英语语言学概论期末复习【通用】.docx
语言学概论期末考试范围
语言学概论期末考试范围语言学概论期末复习1. diachronic linguisticsLinguistics that studies language over a period of time, also known as historical linguistics, study of the Chinese language since the end of the Qing dynasty up to the present.2. arbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary for the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning. The link between the linguistic signs and their meanings is a matter of convention, and conventions differ radically across languages.3. langueAccording to Saussure, langue refers to the abstract linguistic systems shared by all the members of a speech community. It can be thought of as the generalized rules of the language that members of a speech community seem to abide by.4. competenceChomsky defines competence as the abst ract ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. According to him, anyone who knows a language has internalized a set of rules about the sequences permitted in his language. This internalized set of rules is termed as a person’s competence.5. morphemeThe most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme. The “morpheme’ is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which can not be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.6. MorphologyMorphology studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they combine in word formation. So it refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed7. Semantic triangleAccording to Ogden an d Richard’s semantic triangle, there is no direct link between language and the world, or between the symbol ( the linguistic elements, the word, the sentence) and referent ( the object in the world of experience). The link is via thought or reference, the concepts of our minds.8. Lingua francaLingua franca is the general term for a language that serves as a means of communication between different groups of speakers.9. componential analysisComponential analysis is a way to analyze lexical meaning, and it defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.10. Cooperative PrincipleCooperative Principle (CP) was proposed by Paul Grice, under which there are four maxims: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner. It means in communication, both parties involved will normally seek to cooperate with each other to establish agreed meaning.11. acquisitionThe term “acquisition” is used to refer to picking up a language through exposure. It refers to the subconscious or conscious processes. It is learned in a natural or a tutored settings.12. interlanguageIt refers to the learner’s independent system of th e secondlanguage which is neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from native language to the target language.I.Students should be able to answer the following questions:1) Explain the three kinds of intersentential sematic relations: entailment, presupposition and implicature.Entailment is a relation of inclusion , If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.. X: I have been to Shanghai. Y: I have been to Chinaif x is true, then y is also true, If Y is false, then X is also X entails Y.X presupposes Y. ( Y is a pre-requisite of X).X: John’s brother has got married. Y: John has a brother.Implicature: The speaker may use implied meaning but not the literal meaning.2)According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performingwhile making an utterance Give an example.According to Austin, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking. They are locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act. For example: You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of all the words. “you” , “have”, “door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by ,asking such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, that is , asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance .If the then hearer g ets the speaker’s message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, then the speaker goes to close the door for the speaker.3) What are the major differences between acquisition and language learningRod (1985) and Krashen (1981) regard acquisition as the spontaneous internalization of rules and formulas. The term acquisition is often used to refer to first language acquisition and second language acquisition. First language acquisition is also called mother tongue acquisition.Acquisition takes place in the speech community where one's first language or second language is spoken. It is often natural, without much focus on form. Thelearning of English by speakers of other languages in the United States is an example of second language acquisition.Foreign language learning usually takes place in the speech community where one's first language is spoken. It is a conscious process through formal school-like settings and requires time for processing, with focus on linguistic form in addition to knowledge of the rules of language use. For example, the learning of English in China.4) What are the similarities and differences between Semantics and Pragmatics Semantics focuses on the meaning that comes from linguistic knowledge without considering the context. Pragmatics studies the meaning in a certain context taking our knowledge about the physical and social world into account. Semantic analysis look for rules which are black and white, . you are either right or wrong. Pragmatic analysis look for principles. You can obey them to some extent and violate them to some extent.5) Why do we say Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication Explain it in details.a. Language is systematic. Language must be a system since elements in the language are arranged according to certain rules. Each human language is organized into two basic systems: a system of sounds and a system of meanings.b. Language is symbolic. People use signs to communicate, which means that language involves signs.c. Language is arbitrary. Language is arbitrary for the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning.d. Language is primarily vocal. Language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed their writing systems.e. Language is human specific. There are certain characteristics of human language that are not found in the communication systems of any other species.f. Language is used for communication.6) What is the Sapir –Whorf hypothesisThe hypothesis assumes that people’s habitual thoug ht patterns and ways of perceiving the world are conditioned to a certain extent by the categories and distinctions that are available to them in their native language. Speakers of different languages may therefore have rather different world-views, depending on how different the languages are from one another semantically and grammatically. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis can be broken down into two basic principles: Linguistic Determinism and Linguistic Relativity.II.Students should be able to draw the tree diagrams for common simple sentences and complex sentences.III.Students should be able to analyze the formation of words.IV.Students should be able to identify errors in given sentences and be able to explain the causes for errors.1. He speaked to T om yesterday.This intralingual error is due to the overgeneralization of the rule about the English v erb’s past tense form.2. There were some people came to watch the football match.The relative pronoun at the beginning of the attributive clause is missing. The learner has made an inter-lingual error because of the influence of his mother tongue, that is the Chinese grammatical pattern.3. They are loving basketball very much.This sentence should be corrected as: They love basketball very much. The learner has made an intra-lingual error caused by the over-generation of the target language grammatical rule. The learner failed to realize that in English some verbs never appear in the continuous tense including the verb: love.。
英语语言学概论复习资料 (2)
Prescriptive:how things ought to beDo/Don’t say X. (Commands)
Descriptive:how things arePeople do/don’t say X. (Statements)
2. What will you say to a statement like “one culture’s meat is another culture’s poison”?
答案及评分标准
I.Definition.共5题
1.arbitrarinessrefers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bears no natural relationship to their meaning.
(a) cheery (b) funny (c) loony (d) crazy (e) happy
2. Make distinctions between the following pair of terms.
descriptive vs. prescriptive
3. What are the allomorphs of the morpheme ‘plural’ in this set of English words?
2.morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
英语语言学概论复习
英语语言学概论复习 Final approval draft on November 22, 2020《英语语言学概论》复习纲要1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。
第二，以各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。
第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。
2.各章节复习要点如下Chapter1InvitationstoLinguistics1)D efinitionsofthefollowingterms:language,linguistics,arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,descriptiveVSprescriptiv e,synchronicVSdiachronic,langueVSparole,competenceVSperforman ce2)S tudyoftheoriginoflanguage3)W hatarethefunctionsoflanguage4)W hichsubjectsareincludedinmacrolinguisticsChapter2SpeechSounds1)Definitionsofthefollowingterms:articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,auditoryphonetics,phonetics,phonology,consonants,vo wels,allophones,broadtranscriptionVSnarrowtranscription2)Analyzethecomplementarydistribution,freevariationwithexamples3)TheclassificationofEnglishconsonantsandEnglishvowelsandthefeaturesinvolvedintheclassification4)Understandsomeprocessesofphonology:nasalization,dentalization,velarization5)DifferencesbetweenintonationandtoneChapter3Frommorphemetophrase1)Definitionsofthefollowingterms:morpheme,morphology,backformation,blending,classshift2)Differencesbetweenrootandstem,inflectionalVSderivationalaffix3)AnalyzethemorphemescontainedinEnglishwords,suchas internationalization,distempered,moonwalk,frienships4)Whatarethecharacteristicsofaword5)UnderstandtheclassificationofEnglishwords:variableVSinvariable,grammaticalVSlexical,closed-classVSopen-class,particles,auxiliaries,determiners6)Understandtheprocessesofwordformationwithexamples:blending,abbreviation,acronym,backformation,class-shiftChapter4FromwordtoText1)Definitionsofthefollowingterms:syntax,endocentricVSexocentricconstruction,coordinationVSsubordination2)SyntacticfunctionsofEnglishsentences:subject(agentVSpatient,grammaticalVSlogical),predicate,object3)CategoriesinEnglish:number,gender,agreementChapter5Meaning1)Definitionsofthefollowingterms:semantics,thereferentialtheory,semantictriangle,synonymy,antonymy,hyponymy2)Understandsynonymy,antonymy,hyponymywithexamples3)Subclassificationofantonymy4)Componentialanalysisinpractice:suchas boy,girl,woman,man,mother,father(entailmentandpolysemous)Chapter6Languageandcognition1)Definitionofthefollowingterms:psycholinguistics,cognitivelinguistics2)Understandthethreeissuesofpsycholinguistics:languageacquisition,languagecomprehension,languageproduction3)Understandexamplesconcerningconstrualoperations4)Understandexamplesconcerningcategorization(basiclevel,superordinateandsubordinatelevels)5)Understandexamplesconcerningmetaphor(targetdomain,sourcedomain)6)UnderstandexamplesconcerningmetonymyChapter7Language,Culture,andSociety1)Definitionofthefollowingterms:Sapir-WhorfHypothesis,thetheoryofcontextofsituation2)Understandthetwoexamples(Hopilanguageandstudyofcolorwords)concerningSapir-WhorfHypothesisChapter8LanguageinUse1)Differencesbetweenpragmaticsandsemantics2)UnderstandthetheoryofIllocutionaryAct(threesenses)3)UnderstandthetheoryofConversationalImplicature,thefourprinciplesofCooperativePrinciple(Maximsofquantity,qua lity,relationandmanner),andtheexamplesindicatingtheviolati onofCooperativePrinciple4)Understandthecharacteristicsofimplicature。
语言学概论期末复习精要语言学概论期末复习精要
1.Students should be prepared to be able to define the following linguistics terms:1)Linguistics语言学Linguistics should be defined as the systematic (or scientific) study of language.2)Language语言it is a system of arbitrary ˈɑ:bitrəri主观的vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a means of verbal communication. It distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated.[səˈfistikeitid].精密的, 尖端的than animal communication system.3)Langue语言Langue refers to the abstract linguistic systems shared by all the members of a speech community.4)Parole言语refers to the actualized language5)linguistic competence语言能力Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language or the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as system of abstract formal relation6)linguistic performance语言运用Performance is the actual realization of his knowledge in utterances. It refers to what we do when we speak or listen, that is, the indefinite varied individual acts of verbal behavior with their irregularities, inconsistencies, and errors.7)Phonetics语音学The study of human speech sound.8)Phonology音位学The study of the sound patterning(sounds functioning)9)minimal pairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds combinations are said to form a minimal pair.10)deep structureThe syntactic structure which is formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called deep structure11)surface structureThe syntactic structure ,which corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations is called surface structure.12)Semantics语义学the meaning of language13)Senseit is concerned with the inherent .[inˈhiərənt]固有的; 内在的meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.14)Referenceit means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.15)Pragmatics语用学it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.16)Register语域the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.17)Dialect方言A variety of a language used recognizably in a specific region or by a specific social class is called dialect.18)Acquisition获取First language acquisition refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue. Second language acquisition refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.19)inter-lingual errorserrors result from language transfer, or caused by the learner’s mother tongue. i.e. caused by the learner’s NL e.g. “Elle regarde les”20)intra-lingual errorsThey mainly result form faulty or partial learning of the target language. It may be caused by the influence of one TL. Term upon another.21)applied linguisticsit refers to the application of linguistic theories, methods, and findings to the study of language learning and teaching22)the aptitude testit is designed to measure the learner’s aptitude or natural ability to learn languages.23)the achievement testit focus on assessing a testee’s mestery of the contents of a particular course.24)co-operative principleit refers to that the participants in a convasation normally communicate in a maximally efficient natual and cooperative way.2.Students should be able to answer the following questions:1)In what ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?The focus of research has been transformed from the language system to the use of language.The rise of the inter-displinery research and the borderline介于两者之间的subjects.2)For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing? Speech is prior to writing；The writing system is invented when needed；Today there are languages which can only be spoken but not written；Speech plays a greater role than writing in daily communication；Each human being first acquires speech and then learns writing；Modern linguistics tends to pay more attention to authentic speech.3)What is a phone? How is it differ from a phoneme? How are allophones related to aphoneme?Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.These sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is a phonological unit . It is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.in English the sounds (phones) that possess the distinctive value are called phonemes.Phonemes are said to be the distinctive sounds.4)What are the five sense relations between words? Please illustrate them. p1361. difference in origin answer-reply;2. difference in the shades不同程度的of meaning;3. difference in socio-expressive meaning;4. difference in stylistic meaning;5. difference in collocation and distribution.5)According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing whilemaking an utterance? Give an example.locutionary act (言内行为) illocutionary act(言外行为) perlocutionary act(言后行为)“Good Morning!What did he do ?”He produced a sound, word, or sentence.The act performed in this sense is called locutionary act.言内行为He offered a greeting. illocutionary act言外行为. Locationary act (言内行为) is the act of saying something . It is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.E.g. “John, it’s very cold outside! ”母亲说出这句话的本身就是言内行为；母亲说出这句话的意图是为了让JOHN穿上大衣再出去，这是言外行为；JOHN听了母亲的话后，穿上大衣在出门，这就是言后行为。
《英语语言学概论》期末考试doc
《英语语⾔学概论》期末考试docI．Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F). (10 points, 1 point each)1.Articulatory Phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds.2.Adjectives belong to open class words.3.John Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.4.What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study ofmeaning the context of use is considered.5.English is a typical intonation language.6.Phones in complementary distribution should be assigned to the same phoneme.7.Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.8.There are words of more or less the same meaning used in different regionaldialects.9.Transformations are the rules which can change the meaning of sentence.10.Sense and reference are two different notions of semantics, and they are related toeach other.II. Fill in the following blanks. (10 points, 1 point each)1.The word “and” is a c____________ conjunction.2.Linguistic c__________ is a native speaker’s linguistic knowledge of his language.3.The relationship between the sound and the meaning of a word is a________.4. A m________ is the smallest linguistic unit that carries meaning.5. A sentence is formed by phonological rules, m______ rules, syntactic rules andsemantic rules.6.The most recognizable difference between American English and British English arein p________ and vocabulary.7.Speech v________refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker ora group of speakers.8.P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.9.Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.10.As a type of linguistic system in L2 learning, i_______ is a product of L2 training,mother tongue interference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and learning and communicative strategies of the learner..III. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement. (20 points, 1 point each)1. Which of the following branch of linguistics takes the inner structure of word as its main object of study?A. Phonetics.B. Semantics.C. Morphology.D. Sociolinguistics.2. ________refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straightforward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication.A. DialectB. IdiolectC. PidginD. Register3. Which of the following is a voiceless bilabial stop?A.[w].B. [m].C. [b].D. [p].4. The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called ________.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. polysemyD. homonymy5. Which of the following words is NOT formed by blending?A. Smog.B. Botel.C. Brunch.D. Edit.6. What phonetic feature distinguishes the [p] in please and the [p] in speak?A.V oicingB. AspirationC. RoundnessD. Nasality7. The word boyguard is a ______.A. compound wordB. complex wordC. derivational wordD. free morpheme8. All words contain a _________.A. rootB. bound morphemeC. prefixD. suffix9. Of the following sound combinations, only ______ is permissible.A. kiblB. hkilC. ilkbD. ilbk10. Where is the primary stress of the word phonology?A. pho.B. no.C. lo.D. gy.11. Conventionally a ________ is put in slashes.A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme12. The plural affix in the word tables is a(n) _______.A. inflectional suffixB. derivational suffixC. free morphemeD. root13. Language is tool of communication. The symbol “highway closed”serves___.A. an expressive functionB. an informative functionC. a performative functionD. a persuasive function14. Which of the following groups of words is a minimal pair?A. but/pubB. wet/whichC. cool/curlD. fail/find15. Whorf believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experienced the world differently, that is relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of ______________.A. linguistic determinationB. linguistic relativismC. linguistic nativismD. linguistic behaviorism16. What are the dual structures of language?A. Sounds and letters.B. Sounds and meaning.C. Letters and meaning.D. Sounds and symbols.17. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic18. According to Krashen ______ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communication.A. learningB. competenceC. performanceD. acquisition19. Which of the following is one of the core branches of linguistics?A. Phonology.B. Psycho-linguistics.C. Sociolinguistics.D. Anthropology.20. The relationship between “flower” and “tulip” is _________.A. homonymyB. hyponymyC. polysemyD. synonymyIV. Translate the following linguistic terms: (10 points, 1 point each)A. From English to ChineseB. From Chinese to English1. acoustic phonetics 6. 应⽤语⾔学2. closed class words 7. 格语法3. componential analysis 8. 积极迁移4. distinctive features 9. 历史语⾔学5. Critical Period Hypothesis 10. 声调语⾔V. Draw a tree diagram for the following sentence by applying TG Grammar. (10 points)The man saw a horse.VI. Answer the following questions briefly. (20 points)1. Define phoneme. (4 points)2. Explain complementary distribution with an example.(5 points)3. What are the four criteria for classifying English vowels. (4 points)4. Analyze the following conversation by applying the Cooperative Principles.(7points)A: Teheran is in Turkey, isn’t it, teacher?B: And London is in France, I suppose.VII. Do the following analysis. (20 points)1. Write the one proper description from the list under B for the underlined part of each word in A. (5 points, 1 point each)A B(1) terroriz ed a. free root(2) un civil ized b. bound root(3) terror ize c. inflectional suffix(4) luke warm d. derivational suffix(5) im possible e. inflectional prefixf. derivational prefix2. Consider the following sentences in Swahili, and anwer the questions:(15 points) mtu amelala The man has slept. mtu analala The man is sleeping.mtu atalala The man will sleep.watu wamelala The men have slept.watu wanalala The men are sleeping.watu watalala The men will sleep.visu vinaanguka The knives are falling.kikapu kimeanguka The basket has fallen.watoto watafika The children will arrive.1)toto in Swahili means ______ in English.2)The meaning of the morpheme wa- in Swahili is _______.3)______ in Swahili means “sleep” in English.4)Translate mtoto anaanguka into English.5)Translate vikapu vimefika into English.台州学院_____学年第___学期___级____专业《英语语⾔学概论》期末试卷A卷（闭卷）参考答案及评分说明I．Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F). (10 points, 1 point each)II. Fill in the following blanks. (10 points, 1 point each)1. coordinate2. competence3. arbitrary4. morpheme5. morphological6. pronunciation7. variety8. performance9. scientific 10. interlanguage III. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement. (20 points, 1 point each)IV. Translate the following linguistic terms: (10 points, 1 point each)1. 声学语⾳学 6. applied linguistics2. 封闭词类7. case grammar3. 成分分析8. positive transfer4. 区别性特征9. historical linguistics5. 临界期假说10. tone languageV. Draw a tree diagram for the sentence by applying TG Grammar. (10 points)SNP Infl VPDet N pst V NPDet Nthe man saw a horseVI. Answer the following questions. (20 points)1. A contrastive phonological segment whose phonetic realizations are predictable by rules. (4 points)(or: A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.)2. The situation in which phones never occur in the same phonetic environment.（4 points）e.g. [p] and [p h] never occur in the same position. （1 point）3. the position of the tongue in the mouth(1 point), the openness of the mouth(1 point), the shape of the lips(1 point), and the length of the vowels. (1 point)4. According to the Cooperative Principle, the participants of the conversation should obey the four maxims of the principle: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation, the maxim of manner. (2 points) In this conversation, B’s reply deliberately violated the maxim of quality, (2 points) because B wanted A to infer the information that Teheran is not in Turkey. The main purpose of B is to let A know that it is absurd to make such a mistake.(3 points)VII. Do the following analysis. (20 points)1. (1) c (2) a (3) d (4) b (5) f (1 point each)2. 1) child （2 points）2) human, plural （3 points）3)lala （2 points）4)The child is falling.（4 points）5)The baskets have arrived.（4 points）。
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结
英语语言学一、名词解释第一课1.Synchronic共时性: S aid of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” intime.\ A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.ngue语言: The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.4.Arbitrariness任意性:One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that theforms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.第二课1.Phoneme音位: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. Thebasic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.2.Allophone音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.3.Minimal pair最小对立体: When two different forms are identical in every way except for onesound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form aminimal pair.第三课1.Morphology形态学: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Derivational morphemes派生词素:Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical classof words are called…3.Inflectional morphemes曲折词素: Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.第四课1.Syntax语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentencesand the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2.Syntactic categories句法范畴: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small numberof classes, called syntactic categories.3.Deep structure 深层结构: Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called deep structure or D- structure.4.Surface structure 表层结构: Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence whichresults from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure.第五课1.Reference指称: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world;it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2.Homonymy同音异义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings havethe same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.3.Hyponymy 上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.第六课1.Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2.Utterance话语: a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.3.Utterance meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4.Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1．What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?Phonetics: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication. It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties.Phonology:It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language.Morphology:A field of linguistics focused on the study of the forms and formation of words in a languageSyntax: A set of rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences.Pragmatics: the study of the use of language in a social context.2．What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?The important characteristics which should be included in a good definition of language are separately: systematic, arbitrary and vocal.First of all, language is a system. It has its own set of rules for people to abide by, or people will use the language in a wrong way.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.3．What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?1) Arbitrariness: no natural/motivated/logical relationship between the sign and what thesign stands for.2)Productivity:provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent beforeand for understanding novel messages.3) Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of stuctures, or two levels.4) Displacement: can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future5) Cultural transmission第二课1. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be moreinterested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? Why? 语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics — description of all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology — description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences inmeaning.2. What is phone? How is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?Phone is a phonetic unit, it has no meaning.Phoneme is a phonological unit with distinctive value .The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/l/,which are allophones of the phoneme /l/Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.第三课1. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Suffix: -ingMeaning: denoting a verbal action, an instance of this, or its resultStem type: added to verbsExamples: fighting: denote the action of battlebuilding: denote the action of constructionSuffix: -ableMeaning: able to beStem type: added to verbsExamples: avoidable: able to be prevented fromcalculable: able to be measured or assessedSuffix: -istMeaning: denoting a member of a profession or business activityStem type: added to nounsExamples: dramatist: a person who writes playsdentist: a person who treats the teeth disease2. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.1)prefix: un-meaning: denoting the absence of a quality or state; notstem type: added to nounsexamples: unacademic: not adopting or characteristic of a scholarly approach orlanguageunhappy: not happy2)prefix: anti-meaning: opposed to; againststem type: added to nounsexamples: anti-abortion: opposing or legislating against medically inducedabortionanti-art: against the traditional art3)prefix: re-meaning:once more; afresh; anewstem type: added to verbsexamples: restart: start once morereaccustom: accustom (someone) to something again第五课1. What are the major types of synonyms in English?并举例1)dialectal synonyms-----synonyms used in different regional2)Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning4)Collocational synonyms: what words they go together with5)Semantically different synonyms: differ from the words themselves2. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. When tow words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. The examples are as followed:Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceHomographs: bow v./bow n. tear v./tear n.Complete homonyms: fast adj./fast v.Polysemy: while different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is calleda polysemic word. The more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired morethan one meaning. For example, the word table has at least six meanings when we look it up in the dictionary:1. a piece of furniture2.all the people seated at a table3.the food that is put on a table4. a thin flat piece of stone, mental, wood, etc5.orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc6.part of a machine-tool on which the work is put to be operated onHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. For example,Superordiante: flowerHyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily, morning golory第六课1. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答： Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation.Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.3. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答： Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity① Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of theexchange).② Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality① Do not say what you believe to be false.② Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.(4) The maxim of manner① Avoid obscurity of expression.② Avoid ambiguity.③ Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④ Be orderly.。
语言学概论期末考试复习题及参考答案
语言学概论（A）期末考试复习题及参考答案一、单选题1.（2分）语言符号的任意性是指A.语言符号可以任意使用和创造B.绝大多数语言符号的能指和所指之间没有必然的理据关系C,可以任意使用语言符号给事物命名D.语言符号的能指和所指可以任意改变参考答案：B2.（2分）下列各组辅音中，发音部位相同的一组是A.image1.pngB.image2.pngC.image3.pngD.Image4.png参考答案：B3.（2分）“汽车”和“轿车”是A.上下位词B.同义词C.等义词D.近义词参考答案：A4.（2分）下列几种社会方言中，具有排他性的一项是A.阶级习惯语B.行话C.隐语D.学生腔参考答案：C5.（2分）下列关于亲属语言的表述中，不正确的一项是A.亲属语言是社会完全分化的产物B.亲属语言之间具有历史同源关系C.语言亲属关系有亲疏远近的分别D.亲属语言间不存在语音对应关系参考答案：D6.（2分）“老师鼓励我考大学”是A.主谓词组B.兼语词组C.连动词组D.复句词组参考答案：B7.（2分）目前已知的最古老的拼音文字是一A.古埃及文字8.古希腊文字C腓尼基文字D.中国的甲骨文参考答案：C8.（2分）划分词类的最本质的标准是A.分布标准B.意义标准C.形态标准D.逻辑标准参考答案：A9.（2分）外语学习中的后期阶段被称为A.中介语阶段B.目标语阶段C.低平期D.高原期参考答案：D10.（2分）英语“students”中的“・s”是.A.虚词语素B.词根语素C.构形语素D.构词语素参考答案：C11.（2分）认为“思维和语言各自发展，二者没有关系”的学者不包括A.古希腊哲学家柏拉图B.法国哲学家迪卡尔C.英国哲学家霍布斯D.苏联语言学家马尔参考答案：D12.（2分）以下不属于语言学的三大发源地的是A.中国B.埃及C.印度D.希腊・罗马参考答案：B13.（2分）下列语言学流派中集中研究语言本体的流派是A.功能语言学B.社会语言学C.认知语言学D.结构语言学参考答案：D14.（2分）下面词组中,结构类型与其他各组不同的一组是A.年轻漂亮/朴素大方B.我们大家/首都北京C.民航大厦/工人农民D.贯彻执行/讨论研究参考答案：C15.（2分）关于语言获得的原因，下列学说中偏重于内部条件解释的一项是A.天赋说B.摹仿说C.强化说D.刺激反应说参考答案：A16.（2分）传统上把汉字的单纯字符称为A.偏旁B.笔画C.记号D.独体字参考答案：D17.（2分）北京话“面”单念时读作[mi?n],但“面包”却读作[mi?mpαu],这种语流音变现象是A,弱化B.增音C.同化D.异化参考答案：C18.（2分）汉语中的词类（词的语法分类）可以首先分出的两个大类是一A.基本词和非基本词B.实词和虚词C.典型词和兼类词D.体词和谓词参考答案：B19.（2分）目前对于语言和思维的关系，比较一致的观点是A.有什么样的思维，就有什么样的语言B.有什么样的语言，就有什么样的思维C.思维对语言有一定影响，但更重要的是语言决定思维D.语言对思维有一定影响，但更重要的是思维决定语言参考答案：D20.（2分）听觉上最自然、最容易分辨的最小语音单位是A.音素B.重音C.音位D.音节参考答案：D21.（2分）首先提出“能指”和“所指”这对概念的语言学家是A.洪堡特B.索绪尔C.乔姆斯基D.萨丕尔参考答案：B22.（2分）判断两种话是不同语言还是同一种语言的不同方言应该主要参考A.相互理解程度B.语言结构的差异程度C.共同的历史文化传统和民族认同感D.地域临近程度参考答案：C23.（2分）语言符号具有可变性的根本原因在于语言符号的A.任意性B.强制性C.离散性D.系统性24.（2分）下列各项中，谓词和变元之间属于动作与结果关系的是A.写黑板B.打篮球C.织毛衣D.寄包裹参考答案：C25.（2分）从词的构造类型上看，汉语“动人”一词属于A.单纯词B.复合词C.派生词D.简缩词参考答案：B26.（2分）语法的演变之所以比语汇缓慢，是因为A.语法规则比较简单B.语法规则数量较少C.语法规则具有强制性D.语法规则具有抽象性参考答案：C27.（2分）构形语素属于A.虚词语素B.词根语素C.自由语素D.黏着语素参考答案：D28.（2分）下列各组中,三个复合词构词类型不一致的一组是A.席卷耳鸣地震B.打倒切断推翻C.发光散热出气D.天地欢乐爱好29.（2分）在语言谱系分类的层级体系中,最大的类别是—A.语族B.语支C.语系D.语群参考答案：C30.（2分）从语音的社会功能角度划分出来的最小语音单位是A.音位B.音素C.音节D.音渡参考答案：B31.（2分）人类语言和动物的交际方式A.完全一致B.有根本区别C.有一定的差别D.基本一样参考答案：B32.（2分）“我知道你很聪明。
英语语言学概论复习题集
英语语言学概论复习题集一、选择题1. 语言学是研究什么的学科？A. 语言的发音B. 语言的结构C. 语言的社会功能D. 所有以上2. 下列哪项不是语言学的分支？A. 语音学B. 语法学C. 词汇学D. 化学3. 英语中的“语言学”一词来源于哪个希腊词？A. LogosB. PhoneC. GlossaD. Syntax4. 英语的音素有多少个？A. 20个B. 44个C. 100个D. 取决于方言5. 英语中的“辅音”和“元音”有何区别？A. 辅音是浊音，元音是清音B. 辅音是清音，元音是浊音C. 辅音可以单独发音，元音不可以D. 辅音不可以单独发音，元音可以二、填空题6. 语言学的主要研究对象是_________。
7. 语言学的三大分支包括语音学、语法学和_________。
8. 英语中的音素数量因_________而异。
9. 英语中的“辅音”和“元音”的区别在于_________。
10. 英语语言学中，“语用学”研究的是语言的_________。
三、简答题11. 请简述语言学的定义及其研究范围。
12. 描述语音学和音系学的区别。
13. 举例说明英语中的音节结构。
14. 解释什么是形态学，并简述其研究内容。
15. 什么是社会语言学？它研究哪些方面？四、论述题16. 论述英语语言学中“语义学”的重要性及其研究内容。
17. 描述英语中的词类系统，并解释它们各自的功能。
18. 论述英语语法的复杂性及其对学习者的影响。
19. 讨论英语作为国际语言对全球语言生态的影响。
20. 分析英语中的双关语现象及其在语言使用中的作用。
五、案例分析题21. 阅读以下对话，并分析其中的语用学现象。
- A: Can you pass the salt?- B: Sure, here you go.22. 观察以下句子，并讨论其语法结构：- The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.23. 分析以下广告语中的修辞手法：- Just do it.24. 考虑以下情景，讨论社会语言学在其中的应用：- 在一个多语言社区中，不同语言群体如何交流？25. 研究以下英语习语，并解释其在不同文化背景下的含义：- Break the ice.六、综合应用题26. 设计一个英语语言学的课程大纲，包括至少五个主要模块及其子主题。
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第一章绪论1.1什么是语言1.2语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。
（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。
这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。
1.3语言的起源1.4语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。
将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。
法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。
汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。
1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。
汉语是典型的孤立语。
（2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。
在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。
日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。
（3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。
英语是不太典型的屈折语。
（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。
因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。
根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等1.5语言的功能1.5.1 一般功能1.5.2元功能（metafunction）1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）1.7语言学中的重要区分（1）语言（langue）和言语（parole/langage）索绪尔对语言和言语作出了区分。
认为，语言是一个言语集团的所有成员共享的抽象的语言系统。
言语是语言在世纪使用中的实现。
语言是习惯、规则，而言语是对习惯、规则的具体运用。
语言是抽象的、稳定的，而言语是具体的、变化的。
索绪尔认为言语是纷繁多变的，容易引起混乱，无法穷尽的语言事实对于系统的语言研究是很困难的，语言学家应该从纷繁的言语中抽象出规则，并将其作为语言学研究的主题。
即作为科学的语言学研究的对象应该是语言，而不是言语。
（2）规定（prescriptive）和描写（descriptive）如果一种语言研究是描写和分析人们实际使用的语言，那就是描写性研究。
如果一种语言研究的目的是为人们如何正确使用语言制定规则，告诉人们应该怎么说，不应该怎么说，那就是规定性研究。
在语言学史上的传统语法时期，语言研究的规定性的。
现代语言学多为描写性研究。
语言研究是描写还是规定是区别现代语言学和传统语法的重要标准。
（3）共时（synchronic）和历时（diachronic）在某一个时间点上对语言进行描写时共时研究；在某一个时间段内对语言的描写则是历时研究。
共时是历时的基础，历时是共时的延伸。
只有在对一种语言的各种共时状况都成功研究之后，才能对其历史发展中的变化进行研究。
即索绪尔认为共时研究应限于历时研究。
（3）组合（syntagmatic）和聚合（associative）索绪尔认为，语言的能指和所指之间的关系时任意性的，所以很难单独解释每一个符号的意义，而必须从符号与符号之间的关系来了解符号的价值。
组合关系结构的要素之间的关系，是水平关系（链条关系）。
聚合关系时一个结构中某个特定位置上可以互相替换的各要素之间的关系，是垂直关系（选择关系）。
组合是个语言要素之间的排列，聚合是各语言要素之间的选择。
（4）语言能力（competence）和语言运用（performance）语言能力和语言运用是美国语言学家乔姆斯基（Chomsky）在《句法理论要略》中提出的一对概念。
语言能力指一个理想的语言使用者关于语言规则系统的潜在语言知识。
语言运用则指在语言交际中这种语言知识的实际使用。
一个语言使用者具有一套内化的语言规则，这套规则使他能够说出和理解无限多的句子并能够辨别句子是否合乎语法，是否具有歧义。
每一个理想的语言使用者的语言能力都是完美的、稳定的，具有普遍性。
而语言运用则是不完美的、易变的，具有偶然性。
索绪尔的语言和言语的区分与乔姆斯基的语言能力和语言运用之间的区别在于。
索绪尔的语言是一个社会的观点，认为语言是社会的产物，是适用于一个言语集团的一套约定俗称的习惯和规则。
乔姆斯基的语言能力是个人大脑的特征，是一个心理学的观点。
1.8语言学的运用第二章语音和音系2.1 语音及语音学2.1.1什么是语音2.1.2语音学及其研究对象2.1.3语音学的分支学科2.2 发音（1）发音器官（2）音素（phone）音素是从音质的角度划分出来的最小语音单位。
音素分为元音音素和辅音音素。
2.3 国际音标（International Phonetic Alphabet——IPA）国际音标是1888年由国际语音学会创制的，用来记录一种未知语言语音的符号系统。
国际音标的原则是“一个音素，一个符号；一个符号，一个音素”。
国际音标标音有宽式标音（broad transcription）和严式标音（narrow transcription）两种。
宽式标音是音位标音，严式标音是音素标音。
2.4英语的元音和辅音2.4.1元音2.4.2 辅音2.5音位2.5.1什么是音位2.5.2归纳音位的方法和原则2.6 最小对立对（minimal pairs）2.7区别性特征（distinctive features）2.8 序列限制规则（sequential constraints）2.8.1什么是序列限制规则2.8.2英语中的序列限制规则若词的开头是l或r，则其后必为一个元音。
除部分叹词外，每一个词至少要有一个元音。
三辅音序列通常为：S+清塞音+流音2.9 音节(syllable)2.9.1英语的基本音节结构节首（onset）+节峰（peak/nucleus）+节尾（coda）2.9.2英语的音节结构特点（1）一个音节必须要有一个节峰。
（2）节峰通常由元音充当。
最小的音节是单个元音。
（3）节首辅音和节尾辅音都可省略。
首辅音可出现1-3个，节尾辅音可出现1-4个。
（4）一个音节有节尾辅音，叫闭音节（closed syllable）。
（5）一个音节没有节尾辅音，叫开音节（open syllable）（6）英语中有闭音节词，也有开音节词，但充当开音节节峰的只能是长元音和双元音。
2.10 重音（stress）2.11 声调（tone）2.12 语调（intonation）第三章形态学和词汇形态学（morphology）是语法学的一个分支。
它研究词的内部结构和构词规则。
3.1词和词类3.1.1什么是词词是“最小的自由单位”（Bloomfield），即词是语言中能够独立运用的最小单位。
3.1.2词类（word classes）（1）开放词类（open class）和封闭词类（closed class）封闭词类：介词（preposition）、限定词（determiners）、代词（pronouns）、连词（conjunctions）、情态动词（modal verbs）、基本动词（primary verbs）开放词类：名词（nouns）、实动词（lexical verbs）、形容词（adjectives）、副词（adverbs）（2）变化词（variable words）和非变化词（invariable words）根据词形是否呈现出有规律的变化，把词分为变化词和非变化词。
变化词：名（数）、代（性、数、格）、动（时体）、形（级）、副（级）非变化词：连、介、叹词等（3）词汇词（lexical words）和语法词（grammatical words）根据词的功能，把词分为表达词汇意义的词汇词和无词汇意义，只有语法功能的语法词。
词汇词：名、动、代、形、副、数语法词：连词、介词（4）实词（cotent words）和虚词（empty/function words）根据词所表达的意义，分为实词和虚词。
实词指那些具有词汇意义的词，虚词只表语法关系。
实词表达语言的主要内容，虚词则从语法角度把它们连接起来。
实词即词汇词，虚词即语法词。
3.2 形态（morpheme）3.2.1词素/语素语素是语言中最小的音义结合单位（不能再拆分）。
一个语素可能是一个完整的词，也可能使一个词缀（affix）。
3.2.2 语素变体（allomorphs）同一语素在不同的构词环境中会有不同的形式，这些不同的形式就是语素变体。
语素变体可分为：（1）语音条件变体：变体的选择由基础词的语音形式决定。
如：英语中的复数的语素变体有[s] （pests）、[z] （dogs）、[iz] （houses），动词过去式的变体有[t]（stopped）、[d] （played）、[id] （wanted）（2）语素条件变体：变体的选择由基础词的词汇形式决定。
如：英语中的不规则复数、不规则的动词3.2.2 语素类型（1）自由语素（free morpheme）和粘着语素（bound morpheme）根据语素是否可以独立使用，可以分为自由语素和黏着语素。
·自由语素是可以独立成词的语素。
如：teach·粘着语素即词缀（affix），通常要附着在其他语素上。
有前缀（prefix），如：un-、in-、dis-；中缀（inffixes），如men、mice、feet；后缀（suffixes），如：-er、-ed等。
（2）屈折语素（inflectional morpheme）和派生语素（derivative morpheme）粘着语素可根据是否构成新词分为屈折语素和派生语素。
屈折语素：对一个已有的词汇项提供更多的语法信息。
英语中多为后缀，如-s、-ed派生语素：指完全创造一个新词的语素。
英语中的前缀和部分后缀，如-er、dis-3.3 屈折与构词3.3.1屈折（inflection）指区别统一词汇单位不同语法形式的任何形式或形式改变。
屈折是语法关系的标志，这个关系是通过添加词缀实现的。
添加对象往往是名、动、代、形等实词。
词缀只表示数量、人称、体、格、语气、时态等语法关系。
不改变被添加成分的语法范畴。