语言学复习资料
语言学概论复习资料
(一)名字解释一、语言：从结构和功能两方面看，语言是一种复杂的符号系统，是人类进行社会交际和思维认知的工具。
二、口语是以语音为载体的语言形式，书面语是以文字为载体的语言形式。
书面语是在口语的基础上产生的。
三、副语言：语言不是人类惟一的交际工具，除了语言以外，人类还有其他辅助性交际工具，例如文字、体态等等，这类辅助性交际工具有时也被称为“语言”，为了跟真正的语言相区别，所以称为副语言。
四、自然语言：是由社会群体在日常交际活动中自然形成的语言，人工语言是个别人人工设计出来的语言。
五、组合关系：若干较小的语言单位组合成较大的语言单位，其构成成分之间的关系就是组合关系，又称线性序列关系。
词语之间的组合是有规则的；语言单位之间的组合是有层次性的。
六、聚合关系：具有相同组合功能的语言单位之间的关系，就是聚合关系，又称联想关系。
具有聚合关系的语言单位之间一般能互相替换。
具有相同聚合关系的语言单位，就构成某种聚合类。
七、词根语又成孤立语，其特点是缺乏形态变化，语法意义主要靠词序和虚词来表示。
八、屈折语的特点是通过各种屈折方式来表示语法意义。
九、粘着语的特点是通过附加多种词缀来表示语法意义。
十、编插语又叫多式综合语或复综语，其特点是以动词词根为中心，在词根的前后可以附加上各种词缀，来表示各种语法意义或语汇意义。
十一、语音是在人类大脑神经支配下由发音器官发出的负载一定意义并能为人们所理解的声音。
十二、语音学：研究语音的学科就是语音学。
语音学的任务是研究语音在“发音---传递---感知”过程中的生理、物理和心理特性，分析语音的各种要素的社会功能，彼此之间的关系，以及语音系统的构成和发展演变规律。
语音学的分支：从研究对象的范围来看，语音学可以分为普通语音学和具体语音学；从研究对象的时间来看，语音学可以分为共时语音学和历时语音学；从研究对象的性质来看，语音学可以分为声学语音学、发音语音学、感知语音学和音系学；从研究的方法和手段来看，语音学研究有传统方法与现代方法之分。
语言学复习资料
语言学概论名词解释一、绪论部分语言学：是以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立的科学；从方法上分为历史语言学、比较语言学、历史比较语言学、描写语言学；从研究对象上可分为个别语言学和普通语言学；19C初的历史比较语言学标志着语言学的诞生。
语文学：是为给古代文化遗产，即政治历史文学等方面的经典书面著作作注释，目的是使人们可以读懂古书的一门尚未独立的学科。
“小学”：中国传统的语文学，围绕阐释和解读先秦典籍来展开研究，形成了文字学、音韵学、训诂学，分别探讨和研究汉字的字形、字音、字义。
专语语言学：以某种具体的语言为研究对象的语言学。
共时语言学、历时语言学：根据语言体系的稳固和变化，把语言研究分为共时的和历时的研究,。
共时语言学研究的是在特定时期内相对稳固的语言体系，如对现代汉语的研究；历时语言学研究的则是描写语言体系的历史演变,如对汉语发展史的研究。
普通语言学：是对人类语言从理论方面进行研究的一门学科，它探索各种语言所共有的规律以及各种语言在结构上的共同特点。
历史语言学：用历史的方法来考察语言的历史演变、研究它的变化规律的语言学。
比较语言学：用比较的方法，对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们相异之处或共同规律的语言学。
表层结构、深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。
索绪尔：现代语言学的创始人，代表著作是《普通语言学教程》。
（简单要加补充）二、语言的社会功能语言：就其本质而言，语言是一种音义结合的符号系统；就其社会功能来说，语言是一种特殊的社会现象，是人类最重要的交际工具和必不可少的思维工具。
言语：是对语言的运用，是语言的行为和结果。
说话：是人们运用语言工具表达思想所产生的结果。
思维：是人脑能动地反映客观现实的机能和过程。
根据思维活动的不同形态可分为三种类型：直观动作思维、形象思维、抽象思维。
语言学概论完整版复习资料
语⾔学概论完整版复习资料第⼀章语⾔和语⾔学1.语⾔与各个领域的社会活动都有着密切的联系，在这种情况下，语⾔学必须明确⾃⼰的研究对象，才能成为⼀门现代意义上的科学。
2.任何符号，包括语⾔符号都是形式和意义的统⼀体。
3.什么是语⾔的客观存在形式语⾔的客观存在形式⾸先表⽰为有声的⼝头语⾔即⼝语，⽽当出现了⽂字以后，⼜表现为有形的书⾯语⾔即书⾯语。
4.语⾔符号的强制性正因为语⾔符号是社会约定俗成的，因此在同⼀社会，同⼀时代，对使⽤同⼀种语⾔的每⼀个社会成员来说是强制性的，是不能任意改变的，因为如果个⼈可以任意改变，那就互相听不懂了，也就从根本上丧失了交际⼯具的作⽤。
5.语⾔与⾔语的区别语⾔是⾔语活动中同⼀社会群体共同掌握的、有规律可循⽽⼜成系统的那⼀部分；⽽含有个⼈要素或个⼈杂质的说话⾏为和说出来的话只能属于⾔语。
第⼆章语⾳1.声⾳的四要素：⾳⾼，⾳强，⾳长，⾳质2.振幅：也就是发⾳体振动时离开平衡位置的最⼤偏移距离。
3.频率：发⾳体在每⼀秒钟内振动的次数。
4.⾳⾼：就是声⾳的⾼低。
它是由频率的⼤⼩决定的。
频率同⾳⾼成正⽐。
频率越⼤，声⾳越⾼；频率越⼩，声⾳越低。
5.⾳强：就是声⾳的强弱。
它是由振幅的⼤⼩决定的。
振幅同⾳强成正⽐，振幅的⼤⼩⼜决定于使发⾳体振动外⼒的⼤⼩。
外⼒⼤，振幅就⼤，声⾳就强；外⼒⼩，振幅就⼩，声⾳就弱。
6.⾳长：就是声⾳的长短。
它是由发⾳体振动的持续时间决定的。
发⾳体振动的持续时间长，声⾳就长；发⾳体振动的时间短，声⾳就短。
7.基⾳：振动中有⼀个频率最低的振动，由它发出的声⾳叫做“基⾳”。
其他振动发出的声⾳叫做“陪⾳”。
8.乐⾳：当基⾳的频率的陪⾳的频率之间存在着整数倍的⽐例关系时，会形成⼀种复杂⽽有规则的，具有周期性重复特征的声波形式，这种声⾳叫做乐⾳。
9.噪⾳：如果基⾳的频率和陪⾳的频率之间不存在整倍数的⽐例关系，就会形成⼀种杂乱⽆章的不规则的声波形式，这种声⾳叫做噪⾳。
10.语⾳的⽣理基础：语⾳是由⼈的发⾳器官协同动作⽽产⽣的，⼈的发⾳及其运动是“语⾳的⽣理基础”，决定着语⾳的⽣理特征。
语言学复习资料
Chapter one Introduction一、定义 1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any anima l system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性） Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence （抽象）Competence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance （具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。
7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historic al study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue （抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole （具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ‖correct‖ behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain s ocial environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
英语语言学复习资料
英语语言学复习资料一：名词解释1. Language (语言) is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. Linguistics(语言学) is generally defined as the scientific study of language.3. General linguistics(普通/一般语言学)The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.4. Phonetics(语音学) the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.5. Phonology(语音体系) how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.6. Morphology(形态学) these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.7. Syntax(句法学) then the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies called syntax.8. Semantics(语意学) the study of meaning is known as semantics.9. Pragmatics(语用学) when the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.10. Phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.11. Phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.12. Allophones(音位变体) the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones.13. IPA(International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标) It’s a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.14. Diacritics(变音符) it is a set of symbols which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions.15. broad transcription(宽式标音) one is the transcription with letter-symbols only.16. narrow transcription(严式标音) the other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.17. open class words(开放类词) In English , open class words are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. We can regularly add new words to these classes. 18. closed class words(封闭类词) In English , closed class word are conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. New words arenot usually added to them.19. Morpheme(词素) the most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.20. bound morpheme(黏着词素) morphemes which occurs only before other morphemes. They cannot be used alone.21. free morpheme(自由词素) it is the morphemes which can be used alone.22. suprasegmental features(超音段特征) the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features.23. Category(畴) it refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence ,a noun phrase or a verb.24. Phrases(短语) Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases.二：简答题1. Three distinct of phonetics(语音学的三个分支？)Articulatory phonetics发音语音学; auditory phonetics听觉语音学; acoustic phonetics声光语音学.2. Main features of language(语言的主要特征？)Language is a system. Language is arbitrary. Language is vocal. Languageis human-specific.3. Synchronic vs. diachronic(共识语言学与历史语言学的区别？)Language exists in time and changes through time. The description ofa language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4. Speech and writing (言语与文字的区别？)Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught late r when he goes to school. Written language is only the “revised” record of speech.5. What are the branches of linguistic study?(语言学研究领域中的主要分支有哪些？)1) sociolinguistics; 2) psycholinguistics; 3)applied linguistics and so on.6. Traditional grammar and modern linguistics(传统语法与现代语言学的区别？) Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, tended to emphasize,maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.7. Prescriptive vs. descriptive (语言学中描写性与规定性的特征是什么？) Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive. 8. Design features of language (语言的识别特征？)Arbitrariness随意性，productivity生产性, duality 二重性, displacement 不受时空限制的特征, cultural transmission 文化传递系统. 9. Competence and performance (语言能力与语言行为的区别？) Competence is defined as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledgein linguistic communication. Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 10. Organs of speech (发音器官)Pharyngeal cavity—the throat, oral cavity—the mouth, nasal cavity—the nose. 11. Word-level categories(决定词畴的三个标准) To determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.三：问题回答1. Some rules in phonology(音位学规则)sequential rules(序列规则)；assimilation rule (同化规则) ；deletion rule(省略规则)。
语言学复习资料
语言学复习资料下定义1.(P3)Sociolinguistics(社会语言学): The studies of all the social aspects of language and its relation with society is called sociolinguistics.2.(P7)Language（语言）: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.3.(P8)Arbitrariness（任意性）: This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.4.(P2)Phonetics（语音学）：Phonetic refers to the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.5.(P16)Voicing（浊音化）: Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds.6.(P26)Assimilation rule（同化规则）: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.7.(P29)Intonation（语调）: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.8.(P42)Syntax（句法）: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.9.(P42)Category（范畴）: Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.10.(P48)Complementizers（补语化成分）:Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers.11.(P53)Head movement（中心语移动）: The movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head positionin another is known as head movement.12.(P64-65)Linguistic context（语言语境）: The linguistic context is concerned with the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word.13.(P66)Reference（所指）: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.14.(P70)Relational opposites（关系反义词）: Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites.15.(P74)Argument（论元）: An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with a nominal element in a sentence.16.(P77)Pragmatics（语用学）: Pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.17.(P81)Constatives（表述句）: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable.填空题第一章1. (P3) If a linguistic aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive（描写性的）. If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive（规定性的）.2.(P4) The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic(共时的）study; the description of a language as it changes through time isa diachronic（历时的）study.3.(P4) Langue(语言）refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole(言语)refers to the realization of language in actual use4. (P5) Chomsky defines competence(语言能力）as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance （语言表现）the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication.第二章5.（P17)As some speech sounds produced differ only in some detailed aspects, the IPA provides its users with another set of symbols called diacritics(发音符号/辨音符）6. (P23) A phoneme(音素）is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value, it is an abstract value.7. (P24) It can be easily observed that phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. If they are two distinctive phonemes,they are said to form a phonemic contrast(音素对照),e.g. /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit].8. (P24)When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occur the same position in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to from a minimal pair(最小配对).e.g pill and bill, pill and till are a minimal pair.9.(P25) Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, the rules are called sequential rules(序列规则).10.(P27) The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental feature(超音段特征).第三章11.(P33)Morpheme(词素): the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme(自由词素). Whereas a morpheme that must beattached to another one is called bound morpheme(粘着词素).12.(P33) The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs(词素变体).第四章13. (P44) Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases(短语), the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.14. (P45)Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: head(中心语), specifier(标志语）and complement(补语).15. (P48)The information about a word’s complement is included in the head andtermed subcategorization（次范畴化）.16. (P52) Transformation(转换）is a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.第五章17. (P67-68)Synonymy:近义关系的分类:1) Dialectal synonyms(方言同义词)-- synonyms used in different regional dialects.(来自不同地域的人使用同一种语言产生的不同）2) Stylistic synonyms(文体同义词) -- synonyms differing in style3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative(评价) meaning4) Collocational synonyms(搭配同义)5) Semantically different synonyms（不考）18.(P69) When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones(同音不同形不同义). When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs(同形不同音不同义). When twowords are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms(同形同音不同义).19. (P70) Antonymy:反义关系的分类1) Gradable antonyms(可分等级的反义词)2) Complementary antonyms(互补反义词)3) Relational opposites(关系反义词)20.(P72) Componential analysis(成分分析)is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.第六章21. (P81)Three Speech Acts:三种言语行为According to Austin new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking:locutionary act(言内行为), illocutionary act(言外行为), and perlocutionary act(言后行为).22.(P90)Pragmatic failure(语用失误) occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communicative purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary(言外之意) force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of c ommunication.第八章23.(P111) Speech variety(言语变体), or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.24. (P117) Halliday further distinguishes three social variables(语域三变量)that determine the register: field of discourse(语场), tenor of discourse(语旨), and mode of discourse(语式).25. (P122) The term diglossia(双言制度) refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism where two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.上一页下一页。
语言学概论复习资料
第一章语言和语言学第一节认识人类的语言一、语言的性质和类型1.只有人类才有语言【领会】语言是人类所独有的。
人类的语言跟动物的“语言”相比较,有几个显著和重要的特点:一是“内容更多”。
多种场合、多种方式、多种内容。
二是“用处更大”。
主要:交际功能。
其它:标志、记录、思维、认知,等等。
三是“能够创造”。
具有离散性,能用有限的声音和意义按照一定规则组配成无限的话语。
2.语言和民族、国家的关系【领会】大多数情况:一个民族使用一种语言。
但不能把“相互能够听懂”作为确定语言的标准,并进一步作为确定民族和国家的标准。
这种理解只适合于欧洲的“新兴民族国家”,对一个历史悠久、幅员辽阔的国家是不适应的。
尽管“语言”是最直观、最容易识别的民族标志,但事实上还不是最可靠的标志。
从目前了解到的情况来看,“共同的历史文化传统和由此产生的民族认同感”也许是维系一个民族的最根本的因素,因而也是确定一个民族的最根本的标准。
3.语言的谱系分类和语言的形态分类【领会】语言的谱系分类就是从“历时”演变角度划分不同的语言,是根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同来源和相似性的大小对语言进行的分类。
也叫“语言的亲属关系分类”。
从语言的“共时”角度来划分不同的语言,可以建立“语言的形态分类”,也叫“语言的结构类型分类”。
可分为“形态语”和“孤立语”,或者分成“综合性语言”和“分析性语言”。
4.语系、语族;屈折语、孤立语;综合性语言、分析性语言【识记】谱系分类层级:语系、语族、(语支)、语言、方言、次方言(土语)。
语系是根据语言有无历史同源关系划分出来的语言类别,是语言谱系中最大的类。
语系的下一级叫作“语族”,同一语族的语言不但有相同的来源,相似点也更多。
形态语(综合性语言)指通过词的形态变化来体现各种结构意义的语言。
包括“屈折语、黏着语”等小类。
如俄语、维吾尔语。
孤立语(分析性语言)指没有形态变化的语言。
如汉语。
屈折语主要是句子中某些词本身有丰富的形态变化,是形态语中的一个小类。
语言学概论复习资料全
语言学概论复习资料全语言学概论名词解释1.小学：中国传统语言研究主要是抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵、训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语言学。
2.语言的人际互动功能（情态）:人际互动功能是社会功能的一个方面，是依靠语言来建立或保持某种社会关联的功能。
互动包括两个方面，一是说话者在话语中表达自己的情感、态度、意图，一是对受话者施加影响，得到反馈。
3.符号：符号就是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号或标记。
又叫做记号、信号，是用来代表其他事物的事物。
4.征候：征候是事物本身的特征，它代表着事物，可以让我们通过它来推知事物。
5.组合关系：语言结构中各个成分之间的关系称为“组合关系”,即语言符号的链条上各个符号之间的关系，具体说来就是句子内部词与词之间、词内部语素与语素之间的关系。
（p31）6.聚合关系:根据在组合关系中具有相同的作用而成为一个聚合，这就是语言符号的一种聚合关系，是具有某种共同特点的语言符号之间的关系。
7.音位（p43) ：根据一个语言交际所需的必须区别而确定的语音小单位，叫做“音位”，即在具体语言或方言中，有区别词的语音形式作用的最小语音单位，它是从语音的社会属性和语音在具体语言中的作用的角度划分出来的音系学中的语音单位。
音位多用/ / 来表示。
8.音位变体：属于同一个音位的各个语素，是这个音位在具体语音环境中的具体表现，叫作音位变体。
9.语素：语素是语言中音义结合的最小的单位。
既有语音形式，又有意义内容。
（p85）10.词：词是语法结构中最重要的一级语法单位，是语言中能够自由运用的最小的语言单位。
11.单纯词：单纯词：指由一个词根语素或一个词根语素加上屈折语素构成的词，又称单语素词。
如：人、天、地、菠萝、琵琶、阿司匹林。
12.合成词：由两个或两个以上的构词语素构成的词叫合成词。
例如“高兴”“铁路“chairman”“notebook”等。
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F. De Saussure is considered to be the “father of modern linguistics”.
Linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
Properties of language:
Arbitrariness(任意性)the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.
Duality(二层性)Language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels, and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.
Productivity(creativity创造性)Language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. Displacement(移位性)This property of human language provides speakers with the opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from the barriers caused by remoteness in time and place.
Branches of linguistics Phonetics(语音学) 研究语言，包括语言的产生(发出，传递，感知)，对语音，词语和连
续言语的描写和分类
Phonology(音系/位学) 研究支配语音分布和
排列的规则以及音节的形式
Morphology(形态学/词形学) 内在构造，研
究意义最小的单位-语素和构词过程
Syntax(句法学) 研究产生和理解正确的句
子所遵循的规则
Semantics(语义学) 意义如何在语言中被编
码
Pragmatics(语用学) 在语境中研究意义
Prescriptive(规定式)Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high” written language. It tries to lay down rules for “correct” or standard language behavior.
Descriptive(描写式)Modern linguistics is descriptive, which means its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. Modern linguistics mainly describes and analyses the facts of language. Synchronic(共时)现代语言学主要是共时性，侧重于现代语言；Diachronic(历时)
Langue(语言)抽象规则is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by.
Parole(言语)实际运用is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.
Competence(语言能力)is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance(语言运用) is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
Three sub-branches of phonetics: Articulatory phonetics发音语音学the study of the production of speech sounds
Auditory phonetics听觉语音学the study of the perception of speech sounds by the human ear.
Acoustic phonetics声学语音学studies the physical properties of speech sounds.
V ocal cords: the first modification of the airstream from the lungs.
Airstream(气流)通过trachea(气管) 到达larynx(喉咙) vocal cords(声带) 发出voiceless(清音)、voiced(浊音)、glottal stop(爆破音) voiced(浊音)经velum（软腭）由oral cavity(口腔)、nasal cavity(鼻腔)发出
元音和辅音区根本区别在于气流是否受阻
Consonants→ Place of articulation & Manner of articulation
Vowels →High mid low vowels & Front central back vowels & Rounded or unrounded vowels
Minimal pair最小对立体
Phoneme & Allophone (音位、音位变体) Suprasegmental Features超音段特征Stress重音, Tone音调, Intonation语调Syllable: the syllabic structure of English words英语单词的音节结构
Stress: word stress and sentence stress单词重音和句子重音
Morpheme语素(the smallest unit of language) Allomorph语素变体。