooling efforts and reducing even if tendon dowel force lessening is that the beam is born the weight of a force by the scissors, concrete scissors pressure area lessening shearing an intensity, tilted rift room aggregate bite. Scissors bear the weight of a norm to the concrete accepting descending strenuously being 60% be not anti-knock, the reinforced bar item does not reduce. By the same token, the experiment indicates to insisting to intimidate post with that the force is born the weight of by the scissors, loading makes post the force be born the weight of by the scissors reducing 10% ~ again and again 30%, the itemarouses , adopts practice identical with the beam mainly from the concrete. The experiment is indicated to shearing force wall, whose repeated loading breaks the subtraction modulus up than monotony increases be loaded with force lessening is born the weight of by the scissors 15% ~ 20%, adopts to be not that seismic resistance is born the weight of by the scissors energy times 0.8's. Two parts accept the pressure pole strenuously tilted from the concrete is born the weight of by the scissors and horizontal stirrup of beam column node seismic resistance cutting the expert who bears the weight of force composition , is connected with have given a relevance out formula.Tilted for preventing the beam , post , company beam , shearing force wall , node from happening pressure is destroyed, we have stipulated upper limits force upper limit to be born the weight of by the scissors , have stipulated to match hoop rate’s namely to accepting scissors cross section.Reaction analysis indicates strong weak curved scissors requests; all above measure satisfies basically by mistake elasticity driving force. The plasticity rotates because of anti-knock grade of two stage beam column under big earthquakes still very big , suggest that the shearing force enhances a modulus is bigger than having there is difference between one step unsuitably in connection with the expert, to the beam choose 1.25 is fairly good , ought to take 1.3 ~ to post 1.35. It's the rationality taking value remains to be improved and perfected in going a step further.Require that explanatory being , the beam column node accept a force very complicated , need to ensure that beam column reinforced bar reliability in the node is anchoring , hold occurrence bending resistance at the same time in the beam column destroying front, shearing happened in the node destroy, whose essence should belong to "strong weak curved scissors" categories. The node carries out adjustment on one, two steps of anti-knock grades shearing force and, only, the person enhances a modulus be are minor than post, ratio post also holds structure measure a little weak. As a result ", mor e strong node “statement, is not worth it encourage.3) Structure measureStructure measure is a beam, post, the shearing force wall plasticity cuts the guarantee that area asks to reach the plasticity that reality needs turning ability and consuming ability. Its "strong with "strong weak scissors turn ", weak post beam " correlates, a architectural denasality of guarantee.”Strong weak scissors turn " is a prerequisite for ensuring that the plasticity hinge turns an ability and consumes an ability; Strict "strong weak post beam " degree, the measure affecting corresponding structure, if put strict "strong weak post beam " into practice, ensure that the pillar does not appear than the plasticity hinge, corresponding axis pressure waiting for structure measure to should be a little loose right away except the bottom. Our country adopts "the strong relative weak post beam”, delays a pillar going beyond the hinge time, therefore needing to adopt stricter structure measure.①the beam structure measure beam plasticity hinge cross section senility and manyfactors match tendon rates and the rise knuckling under an intensity but reduce in connection with cross section tensile, with the reinforced bar being pulled; The reinforced bar matches tendon rates and concrete intensity rise but improve with being pressed on, width enhances but enhances with cross section; Plasticity hinge area stirrup can guard against the pressure injustice releasing a tendon , improve concrete limit pressure strain , arrest tilted rift carrying out , fight against a shearing force , plasticity hinge deformation and consume an ability bring into full play, That deck-molding is stridden over is smaller than exceeding , shearing deformation proportion is increasingly big, the gentility destroying , using the tilted rift easy to happen reduces. The beam has led low even if the tendon matches hoop, the reinforced bar may knuckle under after Lang Kai cracks break up by pulling even. As a result, the norm matches tendon rates to the beam even if the tendon maximum matches tendon rates and minimum , the stirrup encryption District length , maximal spacing , minimal diameter , maximal limb lead all have strict regulations from when, volume matches hoop. Being bending regulation , the guarantee cross section denasality , holding to the beam possibly for the end fighting against a beam to pull the pressure reinforced bar area ratio make restrict. Stride over height at the same time, to minimal beam width, than, aspect ratio has done regulation.② the post structure measureFor post bending a type accepting the force component, axis pressure than to the denasality and consuming to be able to, nature effect is bigger. Destroy axis pressure than big bias voltages happened in the pillar hour, component deformation is big , gentility energy nature easy to only consume, reduces; Nature is growing with axis pressure than enhancing , consuming an energy, but the gentility sudden drop, moreover the stirrup diminishes to the gentility help. Readjust oneself to a certain extent to adopt the pillar, main guarantee it's tonsillitis that the low earthquake designs strenuously, but consuming energy sex to second. The pressure ratio has made a norm to the axis restricting, can ensure that within big bias voltages range in general. Stirrup same get the strain arriving at big roles, restraining the longitudinal tendon, improving concrete pressure, deter the tilted rift from developing also to the denasality. Be to match tendon symmetrically like post, the person leads feeling bigger , as big , becoming deformed when the pillar knuckles under more even if the tendon matches tendon , the tensile finishes exceeding. As a result, the tendon minimum matches tendon rates, the stirrup encryption District length, maximal spacing, minimal diameter, maximal limb lead having made strict regulations out from when, and volume matches hoop to the pillar jumping. At the same time, aspect ratio , scissors to the pillar have stridden over a ratio , minimal altitude of cross section , width have done out regulation, to improve the anti-knock function.③ Node structure measureThe node is anchoring beam column reinforced bar area, effect is very big to structure function. Be under swear to act on earthquake and the vertical stroke to load, area provides necessary constraint to node core when node core area cuts pressure low than slanting, keepthe node fundamental shear ability under disadvantageous condition, make a beam column anchoring even if the tendon is reliable, match hoop rates to node core area maximal spacing of stirrup, minimal diameter, volume having done out regulation. The beam column is main node structure measure content even if tendon reliability in the node is anchoring. Have standardized to beam tendon being hit by the node diameter; Release the anchoring length of tendon to the beam column; anchoring way all has detailed regulation.To sum up ,; Framed structure is to pass "the design plan calculating and coming realize structure measure the ability running after beam hinge organization" mainly thereby, realize "the small earth—quake shocks does not but constructs in the dirty trick, big earthquakes do not fall " three standards to-en fortifying target's. References.框架结构抗震概念设计地震灾害具有突发性，至今可预报性很低，给人类社会造成的损失严重，是各类自然灾中最严重的灾害之一。

土木工程钢筋混凝土结构中英文对照外文翻译文献

中英文翻译原文：DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETESTRUCTURES1. BASIC CONCERPTS AND CHARACERACTERISTICS OF REINFORCED CONCRETEPlain concrete is formed from hardened mixture of cement, water , fine aggregate , coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel ) , air and often other admixtures . The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to accelerate of the chemical hydration of hen cement mix and results in a hardened concrete. It is generally known that concrete has high compressive strength and low resistance to tension. Its tensile strength is approximatelyone-tenth of its compressive strength. Consequently, tensile reinforcement in the tension zone has to be provided to supplement the tensile strength of the reinforced concrete section.For example, a plain concrete beam under a uniformly distributed load q is shown in Fig .1.1(a), when the distributed load increases and reaches a value q=1.37KN/m , the tensile region at the mid-span will be cracked and the beam will fail suddenly . A reinforced concrete beam if the same size but has to steel reinforcing bars (2φ16) embedded at the bottom under a uniformly distributed load q is shown in Fig.1.1(b). The reinforcing bars take up the tension there after the concrete is cracked. When the load q is increased, the width of the cracks, the deflection and the stress of steel bars will increase . When the steel approaches the yielding stress ƒy , the deflection and the cracked width are so large offering some warning that the compression zone . The failure load q=9.31KN/m, is approximately 6.8 times that for the plain concrete beam.Concrete and reinforcement can work together because there is a sufficiently strong bond between the two materials, there are no relative movements of the bars and the surrounding concrete cracking. The thermal expansion coefficients of the two materials are 1.2×10-5K-1 for steel and 1.0×10-5~1.5×10-5K-1 for concrete .Generally speaking, reinforced structure possess following features :Durability .With the reinforcing steel protected by the concrete , reinforced concreteFig.1.1Plain concrete beam and reinforced concrete beamIs perhaps one of the most durable materials for construction .It does not rot rust , and is not vulnerable to efflorescence .(2)Fire resistance .Both concrete an steel are not inflammable materials .They would not be affected by fire below the temperature of 200℃ when there is a moderate amount of concrete cover giving sufficient thermal insulation to the embedded reinforcement bars.(3)High stiffness .Most reinforced concrete structures have comparatively large crosssections .As concrete has high modulus of elasticity, reinforced concrete structures are usually stiffer than structures of other materials, thus they are less prone to large deformations, This property also makes the reinforced concrete less adaptable to situations requiring certainflexibility, such as high-rise buildings under seismic load, and particular provisions have to be made if reinforced concrete is used.(4)Locally available resources. It is always possible to make use of the local resources of labour and materials such as fine and coarse aggregates. Only cement and reinforcement need to be brought in from outside provinces.(5)Cost effective. Comparing with steel structures, reinforced concrete structures arecheaper. 1.37kn/m6m 200 400(a)plain concrete beam 9.31kn/m6m 200 400(b)Reinfoced concrete beam2φ16(6)Large dead mass, The density of reinforced concrete may reach2400~2500kg/pare with structures of other materials, reinforced concrete structures generally have a heavy dead mass. However, this may be not always disadvantageous, particularly for those structures which rely on heavy dead weight to maintain stability, such as gravity dam and other retaining structure. The development and use of light weight aggregate have to a certain extent make concrete structure lighter.(7)Long curing period.. It normally takes a curing period of 28 day under specified conditions for concrete to acquire its full nominal strength. This makes the progress of reinforced concrete structure construction subject to seasonal climate. The development of factory prefabricated members and investment in metal formwork also reduce the consumption of timber formwork materials.(8)Easily cracked. Concrete is weak in tension and is easily cracked in the tension zone. Reinforcing bars are provided not to prevent the concrete from cracking but to take up the tensile force. So most of the reinforced concrete structure in service is behaving in a cracked state. This is an inherent is subjected to a compressive force before working load is applied. Thus the compressed concrete can take up some tension from the load.2. HISTOEICAL DEVELPPMENT OF CONCRETE STRUCTUREAlthough concrete and its cementitious(volcanic) constituents, such as pozzolanic ash, have been used since the days of Greek, the Romans, and possibly earlier ancient civilization, the use of reinforced concrete for construction purpose is a relatively recent event, In 1801, F. Concrete published his statement of principles of construction, recognizing the weakness if concrete in tension, The beginning of reinforced concrete is generally attributed to Frenchman J. L. Lambot, who in 1850 constructed, for the first time, a small boat with concrete for exhibition in the 1855 World’s Fair in Paris. In England, W. B. Wilkinson registered a patent for reinforced concrete l=floor slab in 1854.J.Monier, a French gardener used metal frames as reinforcement to make garden plant containers in 1867. Before 1870, Monier had taken a series of patents to make reinforced concrete pipes, slabs, and arches. But Monier had no knowledge of the working principle of this new material, he placed the reinforcement at the mid-depth of his wares. Then little construction was done in reinforced concrete. It is until 1887, when the German engineers Wayss and Bauschinger proposed to place the reinforcement in the tension zone, the use of reinforced concrete as a material of construction began to spread rapidly. In1906, C. A. P. Turner developed the first flat slab without beams.Before the early twenties of 20th century, reinforced concrete went through the initial stage of its development, Considerable progress occurred in the field such that by 1910 the German Committee for Reinforced Concrete, the Austrian Concrete Committee, the American Concrete Institute, and the British Concrete Institute were established. Various structural elements, such as beams, slabs, columns, frames, arches, footings, etc. were developed using this material. However, the strength of concrete and that of reinforcing bars were still very low. The common strength of concrete at the beginning of 20th century was about 15MPa in compression, and the tensile strength of steel bars was about 200MPa. The elements were designed along the allowable stresses which was an extension of the principles in strength of materials.By the late twenties, reinforced concrete entered a new stage of development. Many buildings, bridges, liquid containers, thin shells and prefabricated members of reinforced concrete were concrete were constructed by 1920. The era of linear and circular prestressing began.. Reinforced concrete, because of its low cost and easy availability, has become the staple material of construction all over the world. Up to now, the quality of concrete has been greatly improved and the range of its utility has been expanded. The design approach has also been innovative to giving the new role for reinforced concrete is to play in the world of construction.The concrete commonly used today has a compressive strength of 20~40MPa. For concrete used in pre-stressed concrete the compressive strength may be as high as 60~80MPa. The reinforcing bars commonly used today has a tensile strength of 400MPa, and the ultimate tensile strength of prestressing wire may reach 1570~1860Pa. The development of high strength concrete makes it possible for reinforced concrete to be used in high-rise buildings, off-shore structures, pressure vessels, etc. In order to reduce the dead weight of concrete structures, various kinds of light concrete have been developed with a density of 1400~1800kg/m3. With a compressive strength of 50MPa, light weight concrete may be used in load bearing structures. One of the best examples is the gymnasium of the University of Illinois which has a span of 122m and is constructed of concrete with a density of 1700kg/m3. Another example is the two 20-story apartment houses at the Xi-Bian-Men in Beijing. The walls of these two buildings are light weight concrete with a density of 1800kg/m3.The tallest reinforced concrete building in the world today is the 76-story Water Tower Building in Chicago with a height of 262m. The tallest reinforced concrete building in China today is the 63-story International Trade Center in GuangZhou with a height a height of 200m. The tallest reinforced concrete construction in the world is the 549m high International Television Tower in Toronto, Canada. He prestressedconcrete T-section simply supported beam bridge over the Yellow River in Luoyang has 67 spans and the standard span length is 50m.In the design of reinforced concrete structures, limit state design concept has replaced the old allowable stresses principle. Reliability analysis based on the probability theory has very recently been introduced putting the limit state design on a sound theoretical foundation. Elastic-plastic analysis of continuous beams is established and is accepted in most of the design codes. Finite element analysis is extensively used in the design of reinforced concrete structures and non-linear behavior of concrete is taken into consideration. Recent earthquake disasters prompted the research in the seismic resistant reinforced of concrete structures. Significant results have been accumulated.3. SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE COURSEReinforced concrete is a widely used material for construction. Hence, graduates of every civil engineering program must have, as a minimum requirement, a basic understanding of the fundamentals of reinforced concrete.The course of Reinforced Concrete Design requires the prerequisite of Engineering Mechanics, Strength of Materials, and some if not all, of Theory of Structures, In all these courses, with the exception of Strength of Materials to some extent, a structure is treated of in the abstract. For instance, in the theory of rigid frame analysis, all members have an abstract EI/l value, regardless of what the act value may be. But the theory of reinforced concrete is different, it deals with specific materials, concrete and steel. The values of most parameters must be determined by experiments and can no more be regarded as some abstract. Additionally, due to the low tensile strength of concrete, the reinforced concrete members usually work with cracks, some of the parameters such as the elastic modulus I of concrete and the inertia I of section are variable with the loads.The theory of reinforced concrete is relatively young. Although great progress has been made, the theory is still empirical in nature in stead of rational. Many formulas can not be derived from a few propositions, and may cause some difficulties for students. Besides, due to the difference in practice in different countries, most countries base their design methods on their own experience and experimental results. Consequently, what one learns in one country may be different in another country. Besides, the theory is still in a stage of rapid development and is subjected to revision according to new findings from research. In China, the design code undergoes major revision in about every fifteen years and with minor revision in between. This book is based on the latest current code in China “Code for Design of Concrete Structures”(GB50010-2002). The studentsmust keep in mind that this course can not give them the knowledge which is universally valid regardless of time and place, but the basic principles on which the current design method in the country is established.The desk calculator has made calculations to a high degree of precision possible and easy. Students must not forget that concrete is a man-made material and a 10% consistency in quality is remarkably good. Reinforcing bad=rs are rolled in factory, yet variation is=n strength may be as high as 5%. Besides, the position of bars in the formwork may deviate from their design positions. In fact two figure accuracy is adequate for almost all the cases, rather than carrying the calculations to meaningless precision. The time and effort of the designer are better spent to find out where the tension may occur to resist it by placing reinforcement there.中文译文：钢筋混凝土结构设计一、钢筋混凝土基本概念和特点混凝土是指由水泥胶凝的水、细致聚合体、粗聚合物（碎石或沙砾）、空气、以及其他混合物的坚硬混合物。

土木工程混凝土结构中英文对照外文翻译文献

中英文翻译Concrete structure reinforcement designAbstract：structure in the long-term natural environment and under the use environment's function, its function is weaken inevitably gradually, our structural engineering's duty not just must finish the building earlier period the project work, but must be able the science appraisal structure damage objective law and the degree, and adopts the effective method guarantee structure the security use, that the structure reinforcement will become an important work. What may foresee will be the 21st century, the human building also by the concrete structure, the steel structure, the bricking-up structure and so on primarily, the present stage I will think us in the structure reinforcement this aspect research should also take this as the main breakthrough direction.Key word：Concrete structure reinforcement bricking-up structure reinforcement steel structure reinforcement1 Concrete structure reinforcementConcrete structure's reinforcement divides into the directreinforcement and reinforces two kinds indirectly, when the design may act according to the actual condition and the operation requirements choice being suitable method and the necessary technology.1.1the direct reinforcement's general method1）Enlarges the section reinforcement lawAdds the concretes cast-in-place level in the reinforced concrete member in bending compression zone, may increase the section effective height, the expansion cross sectional area, thus enhances the component right section anti-curved, the oblique section anti-cuts ability and the section rigidity, plays the reinforcement reinforcement the role.In the suitable muscle scope, the concretes change curved the component right section supporting capacity increase along with the area of reinforcement and the intensity enhance. In the original component right section ratio of reinforcement not too high situation, increases the main reinforcement area to be possible to propose the plateau component right section anti-curved supporting capacity effectively. Is pulled in the section the area to add the cast-in-place concrete jacket to increase the component section, through new Canada partial and original component joint work, but enhances the componentsupporting capacity effectively, improvement normal operational performance.Enlarges the section reinforcement law construction craft simply, compatible, and has the mature design and the construction experience; Is suitable in Liang, the board, the column, the wall and the general structure concretes reinforcement; But scene construction's wet operating time is long, to produces has certain influence with the life, and after reinforcing the building clearance has certain reduction.2) Replacement concretes reinforcement lawThis law's merit with enlarges the method of sections to be close, and after reinforcing, does not affect building's clearance, but similar existence construction wet operating time long shortcoming; Is suitable somewhat low or has concretes carrier's and so on serious defect Liang, column in the compression zone concretes intensity reinforcement. 3) the caking outsourcing section reinforcement lawOutside the Baotou Steel Factory reinforcement is wraps in the section or the steel plate is reinforced component's outside, outside the Baotou Steel Factory reinforces reinforced concrete Liang to use the wet outsourcing law generally, namely uses the epoxy resinification to be in themilk and so on methods with to reinforce the section the construction commission to cake a whole, after the reinforcement component, because is pulled with the compressed steel cross sectional area large scale enhancement, therefore right section supporting capacity and section rigidity large scale enhancement.This law also said that the wet outside Baotou Steel Factory reinforcement law, the stress is reliable, the construction is simple, the scene work load is small, but is big with the steel quantity, and uses in above not suitably 600C in the non-protection's situation the high temperature place; Is suitable does not allow in the use obviously to increase the original component section size, but requests to sharpen its bearing capacity large scale the concrete structure reinforcement.4) Sticks the steel reinforcement lawOutside the reinforced concrete member in bending sticks the steel reinforcement is (right section is pulled in the component supporting capacity insufficient sector area, right section compression zone or oblique section) the superficial glue steel plate, like this may enhance is reinforcedcomponent's supporting capacity, and constructs conveniently.This law construction is fast, the scene not wet work or only has the plastering and so on few wet works, to producesis small with the life influence, and after reinforcing, is not remarkable to the original structure outward appearance and the original clearance affects, but the reinforcement effect is decided to a great extent by the gummy craft and the operational level; Is suitable in the withstanding static function, and isin the normal humidity environment to bend or the tension member reinforcement.5) Glue fibre reinforcement plastic reinforcement lawOutside pastes the textile fiber reinforcement is pastes with the cementing material the fibre reinforcement compound materials in is reinforced the component to pull the region, causes it with to reinforce the section joint work, achieves sharpens the component bearing capacity the goal. Besides has glues the steel plate similar merit, but also has anticorrosive muddy, bears moistly, does not increase the self-weight of structure nearly, durably, the maintenance cost low status merit, but needs special fire protection processing, is suitable in each kind of stress nature concrete structure component and the general construction.This law's good and bad points with enlarge the method of sections to be close; Is suitable reinforcement which is insufficient in the concrete structure component oblique section supporting capacity, or must exert the crosswise binding force to the compressional member the situation.6) Reeling lawThis law's good and bad points with enlarge the method of sections to be close; Is suitable reinforcement which is insufficient in the concrete structure component oblique section supporting capacity, or must exert the crosswise binding force to the compressional member the situation.7) Fang bolt anchor lawThis law is suitable in the concretes intensity rank is the C20~C60 concretes load-bearing member transformation, the reinforcement; It is not suitable for already the above structure which and the light quality structure makes decent seriously.1.2The indirect reinforcement's general method1)Pre-stressed reinforcement law(1)Thepre-stressed horizontal tension bar reinforces concretes member in bending,because the pre-stressed and increases the exterior load the combined action, in the tensionbar has the axial tension, this strength eccentric transmits on the component through the pole end anchor (, when tension bar and Liang board bottom surface close fitting, tension bar can look for tune together with component, this fashion has partial pressures to transmit directly for component bottom surface), has the eccentric compression function in the component, this function has overcome the bending moment which outside the part the load produces, reduced outside the load effect, thus sharpened component's anti-curved ability. At the same time, because the tension bar passes to component's pressure function, the component crack development can alleviate, the control, the oblique section anti-to cut the supporting capacity also along with it enhancement.As a result of the horizontal lifting stem's function, the original component's section stress characteristic by received bends turned the eccentric compression, therefore, after the reinforcement, component's supporting capacity was mainly decided in bends under the condition the original component's supporting capacity 。

土木工程高层建筑中英文对照外文翻译文献

中英文资料翻译1外文资料The Tall Office Building Artistically ConsideredThe architects of this land and generation are now brought face to face with something new under the sun namely, that evolution and integration of social conditions, that special grouping of them, that results in a demand for the erection of tall office buildings.It is not my purpose to discuss the social conditions; I accept them as the fact, and say at once that the design of the tall office building must be recognized and confronted at the outset as a problem to be solved a vital problem, pressing for a true solution.Let us state the conditions in the plainest manner. Briefly, they are these: offices are necessary for the transaction of business; the invention and perfection of the high speed elevators make vertical travel, that was once tedious and painful, now easy and comfortable; development of steel manufacture has shown the way to safe, rigid, economical constructions rising to a great height; continued growth of population in the great cities, consequent congestion of centers and rise in value of ground, stimulate an increase in number of stories; these successfully piled one upon another, react on ground values and so on, byaction and reaction, interaction and inter reaction. Thus has come about that form of lofty construction called the "modern office building". It has come in answer to a call, for in it a new grouping of social conditions has found a habitation and a name.Up to this point all in evidence is materialistic, an exhibition of force, of resolution, of brains in the keen sense of the word. It is the joint product of the speculator, the engineer, the builder.Problem: How shall we impart to this sterile pile, this crude, harsh, brutal agglomeration, this stark, staring exclamation of eternal strife, the graciousness of these higher forms of sensibility and culture that rest on the lower and fiercer passions? How shall we proclaim from the dizzy height of this strange, weird, modern housetop the peaceful evangel of sentiment, of beauty, the cult of a higher life?This is the problem; and we must seek the solution of it in a process analogous to its own evolution indeed, a continuation of it namely, by proceeding step by step from general to special aspects, from coarser to finer considerations.It is my belief that it is of the very essence of every problem that is contains and suggests its own solution. This I believe to be natural law. Let us examine, then, carefully the elements, let us search out this contained suggestion, this essence of the problem.The practical conditions are, broadly speaking, these:Wanted 1st, a story below ground, containing boiler, engines of various sorts, etc. in short, the plant for power, heating, lighting, etc. 2nd, a ground floor, so called, devoted to stores, banks, or other establishments requiring large area, ample spacing, ample light, and great freedom of access, 3rd, a second story readily accessible by stairways this space usually in large subdivisions, with corresponding liberality in structural spacing and expanse of glass and breadth of external openings, 4th, above this an indefinite number of stories of offices piled tier upon tier, one tier just like another tier, one office just like all the other offices an office being similar to a cell in honey comb, merely a compartment, nothing more, 5th, and last, at the top of this pile is placed a space or story that, as related to the life and usefulness of the structure, is purely physiological in its nature namely, the attic. In this the circulatory system completes itself and makes it grand turn, ascending and descending. The space is filled with tanks, pipes, valves, sheaves, and mechanical etcetera that supplement and complement the force originating plant hidden below ground in the cellar. Finally, or at the beginning rather, there must be on the ground floor a main aperture or entrance common to all the occupants or patrons of the building.This tabulation is, in the main, characteristic of every tall office building in the country. As to the necessary arrangements for light courts, these are not germane to the problem, and as will become soon evident, I trust need not be considered here. These things, and such others as the arrangement of elevators, for example, have to do strictly with the economics of the building, and I assumethem to have been fully considered and disposed of to the satisfaction of purely utilitarian and pecuniary demands. Only in rare instances does the plan or floor arrangement of the tall office building take on an aesthetic value, and thus usually when the lighting court is external or becomes an internal feature of great importance.As I am here seeking not for an individual or special solution, but for a true normal type, the attention must be confined to those conditions that, in the main, are constant in all tall office buildings, and every mere incidental and accidental variation eliminated from the consideration, as harmful to the clearness of the main inquiry.The practical horizontal and vertical division or office unit is naturally based on a room of comfortable area and height, and the size of this standard office room as naturally predetermines the standard structural unit, and, approximately, the size of window openings. In turn, these purely arbitrary units of structure form in an equally natural way the true basis of the artistic development of the exterior. Of course the structural spacings and openings in the first or mercantile story are required to be the largest of all; those in the second or quasi mercantile story are of a some what similar nature. The spacings and openings in the attic are of no importance whatsoever the windows have no actual value, for light may be taken from the top, and no recognition of a cellular division is necessary in the structural spacing.Hence it follow inevitably, and in the simplest possible way, that if wefollow our natural instincts without thought of books, rules, precedents, or any such educational impediments to a spontaneous and "sensible" result, we will in the following manner design the exterior of our tall office building to wit: Beginning with the first story, we give this a min entrance that attracts the eye to it location, and the remainder of the story we treat in a more or less liberal, expansive, sumptuous way a way based exactly on the practical necessities, but expressed with a sentiment of largeness and freedom. The second story we treat in a similar way, but usually with milder pretension. Above this, throughout the indefinite number of typical office tiers, we take our cue from the individual cell, which requires a window with its separating pier, its still and lintel, and we, without more ado, make them look all alike because they are all alike. This brings us to the attic, which having no division into office cells, and no special requirement for lighting, gives us the power to show by means of its broad expanse of wall, and its dominating weight and character, that which is the fact namely, that the series of office tiers has come definitely to an end.This may perhaps seem a bald result and a heartless, pessimistic way of stating it, but even so we certainly have advanced a most characteristic stage beyond the imagined sinister building of the speculator engineer builder combination. For the hand of the architect is now definitely felt in the decisive position at once taken, and the suggestion of a thoroughly sound, logical, coherent expression of the conditions is becoming apparent.When I say the hand of the architect, I do not mean necessarily theaccomplished and trained architect. I mean only a man with a strong, natural liking for buildings, and a disposition to shape them in what seems to his unaffected nature a direct and simple way. He will probably tread an innocent path from his problem to its solution, and therein he will show an enviable gift of logic. If we have some gift for form in detail, some feeling for form purely and simply as form, some love for that, his result in addition to it simple straightforward naturalness and completeness in general statement, will have something of temperament and interest.However, thus far the results are only partial and tentative at best relatively true, they are but superficial. We are doubtless right in our instinct but we must seek a fuller justification, a finer sanction, for it.I assume now that in the study of our problem we have passed through the various stages of inquiry, as follows: 1st, the social basis of the demand for tall buildings; 2nd, its literal material satisfaction; 3rd, the elevation of the question from considerations of literal planning, construction, and equipment, to the plane of elementary architecture as a direct outgrowth of sound, sensible building; 4th, the question again elevated from an elementary architecture to the beginnings of true architectural expression, through the addition of a certain quality and quantity of sentiment.But our building may have all these in a considerable degree and yet be far from that adequate solution of the problem I am attempting to define. We must now heed quality and quantity of sentiment.It demands of us, what is the chief characteristic of the tall office building? And at once we answer, it is lofty. This loftiness is to the artist nature its thrilling aspect. It is the very open organ tone in its appeal. It must be in turn the dominant chard in his expression of it, the true excitant of his imagination. It must be tall, every inch of it tall. The force and power of altitude must be in it, the glory and pride of exaltation must be in it. It must be every inch a proud and soaring thing, rising in sheer exultation that from bottom to top it is a unit without a single dissenting line that it is the new, the unexpected, the eloquent peroration of most bald, most sinister, most forbidding conditions.The man who designs in the spirit and with the sense of responsibility to the generation he lives in must be no coward, no denier, no bookworm, no dilettante. He must live of his life and for his life in the fullest, most consummate sense. He must realize at once and with the grasp of inspiration that the problem of the tall office building is one of the most stupendous, one of the most magnificent opportunities that the Lord of Nature in His beneficence has ever offered to the proud spirit of man.That this has not been perceived indeed has been flatly denied is an exhibition of human perversity that must give us pause.One more consideration. Let us now lift this question into the region of calm, philosophic observation. Let us seek a comprehensive, a final solution: let the problem indeed dissolve.Certain critics, and very thoughtful ones, have advanced the theory that thetrue prototype of the tall office building is the classical column, consisting of base, shaft and capital the molded base of the column typical of the lower stories of our building, the plain or fluted shaft suggesting the monotonous, uninterrupted series of office tiers, and the capital the completing power and luxuriance of the attic.Other theorizers, assuming a mystical symbolism as a guide, quite the many trinities in nature and art, and the beauty and conclusiveness of such trinity in unity. They aver the beauty of prime numbers, the mysticism of the number three, the beauty of all things that are in three parts to wit, the day, subdividing into morning, noon, and night; the limbs, the thorax, and the head, constituting the body. So they say, should the building be in three parts vertically, substantially as before, but for different motives.Others, of purely intellectual temperament, hold that such a design should be in the nature of a logical statement; it should have a beginning, a middle, and an ending, each clearly defined therefore again a building, as above, in three parts vertically.2中文翻译高层办公建筑艺术思考这个时代该领域的建筑师开始正视一些新的由于社会条件变革和整合以及它们特殊组合导致的对高层办公建筑的立面要求。

土木工程专业英语课文原文及对照翻译

土木工程专业英语课文原文及对照翻译Civil EngineeringCivil engineering, the oldest of the engineering specialties, is the planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles, from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket-launching facilities.土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。

此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。

Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airports, railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, or residential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to house self-contained communities.土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。

土木工程英文文献及翻译

Civil engineeringCivil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works like bridges, roads, canals, dams, and buildings.[1][2][3] Civil engineering is the oldest engineering discipline after military engineering,[4] and it was defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering.[5] It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, municipal or urban engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering, coastal engineering,[4] surveying, and construction engineering.[6] Civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies.History of the civil engineering professionSee also: History of structural engineeringEngineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practices of Civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (Ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, thus causing a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing.Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same person, often used interchangeably.[7]The construction of Pyramids in Egypt (circa 2700-2500 BC) might be considered the first instances of large structure constructions. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447-438 BC), theAppian Way by Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), the Great Wall of China by General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor Shih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC)[6] and the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura. The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbours, bridges, dams and roads.In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering.[5]The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse.[4][6]In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society.In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as:the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in states, both for external and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and exchange, and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce, and in the construction and application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns.[8] The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was Norwich University founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge.[9] The first degree in Civil Engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835.[10] The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatchin 1905.History of civil engineeringCivil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles, and its history is intricately linked to advances in understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environment, mechanics and other fields.Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.[12]One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes' screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations.[13]Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in civil engineering. The length of study for such a degree is usually three to five years and the completed degree is usually designated as a Bachelor of Engineering, though some universities designate the degree as a Bachelor of Science. The degree generally includes units covering physics, mathematics, project management, design and specific topics in civil engineering. Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of thesub-disciplines of civil engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines towards the end of the degree.[14]While anUndergraduate (BEng/BSc) Degree will normally provide successful students with industry accredited qualification, some universities offer postgraduate engineering awards (MEng/MSc) which allow students to further specialize in their particular area of interest within engineering.[15]In most countries, a Bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification and the degree program itself is certified by a professional body. After completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience and exam requirements) before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada and South Africa), Chartered Engineer (in most Commonwealth countries), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand), or European Engineer (in much of the European Union). There are international engineering agreements between relevant professional bodies which are designed to allow engineers to practice across international borders.The advantages of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada "only a licensed engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients.".[16]This requirement is enforced by state and provincial legislation such as Quebec's Engineers Act.[17]In other countries, no such legislation exists. In Australia, state licensing of engineers is limited to the state of Queensland. Practically all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion.[18] In this way, these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession. Even in jurisdictions where certification has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to contract law. In cases where an engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the tort of negligence and, in extreme cases, thecharge of criminal negligence.[citation needed] An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and legislation pertaining to environmental law.CareersThere is no one typical career path for civil engineers. Most people who graduate with civil engineering degrees start with jobs that require a low level of responsibility, and as the new engineers prove their competence, they are trusted with tasks that have larger consequences and require a higher level of responsibility. However, within each branch of civil engineering career path options vary. In some fields and firms, entry-level engineers are put to work primarily monitoring construction in the field, serving as the "eyes and ears" of senior design engineers; while in other areas, entry-level engineers perform the more routine tasks of analysis or design and interpretation. Experienced engineers generally do more complex analysis or design work, or management of more complex design projects, or management of other engineers, or into specialized consulting, including forensic engineering.In general, civil engineering is concerned with the overall interface of human created fixed projects with the greater world. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to fit and serve fixed projects within their given site, community and terrain by designing grading, drainage, pavement, water supply, sewer service, electric and communications supply, and land divisions. General engineers spend much of their time visiting project sites, developing community consensus, and preparing construction plans. General civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another. Civil engineers typically apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering toresidential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction翻译：土木工程土木工程是一个专业的工程学科，包括设计，施工和维护与环境的改造，涉及了像桥梁，道路，河渠，堤坝和建筑物工程交易土木工程是最古老的军事工程后，工程学科，它被定义为区分军事工程非军事工程的学科它传统分解成若干子学科包括环境工程，岩土工程，结构工程，交通工程，市或城市工程，水资源工程，材料工程，海岸工程，勘测和施工工程等土木工程的范围涉及所有层次：从市政府到国家，从私人部门到国际公司。

土木类外文翻译建筑的组成(译文和英文)

中文3295字Components of A Building and Tall Buildings1. AbstractMaterials and structural forms are combined to make up the various parts of a building, including the load-carrying frame, skin, floors, and partitions. The building also has mechanical and electrical systems, such as elevators, heating and cooling systems, and lighting systems. The superstructure is that part of a building above ground, and the substructure and foundation is that part of a building below ground.The skyscraper owes its existence to two developments of the 19th century: steel skeleton construction and the passenger elevator. Steel as a construction material dates from the introduction of the Bessemer converter in 1885.Gustave Eiffel (1832-1932) introduced steel construction in France. His designs for the Galerie des Machines and the Tower for the Paris Exposition of 1889 expressed the lightness of the steel framework. The Eiffel Tower, 984 feet (300 meters) high, was the tallest structure built by man and was not surpassed u ntil 40 years later by a series of American skyscrapers.Elisha Otis installed the first elevator in a department store in New York in 1857.In 1889, Eiffel installed the first elevators on a grand scale in the Eiffel Tower, whose hydraulic elevators could transport 2,350 passengers to the summit every hour.2. Load-Carrying FrameUntil the late 19th century, the exterior walls of a building were used as bearing walls to support the floors. This construction is essentially a post and lintel type, and it is still used in frame construction for houses. Bearing-wall construction limited the height of building because of the enormous wall thickness required；for instance, the 16-story Monadnock Building built in the 1880’s in Chicago had walls 5 feet (1.5 meters) thick at the lower floors. In 1883, William Le Baron Jenney (1832-1907) supported floors on cast-iron columns to form a cage-like construction. Skeleton construction, consisting of steel beams and columns, was first used in 1889. As a consequence of skelet on construction, the enclosing walls become a “curtain wall” rather than serving a supporting function. Masonry was the curtain wall material until the 1930’s, when light metal and glass curtainwalls were used. After the introduction of buildings continued to increase rapidly.All tall buildings were built with a skeleton of steel until World War Ⅱ. After the war, the shortage of steel and the improved quality of concrete led to tall building being built of reinforced concrete. Marina Tower (1962) in Chicago is the tallest concrete building in the United States；its height—588 feet (179 meters)—is exceeded by the 650-foot (198-meter) Post Office Tower in London and by other towers.A change in attitude about skyscraper construction has brought a return to the use of the bearing wall. In New York City, the Columbia Broadcasting System Building, designed by Eero Saarinen in 1962,has a perimeter wall consisting of 5-foot (1.5meter) wide concrete columns spaced 10 feet (3 meters) from column center to center. This perimeter wall, in effect, constitutes a bearing wall. One reason for this trend is that stiffness against the action of wind can be economically obtained by using the walls of the building as a tube；the World Trade Center building is another example of this tube approach. In contrast, rigid frames or vertical trusses are usually provided to give lateral stability.3. SkinThe skin of a building consists of both transparent elements (windows) and opaque elements (walls). Windows are traditionally glass, although plastics are being used, especially in schools where breakage creates a maintenance problem. The wall elements, which are used to cover the structure and are supported by it, are built of a variety of materials: brick, precast concrete, stone, opaque glass, plastics, steel, and aluminum. Wood is used mainly in house construction；it is not generally used for commercial, industrial, or public building because of the fire hazard.4. FloorsThe construction of the floors in a building depends on the basic structural frame that is used. In steel skeleton construction, floors are either slabs of concrete resting on steel beams or a deck consisting of corrugated steel with a concrete topping. In concrete construction, the floors are either slabs of concrete on concrete beams or a series of closely spaced concrete beams (ribs) in two directions topped with a thin concrete slab, giving the appearance of a waffle on its underside. The kind of floor that is used depends on the span between supporting columns or walls and the function of the space. In an apartment building, for instance, where walls and columns are spaced at 12 to 18 feet (3.7 to 5.5 meters), the most popular construction is a solid concrete slab with no beams. The underside of the slab serves as the ceiling for the space below it. Corrugated steel decks are often used in office buildings because the corrugations, when enclosed by another sheet of metal, form ducts for telephone and electrical lines.5. Mechanical and Electrical SystemsA modern building not only contains the space for which it is intended (office, classroom, apartment) but also contains ancillary space for mechanical and electrical systems that help toprovide a comfortable environment. These ancillary spaces in a skyscraper office building may constitute 25% of the total building area. The importance of heating, ventilating, electrical, and plumbing systems in an office building is shown by the fact that 40% of the construction budget is allocated to them. Because of the increased use of sealed building with windows that cannot be opened, elaborate mechanical systems are provided for ventilation and air conditioning. Ducts and pipes carry fresh air from central fan rooms and air conditioning machinery. The ceiling, which is suspended below the upper floor construction, conceals the ductwork and contains the lighting units. Electrical wiring for power and for telephone communication may also be located in this ceiling space or may be buried in the floor construction in pipes or co nduits.There have been attempts to incorporate the mechanical and electrical systems into the architecture of building by frankly expressing them；for example, the American Republic Insurance Company Building(1965) in Des Moines, Iowa, exposes both the ducts and the floor structure in an organized and elegant pattern and dispenses with the suspended ceiling. This type of approach makes it possible to reduce the cost of the building and permits innovations, such as in the span of the structure.6. Soils and FoundationsAll building are supported on the ground, and therefore the nature of the soil becomes an extremely important consideration in the design of any building. The design of a foundation depends on many soil factors, such as type of soil, soil stratification, thickness of soil lavers and their compaction, and groundwater conditions. Soils rarely have a single composition；they generally are mixtures in layers of varying thickness. For evaluation, soils are graded according to particle size, which increases from silt to clay to sand to gravel to rock. In general, the larger particle soils will support heavier loads than the smaller ones. The hardest rock can support loads up to 100 tons per square foot(976.5 metric tons/sq meter), but the softest silt can support a load of only 0.25 ton per square foot(2.44 metric tons/sq meter). All soils beneath the surface are in a state of compaction；that is, they are under a pressure that is equal to the weight of the soil column above it. Many soils (except for most sands and gavels) exhibit elastic properties—they deform when compressed under load and rebound when the load is removed. The elasticity of soils is often time-dependent, that is, deformations of the soil occur over a length of time which may vary fr om minutes to years after a load is imposed. Over a period of time, a building may settle if it imposes a load on the soil greater than the natural compaction weight of the soil. Conversely, a building may heave if it imposes loads on the soil smaller than the natural compaction weight. The soil may also flow under the weight of a building；that is, it tends to be squeezed out.Due to both the compaction and flow effects, buildings tend settle. Uneven settlements, exemplified by the leaning towers in Pisa and Bologna, can have damaging effects—the building may lean, walls and partitions may crack, windows and doors may become inoperative, and, in theextreme, a building may collapse. Uniform settlements are not so serious, although extreme conditions, such as those in Mexico City, can have serious consequences. Over the past 100 years, a change in the groundwater level there has caused some buildings to settle more than 10 feet (3 meters). Because such movements can occur during and after construction, carefu l analysis of the behavior of soils under a building is vital.The great variability of soils has led to a variety of solutions to the foundation problem. Where firm soil exists close to the surface, the simplest solution is to rest columns on a small sla b of concrete(spread footing). Where the soil is softer, it is necessary to spread the column load over a greater area；in this case, a continuous slab of concrete(raft or mat) under the whole building is used. In cases where the soil near the surface is unable to support the weight of the building, piles of wood, steel, or concrete are driven down to firm soil.The construction of a building proceeds naturally from the foundation up to the superstructure. The design process, however, proceeds from the roof down to the foundation (in the direction of gravity). In the past, the foundation was not subject to systematic investigation. A scientific approach to the design of foundations has been developed in the 20th century. Karl Terzaghi of the United States pioneered studies that made it possible to make accurate predictions of the behavior of foundations, using the science of soil mechanics coupled with exploration and testing procedures. Foundation failures of the past, such as the classical example of the le aning tower in Pisa, have become almost nonexistent. Foundations still are a hidden but costly part of many buildings.Although there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general, spectacular achievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing. Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes. The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structural systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit. Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings, and other architectural details. In additi on, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because of their perception of such motion. Structural systems of reinforced concrete, as well as steel, take full advantage of the inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore do not require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure, for example, the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building. Curve A in Fig.1 represents t he average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents theaverage steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame. Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.7. Tube in tubeAnother system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig.2), known as the tube-in-tube system, made it possible to design the world’s present tallest (714 ft or 218 m) lightweight concrete building (the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories.Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an example of which is the composite system developed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system.建筑的组成部分1 摘要材料和结构类型是构成建筑物各方面的组成部分，包括承重结构、围护结构、楼地面和隔墙。

土木工程专业Reinforced-Concrete钢筋混凝土大学毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文

毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译文献、资料中文题目：钢筋混凝土文献、资料英文题目：Reinforced Concrete文献、资料来源： __________________________ 文献、资料发表（出版）日期： _____________________ 院（部）:专业：_________________________________________ 班级：_________________________________________ 姓名：_________________________________________ 学号：_________________________________________ 指导教师：翻译日期：2017.02.14外文文献翻译Reinforced ConcreteCon crete and rein forced con crete are used as build ing materials in every coun try. In many, in clud ing the Un ited States and Can ada, rein forced con crete is a dominant structural material in engin eered con structi on.The uni versal n ature of rein forced con crete con structi on stems from the wide availability of rei nforci ng bars and the con stitue nts of con crete, gravel, sand, and cement, the relatively simple skills required in con crete con structi on, and the economy of rein forced con crete compared to other forms of con structi on. Con crete and rein forced con crete are used in bridges, build ings of all sorts un dergro und structures, water tan ks, televisi on towers, offshore oil explorati on and product ion structures, dams, and eve n in ships.Rein forced con crete structures may be cast-i n-place con crete, con structed in their fin al locatio n, or they may be precast con crete produced in a factory and erected at the con structi on site. Con crete structures maybe severe and functional in design, or the shape and layout and be whimsical and artistic. Few other buildi ng materials off the architect and engin eer such versatility and scope.Con crete is stro ng in compressi on but weak in tension. As a result, cracks develop whe never loads, or restrai ned shri nkage of temperature changes, give rise to tensile stresses in excess of the tensile strengthof the con crete. In a pla in con crete beam, the mome nts about the n eutral axis due to applied loads are resisted by an internal tension-compression couple involving tension in the concrete. Such a beamfails very suddenly and completely when the first crack forms. In a reinforced concrete beam, steel bars are embedded in the con crete in such a way that the tension forces n eeded for mome nt equilibrium after the con crete cracks can be developed in the bars.The con structi on of a rein forced con crete member invo Ives build ing a from of mold in the shape of the member being built. The form must be strong eno ugh to support both the weight and hydrostatic pressure of the wet concrete, and any forces applied to it by workers, concrete buggies,wind, and so on. The reinforcement is placed in this form and held in place duri ng the con cret ing operati on. After the con crete has harde ned, the forms are removed. As the forms are removed, props of shores are in stalled to support the weight of the con crete un til it has reached sufficie nt stre ngth to support the loadsby itself.The designer must proportion a concrete memberfor adequate strengthto resist the loads and adequate stiffness to prevent excessive deflecti ons. In beam must be proporti oned sothat it can be con structed.For example, the reinforcement must be detailed so that it can beassembled in the field, and since the con crete is placed in the form after the rei nforceme nt is inplace, the con crete must be ableto flow around,between, andpast the reinforcement to fill all parts of the form completely.The choice of whether a structure should be built of concrete, steel, masonry, or timber depends on the availability of materials and on a number of value decisions.The choice of structural system is made by thearchitect of engineer early in the design, based on the followingcon siderati ons:1. Economy. Freque ntly, the foremost con sideratio n is the overall const of the structure. This is, of course, a fun cti on of the costs ofthe materials and the labor necessary to erect them. Frequently, however, the overall cost is affected as much or more by the overall con structi on time since the con tractor and owner must borrow or otherwise allocate money to carry out the con struct ion and will not receive a retur n on this investment until the building is ready for occupancy. In a typical large apartme nt of commercial project, the cost of con struct ion financing willbe a significant fraction of the total cost. As a result, financial savings due to rapid con structi on may more tha n offset in creased material costs. For this reas on, any measures the desig ner can take to sta ndardize the desig n and forming will gen erally pay off in reduced overall costs.In many cases the Ion g-term economy of the structure may be more importa nt tha n the first cost. As a result, maintenance and durability are importa nt con siderati on.2. Suitability of material for architectural and structural function.A rein forced con crete system freque ntly allows the desig ner to comb ine the architectural and structural functions. Con crete has the adva ntage that it is placed in a plastic con diti on and is give n the desired shapeand texture by meansof the forms and the finishing techniques. This allows such elements ad flat plates or other types of slabs to serve as load-bearingelements while providing the finished floor and / or ceiling surfaces. Similarly, rein forced con crete walls can providearchitecturally attractive surfaces in addition to having the ability to resist gravity, wind, or seismic loads. Fin ally, the choice of size of shape is governed by the designer and not by the availability of standard manu factured members.3. Fire resista nee. The structure in a buildi ng must withsta nd theeffects of a fire and rema in sta nding while the build ing is evacuated and the fire is exti nguished. A con crete buildi ng in here ntly has a 1- to 3-hour fire rat ing without special fireproofi ng or other details. Structural steel or timber build ings must be fireproofed to atta in similar fire ratin gs.4. Low maintenan ce. Con crete members in here ntly require less maintenance than do structural steel or timber members. This is particularly true if den se, air-e ntrained con crete has bee n used forsurfaces exposed to the atmosphere, and if care has bee n take n in the desig n to provide adequate drain age off and away from the structure. Special precauti ons must be take n for con crete exposed to salts such as deici ng chemicals.5. Availability of materials. Sand, gravel, ceme nt, and con cretemixi ng facilities are very widely available, and rein forci ng steel canbe tran sported to most job sites more easily tha n can structural steel. As a result, re in forced con crete is freque ntly used in remote areas.On the other hand, there are a nu mber of factors that may cause one to selecta material other tha n rein forced con crete. These in clude:1. Low tensile strength. The tensile strength concrete is much lower than its compressive strength ( about 1/10 ), and hence concrete is subject to crack ing. In structural uses this is overcome by using rei nforceme nt to carry ten sile forces and limit crack widths to with in acceptable values. Un less care is take n in desig n and con struct ion, however, these cracks maybe unsightly or mayallow penetration of water. Wherthis occurs, water or chemicals such as road deicing salts may cause deterioration or stai ning of the con crete. Special desig n details are required in such cases. In the case of water-retai ning structures, special details and /of prestress ing are required to preve nt leakage.2. Forms and shori ng. The con structi on of a cast-i n-place structureinvo Ives three steps not encoun tered in the con struct ion of steel or timberstructures. These are ( a ) the con struct ion of the forms, ( b ) the removal of these forms, and (c) propp ing or shori ng the new con crete to support its weight until itsstrength is adequate. Each of these steps invoIves labor and / or materials, which are not necessary with other forms of con structi on.3. Relatively low strength per unit of weight for volume. Thecompressive strength of concrete is roughly 5 to 10%that of steel, while its unit den sity is roughly 30% that of steel. As a result, a con cretestructure requires a larger volume and a greater weight of material than does acomparable steel structure. As a result, Iong-span structures are ofte n built from steel.4. Time-depe ndent volume cha nges. Both con crete and steelundergo-approximately the same amount of thermal expansionandcon tracti on. Because there is less mass of steel to be heated or cooled, andbecause steel is a better con crete, a steel structure is gen erallyaffected by temperature cha nges to a greater exte nt tha n is a con crete structure.On the other hand, con crete un dergoes fryi ng shri nkage, which, if restrained, may cause deflections or cracking. Furthermore, deflecti ons will tend to in crease with time, possibly doubli ng, due to creep of the con crete un der susta ined loads.In almost every branch of civil extensiveuse is made of reinforced foundations.Engineers and architects reinforced con crete desig n throughout theirprofessi onal careers. Muchof this text is directly concerned with the behavior and proporti oningof components that makeup typical reinforced concrete structures-beams, colu mns, and slabs. Once the behavior of these in dividual eleme nts is un derstood, the desig ner will have the backgro und to an alyze and desig n a wide range of complex structures, such as foun datio ns, buildi ngs, and bridges, composed of these eleme nts.Si nee rei nforced concrete is a no homogeneous material that creeps, shri nks,and cracks, its stresses cannot be accurately predicted by the traditi onal equati ons derived in a course in stre ngth of materials forhomoge neous elastic materials. Much of rein forced con crete desig n in thereforeempirical, i.e., design equations and design methods are based on experime ntal and engineering and architecture con crete for structures and requires basic knowledge oftime-proved results in stead of being derived exclusively from theoretical formulati ons.A thorough un dersta nding of the behavior of rein forced con crete will allow the desig ner to con vert an otherwise brittle material into tough ductile structural elements and thereby take advantage of concrete ' s desirable characteristics, its high compressive stre ngth, its fire resista nee, and its durability.Concrete, a stone like material, is madeby mixing cement, water, fine aggregate ( often sand ), coarse aggregate, and frequently other additives (that modify properties ) into a workable mixture. In its un harde ned or plastic state, concrete can be placed in forms to produce a large variety of structural eleme nts. Although the harde ned con crete by itself, i.e., without any rein forceme nt, is stro ng in compressi on, it lacks ten sile stre ngth and therefore cracks easily. Because unrein forced con crete is brittle, it cannot undergo large deformations under load and fails sudde nly-without warni ng. The additi on fo steel rein forceme nt to the con crete reduces the n egative effects of its two prin cipal in here nt weaknesses, its susceptibility to cracking and its brittleness. Whenthe rein forceme nt is stro ngly bon ded to the con crete, a strong, stiff, and ductile con struct ion material is produced. This material, calledrei nforced con crete, is used exte nsively to con struct foun dati ons,structural frames, storage takes, shell roofs, highways, walls, dams, canals, and innumerable other structures and building products. Twoother characteristics of concrete that are present even when concrete is rein forced are shri nkage and creep, but the n egative effects of these properties can be mitigated by careful desig n.A code is a set tech ni cal specificati ons and sta ndards that con trol importa nt details of desig n and con struct ion. The purpose of codes it produce structures so that the public will be protected from poor of in adequate and con struct ion.Two types f coeds exist. One type, called a structural code, is orig in ated and con trolled by specialists whoare concerned with the proper use of a specific material or who are invo Ived with the safe desig n of a particular class of structures.The sec ond type of code, called a build ing code, is established to cover con struct ion in a give n region, ofte n a city or a state. The objective of a build ing code is also to protect the public by acco un ti ng for the in flue nee of the local en vir onmen tal con diti ons on con structi on. For example, local authorities may specifyadditional provisions toaccount for such regional conditions as earthquake, heavy snow, ortorn ados. Nati onal structural codes gen rally are in corporated into local build ing codes.The America n Con crete In stitute ( ACI ) Buildi ng Code coveri ng the desig n of rein forced con crete build in gs. It contains provisi ons coveri ngall aspects of re in forced con crete manu facture, desig n, and con structi on. It includes specifications on quality of materials, details on mixing andplacing concrete, design assumptions for the analysis of continuous structures, and equati ons for proporti oning members for desig n forces.All structures must be proporti oned so they will not fail or deform excessively un der any possible con diti on of service. Therefore it is important that an engineer use great care in anticipating all the probable loads to which a structure will be subjected duri ng its lifetime.Although the desig n of most members is con trolled typically by dead and live load acting simultaneously, consideration must also be given tothe forces produced by wind, impact, shrinkage, temperature change, creep and support settleme nts, earthquake, and so forth.The load associated with the weight of the structure itself and its perma nent comp onents is called the dead load. The dead load of con crete members, which is substantial, should never be neglected in design computations. The exact magnitude of the dead load is not known accurately un til members have bee n sized. Since some figure for the dead load must be used in computations to size the members, its magnitude must be estimated at first. After a structure has been analyzed, the memberssized, and architectural details completed, the dead load can be computed more accurately. If the computed dead load is approximately equal to the initial estimate of its value ( or slightly less ), the design is complete,but if a significant differenee exists between the computed and estimated values of dead weight, the computations should be revised using an improved value of dead load. An accurate estimate of dead load is particularly importa nt whe n spa ns are long, say over 75 ft ( 22.9 m ),because dead load con stitutes a major porti on of the desig n load.Live loads associated with building use are specific items of equipme nt and occupa nts in a certa in area of a build ing, buildi ng codes specify values of un iform live for which members are to be desig ned.After the structure has bee n sized for vertical load, it is checkedfor wi nd in comb in ati on with dead and live load as specified in the code. Windloads do not usually con trol the size of members in buildi ng lessthan 16 to 18 stories, but for tall buildings wind loads becomesignificant and cause large forces to develop in the structures. Under these conditions economycan be achieved only by selecting a structural system that is able to tran sfer horiz on tal loads into the ground efficie ntly.钢筋混凝土在每一个国家，混凝土及钢筋混凝土都被用来作为建筑材料。

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Construction of rock or soil in the construction. It is a modern city of high-speed product development, the city will again ease the contradictions of the role to improve the living environment, but also opened up new human life. Rational development and utilization of human natural and artificial excavation of the underground space, not only help to ease the development of modern urban contradictions, to improve the living environment, but also to open up a new human life. Because of the large-scale development of underground construction, underground architecture is taking shape, its research includes the history of development of underground construction and development of underground space development and utilization of underground space in urban planning, various types of underground construction planning and design, as well as underground construction and related environmental, physiological, psychological and technical issues.Underground construction has a good protective performance, better thermal stability and confined, as well as an integrated economic, social and environmental benefits. Underground construction in a certain thickness of rock or soil, you can avoid or reduce nuclear weapons, conventional weapons, chemical and biological weapons of destruction, while at the same time more effectively to resist earthquakes, hurricanes and other natural disasters. Underground construction in and around the confined environment of relatively stable existence of the temperature field, temperature, or for creating ultra-clean manufacturing environment and at low temperatures or under high-temperature storage of materials, pollution prevention, especially for energy conservation as well. In the city planned the construction of underground construction, urban land use for savings, lower building density, to improve urban transportation, theexpansion of green space, reduce urban pollution and improve the quality of urban life, etc., can play an important role. Underground construction also has shortcomings, such as construction costs are high, the construction complicated.A Brief History of the development of underground ancient times, humans have been anti-years use of natural caves, and shelter to escape the beast. Zhoukoudian in China found that more than 50 million years ago, Peking Man lived in caves in the natural. According to Yangshao Culture and Longshan Culture found in archaeological sites, to prove that since 7000 ~ 5000 years ago, began living dug caves, from the simple bag-shaped to round or square semi-crypt, above the roof of a simple. Later, the beginning of the construction of housing on the ground, cave gradually ceased to be the main mode of living human beings. However, the ancient tombs on the ground in accordance with the construction method in underground construction. Some grain is also built in the ground, such as the Sui Dynasty in Luoyang warehouse containing Kerry. Northwest China, North China Loess Plateau region, as a result of excavation loess and climate-friendly dry cave tradition continues to this day. Estimated that there are still more than 35 million population live in the cave.After the industrial revolution, as a result of mining and the development of transport, mines, roadways, highways, tunnels, railway tunnels have been built. London, England in 1863 into a city of the world's first underground railway. During World War II, the protection of underground construction in the superiority of attention, some veterans of the important military installations and arms factories, warehouses, etc., built in the ground, and the construction of the air-raid shelter for the residents. Since the late 50s, as a result of economic development and scientific and technological progress, the rapid increase in urban population, the increasingly serious environmental pollution, energy crisisand the existence of the danger of war and other factors, underground construction in Japan, the United States, Sweden, the Federal Republic of Germany , France, Switzerland, Norway, Canada, China, the Soviet Union and many other countries, with high speed and large-scale development. Due to geographical, social development, economic development and strategic direction of the differences in thinking, the development of underground construction and the starting point to solve the different conflicts. At present, the world has more than 80 cities in the construction of an underground railway, as well as many cities are under construction. China, the Soviet Union, Switzerland, Sweden, Finland and other countries from the combat readiness requirements of the construction of a large number of underground civil air defense projects, some in peacetime for the use of various types of public buildings. Japan, the Federal Republic of Germany and France, land of smaller, highly concentrated in big cities, city highlights various contradictions, so the construction of the ground floor of a large number of high-speed transportation network and the Mass Transit Street, the underground commercial center. The United States from the mid-70s to the ground floor of the building as energy-saving measures, the development of a semi-underground soil building, with the exception of the need to stay out of the plane, Chaoyang, housing all the other parts of the soil with a certain thickness of buried or covered combined with the use of solar energy to obtain more than 50% of energy-saving effect. Lack of national energy use of a large number of underground storage of energy as a strategic reserve, such as Sweden, Finland and other countries blocked the construction of the groundwater oil (or gas) are a large-scale database, a single storage capacity has more than one million cubic meters. Sweden, Norway, Italy and other countries rich in water resources, many built in the ground station to increase the water gap.Canada's cold climate, so in large cities, the development of underground commercial center of the city of Montreal has a few underground commercial center even as a construction area of 810,000 square meters, forming an underground city. In addition, industrialized countries also paid attention to the protection of underground construction to play the traditional style of the city to improve the urban environment, urban space, etc. to expand the positive role played by. For example, the city of Nagoya, Japan in conjunction with urban roads alteration, in the ground layout of the commercial street and parking lot, stay out of the ground in addition to the necessary pedestrians, carriageway, in the central part of the park into a large-scale city center. Other factors, such as Tokyo, Osaka and other places are also provided with the underground business street. Another example is the University of the United States a number of historical buildings and structures in order to preserve the unity of style and ease tension in the land, the construction of a number of underground construction, such as library, gymnasium, teaching Museum (Figure 2), achieving good results. These facts reflect the tiefbau increasingly wide range of applications.Underground construction of the type of underground construction can be classified according to the functions of military, civil, air works, industry, transport and communications, storage and other buildings, and underground utilities. For example: in the construction of military fortifications can be used for shooting, observation of construction, shelter construction, etc.), in civil construction, including residential buildings, public buildings, a variety of civil air defense engineering, industrial construction, transportation and communication construction, warehouse construction, as well as the types of underground utilities, such as underground water plant, solid or liquid waste treatment plant, pipeline and other corridors. Several features of both large-scaleunderground construction known as the underground complex. Tiefbau classified according to construction method, there are two types of open excavation and mining. Open excavation completely backfilled after construction, the above did not build any buildings, known as single-built underground construction; above to build other buildings, known as the attached underground construction. Open excavation backfill the latter part of the construction, soil or bulldozers, and as bulldozers building construction or soil. Underground mining construction, usually in the deeper layers of rock or digging into the required space for more than a certain thickness at the top of the natural cover. In addition, China also has a habit of classification methods, into the underground tunnel type, tunnel-type (usually mining), opening ceremony (equivalent to a single open excavation built) and the basement air (that is attached open excavation) . Road tunnel and the main difference is that the relationship between inside and outside the ground elevation, internal than external, as the tunnel, which is lower than the outside as the authentic.Underground construction of the design requirements for the underground architectural design requirements: ①choose engineering geological and hydrogeological conditions of a good place. Underground construction of the planning and design, must be complete and accurate information based on Geological Survey, full use of the favorable geological conditions, to avoid unfavorable factors. Arrangement in the soil in the ground floor of buildings, should be chosen with a certain capacity, and relatively uniform thick soil layer, avoiding the backfill layer, layer of mud, sand and other streaming sites; in the rock should be chosen homogeneous lithology, structure simple, thick stone rock hard to avoid the fault fracture zone, seismic zone and instability, such as the slope. In the plain areas, should pay attention to changes in groundwater leveland its direct impact on the burial depth of underground construction, construction measures and construction methods; in the mountains, rock fissures should be based on the volume of water and gushing location, organization of the underground drainage system construction and attention to surface water flow and the excretion of mountain torrents. ②to ensure the necessary protection. Although the underground construction itself with varying degrees of protection against all kinds of weapons, but the air defense of the military construction and engineering, but also the protection levels in accordance with the provisions of the various effects of different weapons, to conduct a comprehensive protection of the design, layout of the various protection facilities, building structures and protection facilities, as well as a variety of holes, I have the appropriate protection, we should focus on building entrances and exits to ensure the security of the site. ③ the creation of an appropriate internal environment. Underground space in the internal environment, including air temperature, humidity, cleanliness, noise intensity, the illumination lights, interior colors and so on. Appropriate depends mainly on improving the quality of air in the ventilation design to ensure; sound insulation and sound absorption of the appropriate use of measures to control the noise level allowed. Building to deal with such as a complete portfolio of interior space and changes in the unity of the material texture and contrast the rich interior colors and harmonization, have helped to create a good internal environment, the elimination of the underground environment on people's poor physical and psychological effects. ④for structural design and construction to create favorable conditions. Underground construction of the main features of the structural design is a big load, so in the architectural design, from layout, column network options to determine the areas of story should be for the structural design of the economy, create conditionsreasonable. The construction of underground construction is rather complicated, the design should be to simplify the construction and shorten the duration and the use of advanced construction technology to create favorable conditions and minimize the ground during the construction period of the normal activities such as transportation and so on.As the underground construction of the building structure is different from the specificity of the upper part, involving the design, construction technology, environment and soil mechanics, such as technical progress in a series of problems in engineering applications engineers often encounter the following problems:(1) of the underground structures of conventional reinforced concrete structures are mainly ordinary reinforced concrete structural system used in the existence of large-scale underground structure of the high cost, even cross-section structure, and the impact of depth of underground structures, construction progressing at a slow pace, as well as the shortcomings of a waste of construction materials, should the new system, the introduction of construction materials and structural design of underground structures to meet the modern requirements of the development of underground space, with limited resources for better results.(2) as the cause of urban rail transit development, urban towel existing and new buildings and subway lines crisscrossing the upper part of structure is at the top of the subway tunnel, the conventional reinforced concrete structure of care for the larger cross-section of the underground architectural space also have a greater impact. Workers should be the actual situation in innovative technology, choose a reasonable form of structural transformation of the construction and related measures to ensure that the subway project and the safety of the upperstructure and to minimize the impact of the underground space.(3) as an urban development strategy of three-dimensional one, high-rise buildings will continue to challenge the next new height, and construction will continue to increase in the floor, vertical wall structure is not posit the lower part of the greater cross-section, located in Building the lower part of the basement of the building material the use of space caused by an enormous impact; another - aspects of underground construction is the future direction of space, large-span, the vertical component will be an inevitable increase in cross-section. Therefore, the vertical cross-section configuration to optimize materials and even to improve the underground construction of the space is designed to be taken into account.(4) as a result of large-scale development of underground space and underground construction and use of the water requirements of more demanding, long, extra-wide development of the underground construction joints or less, regardless of the trend is sub-slit, regardless of current underground construction joints maximum length of over 800m, long and spacious underground construction specification requirements higher than the conventional approach has solved the structure of super-long concrete shrinkage, temperature, deformation and so on, the ground floor of building large-scale crack the case more and more. On the other hand, in order to prevent occurrence of cracks to increase the floor, roof and side wall of the reinforcement, so that the sharp increase in the basement of steel, it is therefore necessary to seal a device able to reduce power consumption Ultra - contraction of a long side wall and bottom of the internal force and deformation temperature, effectively improve the problem of cracking of underground construction.(5) as a result of underground construction in the fire reached the bottom ofthe lift requirements for the high-level and ultra-high-rise building, fire pit at the end of the lift is often deeper than 2m, the largest reach 3m. Conventional reinforced concrete pile cap by inch: the requirements of anti-punching greater thickness, and then caused by the lift at the end of the partial concave pits and the requirement of the cap to meet the bending, shear, anti-punching conditions, go on local concave The site needs to be integrated with the cap around the basically the same thickness, such as the 3.0m-thick cap, in the partial concave 3.0, the caps into a partial thickness of 6m, the amount of concrete and reinforced caused a significant increase, while the base pit at the bottom of the second excavation deeper than 5m, the safety of the Foundation have been affected.Modern underground structure calculation and analysis of three major aspects: 1) the overall structure of underground construction, including both ground-level structures with basement soil - guitar and pure combination of overall analysis of the soil underground construction - combined with the overall analysis of colorectal; 2 ) underground construction structure steel - concrete composite structure components of the calculation of portfolio analysis; 3) against the practice of underground structure calculation and analysis of the simulation. No matter how kind of an underground structure, the system solve the overall analysis, component analysis and dug up the ground floor of the structure of the three aspects of the problem of the real simulation of underground structures of the structural optimization of a certain significance. Calculation methods and design come to the Conclusion, it can be used as the structural design of underground structures of reference.Most of the use of underground reinforced concrete structures or steel reinforced concrete structure, the current design specifications related to the probabilitytheory are based on limit state design method, the reliability of indicators to measure the reliability of structural components using the design of sub-expressions coefficient design. Limit state can be divided into the carrying capacity limit state and serviceability limit state, for the carrying capacity limit state should be met:Cracks in the ground floor of building structures to deal with prevention and treatment.Analysis:(1) Design factors: emphasis on the general design of underground construction works vertical wall panels of the reinforced structure and intensity, the level of neglect of horizontal reinforcement cracking strength. Cross-section of the wall structure due to the particle stress is non-uniform shrinkage stress and thermal stress of concrete efforts to achieve the ultimate tensile strength, caused by the plastic deformation and fracture;(2) improper selection of materials, such as contraction of cement, and stone size distribution of the poor, with a large quantity of mud; the diameter of fine sand; doped admixtures, such as poor quality. As a result of commodity high-strength grade concrete, cement, and water consumption, and hydration heat caused by high temperature, when the environmental temperature significantly decreased the role of the temperature difference, the new casting of the linear expansion coefficient of concrete! c = 10 × 10-6 / ℃, when the contraction in the cooling caused by tensile stress increases. Concrete wall surface area larger than the shrinkage stress generated internally binding, the formation of shrinkage, shrinkage, temperature difference between the integrated stress, ultimate tensile strength greater than concrete and cracks;(3) The regulations: First, the summer heat without cooling measuresconstruction: concrete mixture into the mold temperature is higher than 35 ℃, when the temperature dropped at night when the temperature both inside and outside the large and prone to fracture; Second, in winter there is no low-temperature thermal insulation during the construction of measures , that is, when the goods after the concrete into the mold, cement hydration heat and the environment significantly increased the temperature at 0 ℃ about, then the outer panel of contraction at low temperatures, resulting in cracks. Third, improper pouring methods, such as pumping to take concrete pouring is not hierarchical, but pouring from one part of the maximum, and then the mobile shop and then pouring a section of pipe; Concrete is a mixture of vertical joints, and pouring speed, vibration trace and uneven, resulting in the concrete wall is not homogeneous, the particle stress is not evenly, resulting in stress cracks Department. Fourth, non-standard installation of reinforced, such as uneven spacing, horizontal transfer has not been reinforced and joint relaxation banding, or the protection of strict control, resulting in a collision so that when pouring concrete reinforced skew, stress is not absorbed, prone to cracks. Especially the "underground engineering specification waterproof" GB50108-2001 of underground water surface reinforced concrete structure to protect the layer thickness is not less than 50 mm since the implementation of the mandatory requirements, long cracks in the basement of the issue of concrete structures have become more prominent.Treatment and prevention measures:(1) underground construction of the vertical cracks in the wall: the contraction is mainly concrete, shrinkage, shrinkage, etc. generated under stress cracks generally do not affect the carrying capacity that can be used to deal with chemical grouting method. The purpose of dealing with the gap closed to preventleakage of water, so that cracks in bonding to restore the original function of the wall and to prevent damage to steel because of cracks and corrosion of passive film role;(2) in the ground outside the building (that is, water surface), a comprehensive inspection of the quality of irrigation joints until cured slurry to eliminate the wall of the swelling on the skin surface, to paste the cracks Department of Polymer waterproofing membrane, a width of about 250 mm. Cracks formed along the first grinding, clean, brush the grass-roots level to deal with agents, chosen with the membrane of qualified matching binder will be a solid material paste;(3) do a good job back to the outskirts of underground construction fill, is the underground construction of the first line of defense against water;(4) the proposed design of the underground construction of the wall panels should be allocated by the hydration of cement can withstand the heat caused by the thermal stress, shrinkage stress, the level of crack control reinforcement, diameter of not less than Ф12, spaced not more than 150mm, joints should be the use of welding, and Cold Drawn Straightening, keep straight after installation, spacing and location of protective layer should be accurate. The addition of reinforced concrete beam and dark columns, enhancing the role of the wall cracking strength, super-long construction of "pouring after sewing" or mixed in concrete ways to UEA expansive agent is effective in reducing measures undertaken Crack. 60d of the late use of concrete strength, can reduce the amount of cement concrete;(5) the quality control of raw materials, timely grasp the construction environment, in strict accordance with the construction norms of construction;(6) the use of thin-layer approach for irrigation, to ensure that the uniformdensity of concrete, to take the conservation of heat storage method, in order to reduce the temperature difference between inside and outside elements, and strictly control the cooling rate of 1.5 ℃ / d, for the concrete conditions of the creation of stress relaxation, is to prevent shrinkage cracks in concrete structures, one of the main measures;(7) Construction of the summer heat must be cooled to control the concrete into the mold temperature shall not exceed 28 ℃; the construction site should be shade measures to reduce the construction of temperature;Winter construction with antifreeze to warm the specific measures, such as the concrete into the mold temperature above 5 ℃, the thermal component to do the work too fast to prevent thermal cracks resulting from shrinkage.Underground construction of the development trend of increasing: ① type and scale. In recent years, some new, emerging types of underground construction. For example, with the growth of use of nuclear energy, nuclear waste handling and storage become a serious problem; in the deep strata (a few hundred meters to 1000 meters) in the construction of an underground nuclear waste repository is to solve this problem a better way to be a wide range of importance. In another example, the primary purpose of energy saving in the underground construction has developed rapidly; At the same time, underground storage of heat, cold energy, mechanical energy (water, compressed air) and other aspects of the ongoing feasibility study and test. Again, in order to improve the urban environment, the ground floor of a large-scale sewage treatment plants have been built in a small number of developed countries, the construction of urban waste disposal in the ground plant also being investigated. ② design and construction and continuously improved. The type of new construction is often higher technical requirements, so that a new process development andimprovement of construction technology. For example, in order to build a database of underground nuclear waste, it is necessary to solve the deep excavation of the post-rock pressure and rock strata in the role of nuclear waste under the stress of high temperature change; order to speed up the construction schedule is necessary to design and manufacture of large-scale mining machinery; in order to reduce project cost, it is necessary to adopt the new structure, high efficiency equipment and high-strength materials. ③ multidisciplinary research. The rapid development of underground construction, so that more and more people in different ways of living in the underground environment, and therefore meet the basic requirements based on the use of underground construction continuously higher quality requirements. From medicine, physiology, psychology and other disciplines, different perspectives, many ways to improve the underground environment of the ways and measures, including some of the more complex issue. For example, the underground environment and its impact on the dose of radioactive elements has been started to conduct research. ④ from individuals to groups, from single to comprehensive development. Urban construction, to a certain stage of development, individual and scattered underground construction can not meet the various needs of urban life, is bound to gradually integrated to the groups and direction. For example, the Mass Transit Railway underground line to increase the formation of high-speed transportation network, the transfer line at different points on the formation of a relatively easy to change stations, car parks and shops, such as the underground complex, which may be expanded to become the underground mall or commercial center . Also, in order to make full use of urban underground space should be to change the city's own utility system and the status of direct-buried pipeline to make it to the layout and use of multi-function integrated pipelinecorridor direction. To this end, calls for unity under the guidance of the overall urban planning, the development of urban underground space development and utilization of comprehensive planning, and the same on the ground to unify urban development planning.地下建筑结构建造在岩层或土层中的建筑。