conversation structure.
冲突会话论文：冲突会话交换结构话步类型话目类型
冲突会话论文：冲突会话交换结构话步类型话目类型【中文摘要】冲突会话是日常生活中一种常见的,不可避免的语言现象。
它是指交际过程中双方或多方间的话语发生冲突,这种冲突表现为交际的一方反对另一方的言语,举止,或就某人某事彼此意见不一,继而产生话语冲突。
冲突话语是一个广义的概念,包含很多语言行为,如争执,争论,反驳等。
近年来,随着话语分析研究的发展,国内外语言学家已经从不同角度对不同情境下的冲突话语进行了大量的研究,如电视访谈中的冲突话语,剧本中的冲突话语,以及网络聊天室中的冲突话语分析。
但是调查发现,关于这一话题的对比研究还很少涉及,特别是涉及中西方国家间的冲突会话对比还寥寥无几。
因而,本文中,作者以Sinclair和Coulthard提出的交换结构为理论基础,旨在对中美家庭中夫妻间的冲突会话进行对比研究,进而探索家庭背景下夫妻之间的冲突会话的会话结构模式。
本文主要采用了实证研究中的定性研究和定量研究相结合的研究方法,理论探索和数据分析相结合的研究手段对夫妻间的冲突会话进行了系统的探讨和分析。
本研究从中国电视连续剧《金婚》和美国电视剧《绝望主妇》中分别搜集了108个和75个夫妻间的冲突会话片段。
通过对收集的语料进行转写,归类,分析后得到的研究结果表明：首先,中美两国夫妻间在话步类型上存在很多相似之处。
起始话步,回应话步,挑战话步和跟随话步四种话步共同构建了冲突会话的会话结构。
但是,挑战话步在两个国家的夫妻间都比回应话步发生频率更高。
此外,跟随话步在两国家庭夫妻间的冲突会话中发生频率都较低。
因此。
夫妻间冲突会话的会话结构通常是二话步交换结构,Sinclair和Coulthard三话步交换结构理论中的跟随话步偶尔出现。
二话步交换结构多是由起始话步和挑战话步构成。
其次,从话目角度分析,主要为起始话目和挑战话目构成了冲突会话的结构。
而在起始话目中,询问和告知话目占主体,指令和请求话发生率相对较低。
在区别方面,指令话目在《金婚》中的发生率略高于请求话目,而在《绝望主妇》中相反。
江苏省南京市英语初二上学期2024-2025学年模拟试卷及答案解析
2024-2025学年江苏省南京市英语初二上学期模拟试卷及答案解析一、听力部分（本大题有20小题，每小题1分，共20分）1.Question:Listen to the recording and choose the correct answer to the question.Question: What time does the school library open on weekdays?A)8:00 a.m.B)9:00 a.m.C)10:00 a.m.Answer: A) 8:00 a.m.Explanation: The recording states that the school library opens at 8:00 a.m.on weekdays, making A the correct answer.2.Question:Listen to the dialogue between a teacher and a student and answer the question.Question: What subject does the student need help with?A)MathB)EnglishC)ScienceAnswer: B) EnglishExplanation: The dialogue mentions that the student is struggling with a grammar point in English, indicating that they need help with English.3.Question:Listen to the short passage and then select the best title for it.Question: What is the best title for the passage?A)The Benefits of ReadingB) A Busy Weekend PlanC)How to Make FriendsAnswer: A) The Benefits of ReadingExplanation: The passage discusses the various advantages of reading books, such as improving vocabulary, enhancing imagination, and providing knowledge. Therefore, A is the most appropriate title that summarizes the main idea of the passage.4、 Listen to the recording and choose the best answer to the question. Question: What time does the school bus usually leave for school?A. At 7:30 am.B. At 8:00 am.C. At 8:30 am.Answer: AExplanation: The recording states, “The school bus usually leaves for school at 7:30 am sharp.” This directly answers the question, indicating that the correct time is 7:30 am.5、 Listen to the conversation between two students and fill in the missing word.Student 1: What’s your favorite subject this semester?Student 2: My favorite subject is _____. I find it really interesting and challenging.Answer: ScienceExplanation: The context suggests that the second student is describing their favorite subject, and given the adjective “interesting and challenging,” “Science” is a plausible answer. However, note that this answer is based on inference from a generic conversation structure and may vary with different recordings.6、 Listen to the short passage and select the true statement about the speaker’s weekend plan.Passage: I’m planning to have a busy weekend. On Saturday, I’m going to visit my grandparents in the morning and then attend a math tutoring session in the afternoon. On Sunday, I’ll participate in a volunteer activity at the local community center.Question: Which of the following is true abo ut the speaker’s weekend plan?A. The speaker is planning a relaxing weekend.B. The speaker will spend time with family on Saturday.C. The speaker will only do academic activities over the weekend. Answer: BExplanation: The passage states that the speaker plans to visit grandparents on Saturday morning, which is spending time with family. This directly corresponds to option B. Option A is incorrect because the passage mentionsa busy weekend, not a relaxing one. Option C is also incorrect as the speaker has planned both academic (math tutoring) and non-academic (volunteer activity) activities.7、Listen to the dialogue and choose the best answer to the question. Question: What does the boy want to do this weekend?A)Go to the movies.B)Play basketball.C)Visit the museum.Answer: A) Go to the movies.Explanation: The dialogue mentions that the boy asks his friend if they can go to the movies this weekend. The friend agrees, so the correct answer isA.8、Listen to the short passage and fill in the missing word.The (1)_____season in Nanjing is autumn. The weather is cool and pleasant. The leaves on the trees turn golden and red, creating a beautiful scenery. People enjoy taking walks in the parks and going on picnics.Answer: (1) favoriteExplanation: The passage describes autumn as the most enjoyable season in Nanjing due to its cool weather and scenic beauty. Therefore, the missing word that completes the sentence is “favorite.”9、Listen to the conversation and decide whether the statement is true (T) or false (F).Statement: The woman is going to buy a new pair of shoes for her daughter.A)TB)FAnswer: B) FExplanation: The conversation reveals that the woman is discussing with someone about trying on a new pair of shoes herself, not for her daughter. Therefore, the statement that she is going to buy a new pair of shoes for her daughter is false.10、 Listen to the dialogue and choose the best answer to the question. Question: What time does the train leave for Shanghai?A. 7:30 amB. 8:30 amC. 9:30 amAnswer: BExplanation: The dialogue states, “The train for Shanghai leaves at 8:30 am from platform 3.” There fore, the correct answer is B, 8:30 am.11、 Listen to the short passage and complete the missing word.The weather forecast for tomorrow is _____. People are advised to carry an umbrella.A. sunnyB. rainyC. windyAnswer: BExplanation: The passage mentio ns, “Rain is expected throughout the day,so it’s important to have an umbrella with you.” This indicates that the weather will be rainy, hence the answer is B, rainy.12、 Listen to the conversation between a student and a teacher and match the sentence halves.Student: “Excuse me, could you tell me where the_____is?”Teacher: “It’s on the second floor, next to the language lab.”A. libraryB. cafeteriaC. gymAnswer: AExplanation: The teacher responds by saying, “It’s on the second floor, next to the lang uage lab.” This suggests that the student is inquiring about the location of a place related to studies or reading materials, hence the most likely answer is A, library.13、Listen to the dialogue and choose the best answer to the question. Question: What time does the train leave?A. At 8:15.B. At 8:30.C. At 9:00.Answer: B. At 8:30.Explanation: In the dialogue, the speaker says, “The train leaves at 8:30.” Therefore, the correct answer is B.14、Listen to the passage and fill in the missing word.The passage is about the importance of exercise for students. It says that regular exercise can help students improve their________and reduce stress. Answer: healthExplanation: The passage discusses the benefits of exercise for students, mentioning that it improves their health and reduces stress. The missing word that fits the context is “health.”15、Listen to the conversation and answer the following question. Question: Where did the man spend his summer vacation last year?A. At the beach.B. In the mountains.C. In the city.Answer: A. At the beach.Explanation: In the conversation, the man says, “Last summer, I went to the beach with my family. It was amazing!” This indicates that he spent his summer vacation at the beach, so the correct answer is A.16、Listen to the recording and choose the best answer.•Question: What time does the school library open on weekdays?•A)8:00 amC)B)9:00 amC)C)10:00 amAnswer: A) 8:00 amExplanation: The recording mentions that the school library opens at 8:00 am on weekdays, so the correct answer is A.17、Listen to the dialogue and complete the sentence. •Sentence: The students will go on a field trip to the________next Friday.•A)science museumD)B)zooD)C)parkAnswer: A) science museumExplanation: In the dialogue, one of the speakers says they are excited to go to the science museum for the field trip next Friday, indicating the correct answer is A. 18、Listen to the passage and answer the question.•Question: How many books does the speaker recommend for English learners?•A)TwoE)B)ThreeE)C)FourAnswer: B) ThreeExplanation: The passage states that the speaker recommends three books specifically for improving English skills, so the answer is B. The speaker mentions each book by name and emphasizes their value for learners.19、Listen to the recording and choose the best answer to the question. Question: What time does the school library open on weekdays?A. 8:00 amB. 9:00 amC. 10:00 amAnswer: AExplanation: The recording states that the school library opens at 8:00 am on weekdays, so the correct answer is A.20、Listen to the dialogue and complete the missing information in the table. Information DetailsName of the Book_______________Author Jane SmithGenre MysteryRelease Date2022Question: What is the name of the book mentioned in the dialogue? Answer: The Silent WitnessExplanation: The dialogue states that the book being discussed is called “The Silent Witness”, so the missing information in the table should befilled in as “The Silent Witness”.二、阅读理解（30分）Title: A Day in the Life of a Junior High School StudentIt’s a typical weekday for Li Ming, a Grade 8 student in Nanjing, Jiangsu Province. As the sun rises over the city, Li Ming wakes up early to get ready for school. Breakfast is quick and nutritious, consisting of steamed buns, porridge, and an egg. After finishing his meal, he packs his bag with textbooks, notebooks, and his favorite pen.At 7:30 a.m., Li Ming sets off for school, riding his bike through the bustling streets. He enjoys the fresh morning air and the sights of people going about their daily routines. Upon arriving at school, he greets his classmates and teachers warmly before heading to his first class of the day.Today, Li Ming has English as his first subje ct. He’s always excited about English class because he finds the language fascinating and challenging.The teacher, Ms. Wang, starts the lesson with a lively discussion on the importance of English in today’s globalized world. Li Ming listensattentively, taking notes whenever necessary.During the class, they work on a project where they have to create a travel brochure for a fictional destination. Li Ming chooses to write about a dreamy island paradise, describing its crystal-clear waters, lush green forests, and exotic wildlife. He enjoys brainstorming ideas with his group membersand is proud of their final product.After lunch, Li Ming has a break to play basketball with his friends. He loves sports and finds it a great way to unwind and refresh himself before the afternoon classes.As the school day draws to a close, Li Ming reflects on his accomplishments. He feels grateful for the opportunities he has to learn and grow. He’s excited to continue his journey as a junior high school student, embracing every challenge that comes his way.Questions:1.What is the main subject Li Ming has first in the morning?A)MathB)EnglishC)ScienceD)ChineseAnswer: B) EnglishExplanation: The passage clearly states that “Today, Li Ming has English as his first subject.”2.What does Li Ming choose to write about in his travel brochure project?A) A bustling cityB) A dreamy island paradiseC) A historical museumD) A modern shopping mallAnswer: B) A dreamy island paradiseExplanation: The passage states, “Li Ming chooses to write about a dreamy islandparadise, describing its crystal-clear waters, lush green forests, and exotic wildlife.”3.What does Li Ming do during his break after lunch?A)Reads a bookB)Plays basketball with his friendsC)Takes a napD)Helps clean the classroomAnswer: B) Plays basketball with his friendsExplanation: The passage mentions, “After lunch, Li Ming has a break to play basketball with his friends.”三、完型填空（15分）Section Three: Cloze TestPassage:It was the first day of the new semester for Grade 8 students in Nanjing, Jiangsu Province. Li Ming, a student in Class 2, Grade 8, was feeling both excited and nervous as he walked towards his English class. He had always enjoyed English, but the thought of facing a new teacher and a morechallenging curriculum made him a little uneasy.As he entered the classroom, he noticed a tall and friendly figure standing at the front. It was Mrs. Wang, their new English teacher. She greeted everyone warmly and immediately put everyone at 1.Mrs. Wang began the class by introducing herself and her teaching methods.She emphasized the importance of 2English every day, both inside and outside the classroom. She encouraged students to join the school’s English club and participate in speaking contests to improve their 3.During the lesson, Mrs. Wang used interactive activities to keep the students engaged. She divided the class into groups and asked them to discuss a topic related to their summer holidays. Li Ming found himself 4 in the conversation, sharing his experiences with his group members.At the end of the class, Mrs. Wang assigned some homework, including reading a chapter from their textbook and preparing a short presentation on a topic of their choice. Li Ming felt motivated and determined to do his best in this new semester.Fill in the blanks with the most suitable words:1.ease2.practicing3.fluency4.immersedAnswers and Explanations:1.ease: The context suggests that Mrs. Wang’s warm greeting made thestudents feel comfortable and relaxed, putting them at ease. “Ease” isa noun that means a feeling of comfort or relaxation.2.practicing: Mrs. Wang emphasized the importance of daily practice ofEnglish, which is crucial for language learning. “Practicing” is theverb f orm of “practice”, which refers to the act of doing something repeatedly to improve skill or understanding.3.fluency: By joining the English club and participating in speakingcontests, students can improve their fluency in English. “Fluency”refers to the ability to speak or write a language smoothly and easily.4.immersed: Li Ming found himself so engaged in the conversation that hewas immersed in it. “Immersed” means deeply involved or absorbed in something, often to the extent that one forgets about other things.四、语法填空题（本大题有10小题，每小题1分，共10分）1、In the morning, we usually get up at 6:30. Then we have breakfast at 7:00. After that,we go to school at 7:30. The lessons________(begin) at 8:00.Answer: beginExplanation: 句子描述的是通常的上学流程，属于一般现在时态的陈述句，主语”The lessons”是复数形式，所以谓语动词应使用原形”begin”。
Conversation-语用学---对话
5. TRP(Transition Relevance Place)
Local management system is needed most at those poitnts where there is a possible change in who has the turn. Any possible change-of-turn point is called a TRP. The speakers accomplish change of turn smoothly because they are aware of the local management system for taking those turns at an appropriate TRP The most obvious markers of a TRP are the end of a structural unit (a phrase or clause) and a pause.
(1) Harmony Min: Did you see him in the video? Wendy: Yeah—the part on the beach Min: Oh my god//he was so sexy Wendy: he was just being so Min: And all the waves//crashing around
4. Local management system
It is a set of conventions for getting turns, keeping them, or giving them away. It is the conventionally known by members of a social group. Turning-taking operates in accordance with this system.
语用学术语英汉对照
语用学术语英汉对照adaptability顺应性（1.2.2）affective mutuality情感共享（4.5.3）agreement maxim一致准则（2.2.1）anaphora前照应（6.1.1）anaphoric use前照应用法（6.1.1）approbation maxim赞誉准则（3.2.4）appropriate conditions合适条件（3.2.4）assertives断言类（以言行事）（3.2.3）behabitives表态类以言行事（3.2.1）calculability（含意的）可推导性（4.4.2）calendric time units历法时间单位（6.1.3）cancellability（含意的）可取消性（4.4.2）change-of-state verbs状态变化动词（6.2.4）code model代码（交际）模式（2.1.1）cognitive environment认知环境（5.2）cognitive mutuality认知共享（4.5.3）cognitive pragmatics认知语用学（1.5）collaborative performatives协作性施为句（3.2.1) commissives承诺类（以言行事）（3.2.1)common knowledge共知（5.2）communicative competence交际能力（7.1）communicative intention交际意图（1.3.2）communicative language ability语言交际能力（7.1）constatives表述句（3.2.1)context语境（1.1)context of situation情景语境（5）contextual assumptions语境假设（1.5.4）contextual correlates语境相关因素（5.1.1) contextual effects语境效果（1.5.4）contextual features语境特征（5.1.1）contextual implication语境暗含（1.5.4）contextual meaning语境意义（1.2.3) contrastive markers对比性标记语（6.4.1) contrastive pragmatics对比语用研究（1.5.2）conventional implicature常规含意（4.4.1）conventionalization规约化（1.3.2）conversation analysis/CA会话分析（1.2.2）conversational implicature会话含意（4.4.1）conversation structure会话结构（1.2.2）cooperative principle/CP合作原则（2.1.2）co-text上下文（5.1.1）cross-cultural communication跨文化交际（8.1）cross-cultural pragmatics跨文化语用学（1.2.2）culture-loaded words富含文化内涵词语（8.2.1）declarations宣告类（以言行事）（3.2.3）decoding解码（2.1.1）defeasibility（含意的）可废除性（6.2.5）deictic center指示中心（6.1.1）deictic expression指示语（1.1）deictic use指示用法（6.1.1）deictics指示语（1.1）deixis指示语（1.1）developmental pragmatics发展语用学（1.6）directives指令类（以言行事）（3.2.3）disambiguation消除歧义（5.4）discourse deixis话语指示（6.1.1）discourse markers话语标记语（1.2.4)discourse meaning语篇意义（1.2.4）discourse operator话语操作语（6.4）discourse particles话语小品词（6.4）dynamic pragmatics动态语用学（4.6）elaborative markers阐发性标记语（6.4.1)emphathetic deixis移情指示（6.1.4）encoding编码（2.1.1）encyclopaedic information百科信息（1.5.4）entailment蕴涵（6.2.1）equivalent effect等值效果/等效（9.4）essential condition（实施言语行为的）基本条件（3.2.3）ethnography（of communication）（交际中的）人类文化学（1.2.2）exercitives行使类（以言行事）（3.2.1）explicature明说（1.5.4）explicit performatives显性施为句（3.2.1)expositives阐述类（以言行事）（3.2.1）expressives表情类（以言行事）（3.2.3）extended speech act theory扩充的言语行为理论（3.2.4）face面子（2.2）face theory面子理论（2.2）face threatening acts/FTA威胁面子的行为（2.2.2）factive verbs叙实性动词（6.2.4）felicity conditions合适条件（3.2.1）filler填充语（3.3）gambits话语策略语（6.4）general pragmatics（1.2.2）generalized implicature一般会话含意（4.4.1）generosity maxim慷慨准则（2.2.1）gestural use手势用法（6.1.1）grammatical competence语法能力（7.1）group performatives群体性施为句（3.2.1) guiding culture主文化（8.1）hearing meaning听话人意义（1.2.4）hedge模糊限制语（6.3）illocutionary competence施为能力（7.1）illocutionary force施为用意（3.2.1)implicated conclusion暗含结论（4.5.2）implicated premise暗含前提（4.5.2）implicative verbs含蓄性动词（6.2.4）implicature暗含/含意（4.5.2）implicit performatives隐性施为句（3.2.1) indeterminacy（含意的）不确定性（4.4.2）indirect speech act间接言语行为（3.2.3）inference推理（1.3.2）inferential markers推导性标记语（6.4.1) inferential model推理模式（1.3.2）informative intention信息意图（1.2.4）ingredients of context语境成分（5.1.1)initial context初始语境（5.3）intention意向（2.1.1）interlanguage语际语言/中介语（1.5.2/8.2.2）interlanguage pragmatics语际语用学（1.5.2/8.3）intra-lingual communication语内交际（9.2）linguistic channel语言信道（5.1.1）linguistic context语言语境（5.1.1）linguistic meaning语言意义（4.2）literal meaning字面意义（2.2.1）locution以言指事（3.2.2）locutionary acts表述性言语行为（3.2.2）logical connector逻辑联系语（6.4）logical infromation逻辑信息（1.5.4）logical form逻辑（形）式（2.1.1）loose talk随意言谈（6.3.3）macropragmatics宏观语用学（1.2.2）manifestness显明（2.1.3）maxim准则（2.1.2）maxim of manner方式准则（2.1.2）maxim of quality质的准则（2.1.2）maxim of quantity量的准则（2.1.2）maxim of relation关系准则（2.1.2）meaning in context（语言在）语境中的意义（4）meaning in interaction言谈应对中的意义（4.6）meaning in use（语言在）使用中的意义（4）mental world心理世界（5.1.1）message model信息模式（2.1.1）metalinguistic performatives元语言施为句（3.2.1) micropragmatics微观语用学（1.2.2）mitigator缓和手段（6.3）modesty maxim谦逊准则（2.2.1）modal particles情态小品词（6.4.1)mutual cognitive environment相互认知环境（2.1.1 mutual knowledge互知/互知性（2.1.1）mutual knowledge hypothesis互知假设（2.1.1）mutual manifestness互明（1.5.4）natural meaning自然意义（2.1.2）negative face负面面子（2.2.2）negative politeness strategies负面礼貌策略（2.2.2）negotiability商讨性（1.2.2）negotiability of meaning意义磋商（4.6）non-anaphoric use非照应用法（6.1.1）non-calendric time units非历法时间单位（6.1.3）non-conventionality（含意的）非规约性（4.2.2）non-deictic use非指示用法（6.1.1）non-demonstrative inferene非实证性推理（2.1.3）non-detachability（含意的）不可分离性（4.2.2）non-natural meaning非自然意义（2.1.2）non-verbal communication非语言交际（8.1）optimal relevance最佳关联（2.1.3）ordinary language philosophy（3.3）orgazational competence（语言的）组织能力（7.1）ostension明示（2.1.3）ostensive-inferential model明示-推理模式（2.1.3）over-informativeness过剩信息（9.1）particularized implicature特殊会话含意（4.4.1）performative hypothesis施为假设（3.2.1）performative(s)施为句（3.2.1）performation verb施为动词（3.2.1）perlocution以言成事（3.2.2）perlocutionary acts成事性言语行为（3.2.2）person deixis人称指示（6.1.1）physical context物质语境（5.1.1）physical world物质世界（5.1.1）place deixis地点指示（6.1.1）poetic effects诗学效果（4.5.3）politeness principle礼貌原则（1.2.5）politeness strategies礼貌策略（1.2.4）positive face正面面子（2.2.2）positive politeness strategies正面礼貌策略（2.2.2）power relations权势关系（3.1）pragmalinguistic competence语用语言能力（7.1）pragmalinguisics语用语言学（1.5）pragmatic acquisition语用习得（7）pragmatic ambivalence语用含糊（5.4）pragmatic competence语用能力（7.1）pragmatic connectivs语用联系语（6.4）pragmatic development语用发展（7.3）pragmatic failure语用失误（1.5.2）pragmatic function words语用功能词语（6.4）pragmatic inferenceh语用推理（1.4）pragmatic markers语用标记语（6.4）pragmatic operators语用操作语（6.4）pragmatic strategies语用策略（1.2.4）pragmatic transfer语用迁移（1.5.2）pragmatic vaguenss语用含糊（5.4）pragmatics语用学（1.1）pre-emptive usage（指示语）先用现象preparatory condition（实施言语行为的）预备条件（3.2.3）presupposition前提（1.2.2）presupposition-triggers前提触发语（6.2.1）primary illocution act首要的以言行事行为（3.2.3）principle of relevance关联原则（2.1.3）procedural meaning程序意义（6.4.2）*projection投射/影射（6.2.5）propositional content命题内容（2.1.1）propositional content condition（实施言语行为的）命题内容条件（3.2.3）propositional form命题形式（5.4）prospective discourse markers后指性话语标记语（6.4.1)psychophysiological mechanisms心理-生理机制（7.1）*reference assignment确定指称对象（5.4）relative appropriateness相对合适性（3.2.4）relevance theory关联理论（1.2.4）representatives表述类（以言行事）（3.2.3）retrospective discourse markers前指性话语标记语（6.4.1)ritual performatives仪式性施为句（3.2.1)scalar particles等级小品词（6.4.1）*secondary illocutionary act次要的以言行事行为（3.2.3）semantic enrichment语义充实（5.4）semantic meaning语义意义（4.2）semantic representation语义表征（2.1.1.2）sentence meaning句子意义（2.1.1.2）sincerity condition（实施言语行为的）真诚条件（3.2.3）size of imposition强加程度（2.2.1）social action社会行为（3.2.4）social context社交语境（5.1.1）social deixis社交指示（6.1.1）social distance社会距离（2.2.2）social power社会权力（2.2.2）social world社交世界（5.1.1）societal pragmatics社会语用学（1.2.2）socio-cultural pragmatics社会文化语用学/研究（1.5.2）sociolinguistic competenceshe社交语言能力（7.1）sociopragmatics社交语用学（1.5.3）solidarity平等关系（5.1.1）space deixis空间指示（6.1.4）speaker meaning说话人意义（1.2.2）speech act言语行为（1.2.2）speech act pragmatics言语行为语用学/研究（1.5.2）speech event言语事件（5.1.1）strategic competence策略能力（7.1）subordinate culture亚文化（8.1）symbolic use象征用法（6.1.1）syntactic-pragmatic句法语用（6.4.1)*sympathy maxim同情准则（2.2.1）tact maxim得体准则（2.2.1）talk-in-interaction言谈应对（3.3）textual competence篇章能力（7.1）time deixis时间指示（6.1.1）topic change markers话题变化标记语（6.4.1)truth value真值（3.2.1）utterance话语（1.2.4）variability变异性（1.2.2）verbal context语言语境（5.1.1）verbs of judging评价动词（1.2.4）verdictives裁决类（以言行事）（3.2.1）weak implicature弱暗含（4.5.3）we-exclusiv-of-addressee不包括听话人（的所指）（6.1.2）we-inclusiv-of-addressee包括听话人（的所指）（6.1.2）1. 谦虚准则Thanks for your compliment, but I know I still got a long way to go. 谢谢你的夸奖，不过我清楚我还有很长的路（还要继续努力）。
社会语言学教案
A Brief Introduction to SociolinguisticsLecturer: Jia junminSchool of Foreign LanguagesTianshui Normal University2004. 01Do not bring your ears onlyBring your mouth alsoInto the classroomPurposeThis course aims at providing English-major students with a sociocultural perspective to view language issues and help them understand the complicated interaction of language with culture and society.Basic Requirements1.Critical reading of the suggested reading materials is essential to theunderstanding of the topic under discussion;2.Attendance is required;3.Active participation is greatly encouraged. Students are required to participate ingroup discussions;4.Exercises and term paper should be handed in on time.Assessment1.Attendance: 10%.2.Participation: 15%3.Term-paper: 25%4.Final test: 50%Syllabus1 An overview of Sociolinguistics2 Language, dialects and varieties3 Style and registers4 Language contact—pidgins and Creoles5 Diglossia and code-switching6 Societal Multilingualism7 Ethnography of speaking and the structure of conversation8 Language and gender9 Language and culture10 Final test.Unit OneAn Overview of SociolinguisticsⅠResearch Background1.Formal LinguisticsToday, most linguists agree that the knowledge the speakers have of the language or languages they speak is knowledge of something quite abstract. It is knowledge of rules and principles and of the ways of saying and doing things with sounds, words, and sentences. It is knowing what is in the language and what is not; it is knowing the possibilities the language offers and what is impossible. This knowledge explains how it is we can understand sentences we have not heard before and reject others as being ungrammatical.Confronted with the task of trying to describe the grammar of a language like English, many linguists follow the approach which is associated with Noam Chomsky(Noam1928－American linguist ). Chomsky has argued that, in order to make meaningful discoveries about language, linguists must try to distinguish between what is important and what is unimportant about language and linguistic behavior. The important matters, sometimes referred to as language universals, concerns the learnability of all languages, the characteristics they share, and the rules and principles that speakers apparently follow in constructing and interpreting sentences; the less important matters have to do with how individual speakers use specific utterances in a variety of ways as they find themselves in this situation or that situation.Chomsky has distinguished between what he has called competence and performance. He claims that it is the linguists‟ task to characterize what speakers know about their language, i.e., their competence, not what they do with their language, i.e., their performance. According to him, performance is influenced by memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and error (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in actual performance.Chomsky aims to describe the idealized competence of an idealized monolingual in an idealized monovariety speech community. In his view, linguistic study is an autonomous, self-sufficient system. For him, the existence of variation in languages imply confuses, diverting the linguists‟attention from the wonderful abstract system that separates human language from other communication systems.2. The problem of VariationThe language we use in everyday living is remarkably varied. Speakers make constant use of the many different possibilities offered to them. No one speaks thesame way all the time, and single-style speakers will not be found.Factors to lead to variation of language: regionagesocial classeducationgenderoccasion, ethnicityExample: be sackedbe fired辞退，解雇，解聘，丢饭碗，下课，下岗，失业炒鱿鱼，卷铺盖A recognition of variation implies that we must recognize that a language is notjust some kind of abstract object of study. It is also something that people use. It is not surprising therefore that some linguists‟doubt the possible value of a linguistics that deliberately separates itself from any concern with the use, and the uses, of language. Many sociolinguists have argued that an asocial linguistics is scarcely worthwhile and that meaningful insights into language can be gained only if such matters as use and variation are included as part of the data which must be explained in an adequate linguistic theory; an adequate theory of language must have something to say about the uses of language.As we will see, there is considerable variation in the speech of any one individual, but there are also definite bounds/limits to that variation: no individual is free to do so far as language is concerned. The variation you are permitted to use has limits and these limits can be described with considerable accuracy. That is, there are group norms so far as variation is concerned.ⅡResearch Scope1.Definition (See book, Page 3)2.Sociolinguists are interested in the relations between language and society.Four possible relations between language and society.(See book, Page 79)Assignments:Thought Questions:1.What evidence does the writer mention for the effects of social structure on language?2.What evidence could you give for and against the “no relationship ”position?3.Sociolinguistics and the Sociology of Language (See book, PP5-7)(micro- Sociolinguistics) (macro- Sociolinguistics)The former is concerned with investigating the relationships between language and society with the goal being a better understanding of the structure of language and ofhow languages function in communication: the study of language in relation to society: the latter is concerned with trying to discover how social structure can be better understood through the study of language, e.g., how certain linguistic features serve to characterize particular social arrangements: the study of society in relation to language.ⅢResearch MethodologyThe approach to sociolinguistics is that it should encompass everything from considering …who speaks (or writes) what language (or what language variety) to whom and when and to what end‟.1.clandestine / / recording2.sociolinguistic interview (See book, PP10-12)3.questionnaireWhatever sociolinguistics is, any conclusions we come to must be solidly based on evidence. As an empirical science, it must be founded on an adequate database. The data is drawn from a wide variety of sources. These include censuses, documents, surveys, and interview. Some data require the investigator to observe “naturally occurring”linguistic events, e.g., conversations; others require the use of various elicitation to gain access to the data we require.ⅣSociolinguistics and Related disciplinesparent disciplines: linguistics and sociologyrelated disciplines: anthropology, psychology, gender studies, public policy management, political science and history.Unit TwoLanguage, Dialects, and VarietiesEach language exists in a number of varieties and is in one sense the sum of those varieties.ⅠLanguage and Dialects1.Folk conceptualization of dialectsMost speakers can give a name to whatever it is they speak. But how do we decide what is language and what is a dialect of a language? What criteria can you possibly use to determine that, whereas variety x is a language, variety y is only a dialect of a language? What are the essential differences between a language and a dialect?For ordinary people, a dialect is almost certainly no more than a local non-prestigious (therefore powerless) variety of a real language. It is often equivalent to nonstandard or even substandard, connoting a various degree of inferiority.Thought question: Do you speak the dialect of your hometown, if you have one, in the classroom? Why or why not?Language can be used to refer either to a single linguistic norm or to a group of related norms, and dialect to refer to one of the norms. As a result, the standard is often not called a dialect at all, but is regarded as the language itself.2.Regional Dialect and Social Dialect3.Case studies①Hindi-Urdu situation(北印度语，乌尔都语)Hindi and Urdu are the same language, but one in which certain differences are becoming more and more magnified(popular) for political and religious reasons. Hindi is written left to right in the Devanagari / / (梵文字母)script, whereas Urdu is written right to left in the Arabic-Persian script.Whereas Hindi draws on Sanskrit（梵文）for its borrowings, Urdu draws on Arabic and Persian sources. Large religious differences make much of small linguistic differences.②Yugoslavia situationYugoslavia, a country now brutally dismembered with the instruments of ethnicity, language and religion. Within the old Yugoslavia, Serbs（塞尔维亚人／语）and Croats （克罗地亚人／语）failed to agree on most things and after the death of President Tito the country, slowly at first and then even more rapidly later, fell into a fatal divisiveness（分裂）. Slovenians斯洛文尼亚人／语）and Macedonians （马其顿）excised （separate）themselves most easily, but the Serbs and the Croats were not so lucky. Linguistically, Serbo-Croatian is a single south Slav(斯拉夫) language but one used by two groups of people, the Serbs and Croats, with somewhat different backgrounds.There are Serbian and Croatian varieties of Serbo-Croatian. The actual differences between the two varieties mainly involve different preferences in vocabulary rather than differences in pronunciation or grammar. That is, Serbs and Croats often use different words for the same concepts. The varieties are written in different scripts (Roman for Croatian and Cyrillic（古代斯拉夫语字母）for Serbian), which also reflect the different religious loyalties of Croats and Serbs (the western and eastern rites of Catholicism). As conflict grew, differences became more and more important and the country and the language split apart.③Scandinavia（斯堪的纳维亚半岛：瑞典、挪威、丹麦、冰岛的泛称）situationDanish, Norwegian (actually two varieties), and Swedish are recognized as different languages, yet if you speak any one of them you will experiencelittle difficulty in communication. Danish and Norwegian share much vocabulary but differ considerably in pronunciation. In contract, there are considerable vocabulary differences between Swedish and Norwegian but they are similar in pronunciation. Both Danes and Swedes claim good understanding of Norwegian. However, Danes claim to comprehend Norwegians better than Norwegians claim to comprehend Danes. The poorest mutual comprehension is between Danes and Swedes. Danes understand Swedes better than the Swedes understand Danes. The best understanding is between Norwegians and Swedes. These differences in mutual intelligibility reflect power relationships. Denmark long dominated Norway, and Sweden is today the most influential country in the region and Denmark the least powerful.④Chinese situationA shared writing system and a strong tradition of political, social, and culturalunity form essential parts of their definition of language.⑤European ContinentIt is still possible to travel long distances and, by making only small changes in speech from location to location, continue to communicate with the inhabitants. (You might have to travel somewhat slowly, however, because of the necessary learning that would be involved.) It has been said that at one time a person could travel from the south of Italy to the north of France in this manner. It is quite clear that such a person began the journey speaking one language and ended in speaking something entirely different. Such a situation is often referred to as a dialect continuum.The hardening of political boundaries in the modern world led to the hardening of language boundaries. Various pressures --- political, social, cultural, and educational serve to harden current state boundaries.⑥Classical ArabicThe literary and colloquial forms of Arabic used in Iraq, Morocco and Egypt are grammatically quite separate, yet only one language is recognized in each case.ⅡCriteria in the language-dialect distinction1. Standardization refers to the process by which a language has been codified in some way. That process usually involves the development of such things as grammars, spelling books, and dictionaries, and possibly a literature. E.g., Wycliffe‟s and Luther‟s translations of the Bible into English and German, Caxton‟s(1422-1491 英国第一位印刷家)establishment of printing in England, and Dr Johnson‟s dictionary of English published in 1755.(What events can be related to the standardization process of Chinese?)①Problems of standardizationSelection of the norm may prove difficult because choosing one variety as a norm means favoring those who speak that variety. It also diminishes (decrease) all the other varieties and possible competing norms. The chosen norm inevitably becomes associated with power and the rejected with lack of power. Not surprisingly, it usually happens that a variety associated with an elite / / is chosen.②Functions of standardization processa.It unifies individuals and groups within a larger community while at the sametime separating the community that results from other communities.Therefore, it can be employed to reflect and symbolize some kind of identity: regional, social, ethnic, or religious.b. A standardized variety can also be used to give prestige to speakers. It cantherefore serve as a kind of goal for those who have somewhat different norms.③standardization is also an ongoing matter.2. Vitality refers to the existence of a living community of speakers. This criterion can be used to distinguish languages that are …alive‟from those that are …dead‟. Once a language dies it is gone for all time. A language can remain a considerable force even after it is dead, that is, even after it is no longer spoken as anyone‟s first language. Classical Greek and Latin still have considerable prestige in the western world. Sanskrit （梵语）is important to speakers of Hindi（北印度语）. Classical Arabic provides a unifying force in the Islamic world; and Classical Chinese has considerably influenced not only modern Chinese but also Japanese and Korean.3. Historicity / / （史实性）refers to the fact that a particular group of people finds a sense of identity through using a particular language: it belongs to them. Social, political, religious, or ethnic ties may also be important for the group, but the bond provided by a common language may prove to be the strongest tie of all.4.Autonomy is really one of feeling. A language must be felt by its speakers to bedifferent from other languages. However, this is a very subjective criterion. Some speakers of Black English maintain that their language is not a variety of English but is a separate language in its own right. In contrast, speakers of Cantonese and Mandarin deny that they speak different languages.5. Reduction refers to the fact that a particular variety may be regarded as a sub-variety /（次变体，亚变体）rather than as an independent entity. Speakers of Cockney （伦敦方言）will almost certainly say that they speak a variety of English, admit that they are not representative speakers of English.6. Mixture refers to feelings speakers have about the …purity ‟ of the variety they speak. This criterion appears to be more important to speakers of some languages than of others, more important to speakers of French and German than to speakers of English.7. De facto（事实）norms refer to the feeling that many speakers have that there are both …good‟ speakers and …poor‟ speakers and the good speakers represent the norms of proper usage. Standards must not only be established, but they must also be observed. Concern with the norms of linguistic behavior, …linguistic purism‟, may become very important among specific segments of society. For example, so far as English is concerned, there is a very profitable industry devoted to telling people how they should behave linguistically, what is …correct‟ to say, what to avoid saying, and so on.Unit ThreeStyles and RegistersStyle（语体）refers to the formality of speech. We may try to relate the level of formality chosen to a variety of factors: the kind of occasion (setting); the various social, age, and other differences between the participants; the particular task; the emotional involvement. It is possible to show that native speakers of all languages control a range of stylistic varieties.It is also quite possible to predict the stylistic features that a native speaker will tend to employ on certain occasions.Registers（语域）are sets of language items associated with discrete occupational or social groups. For example, surgeons, airline pilots, bank managers, sales clerks, jazz fans, netizens. People participating in recurrent（循环的）communication situations tend to develop similar vocabularies, similar features of intonation, and characteristic bits of syntax and phonology that they use in these situations, special terms for recurrent objects and events.Functions: 1. facilitate speedy communication2. establish feelings of rapport.（亲善，和谐）Differences between dialect and register:Dialect (…dialectal variety‟) Register (…diatypic variety‟)---variety according to the user ---variety according to the useA dialect is A register iswhat you speak (habitually) what you are speaking (at one time) determined by who you are determined by what you are doing (socio-region of origin and /or adoption) (nature of social activity being engaged in) and andexpressing diversity of social structure expressing diversity of social process (patterns of social hierarchy) (social division of labor)so in principle dialects are: so in principle registers are:different ways of saying the same ways of saying different things and tend to thing and tend to differ in: differ in:phonetics, phonology, lexicogrammar semantics(and hence in lexicogrammar, but not in semantics and sometimes phonology, as realizationof this)Typical instances: Typical instancesSubcultural varieties occupational varieties(standard/nonstandard) (technical, semi-technical)Hudson (1996: 46) says: “Your dialect shows who you are while your registers shows what you are doing.”e.g. sentence style registerWe obtained some sodium chloride. formal technical （氯化纳）We got some sodium chloride. informal technicalWe got some salt. informal non-technicalUnit FourLanguage Contact—Pidgins and CreolesⅠ. Lingua franca 混合语，共用语People who speak different languages who are forced into contact with each other must find some way of communicating, a lingua franca. In 1953, UNESCO defined a lingua franca as …a language which is used habitually by people whose mother tongues are different in order to facilitate communication between them.‟A variety of other terms can be found: a trade language, a contact language, an international language, a global language, and an auxiliary language.Ⅱ. Pidgins and Creoles1. Origins of pidgins and creolesA pidgin is a language with no native speakers: it is no one‟s first language but is a contact language. That is, it is the product of a multilingual situation in which those who wish to communicate must find a simple language system that will enable them to do so. Very often too that situation is one in which there is an imbalance of power among the languages as the speakers of one language dominate the speakers of the other languages economically and socially. A pidgin is therefore sometimes regarded as a …reduced‟ variety of a …normal ‟ language, with simplification of the grammar and vocabulary of that language, considerable phonological variation, and an admixture of local vocabulary to meet the special needs of the contact group.Holm defines a pidgin as:A reduced language that results from extended contact between groups of people with no language in common; it evolves(develops) when they need some means of verbal communication, perhaps for trade, but no group learns the native language of any other group for social reasons that may include lack of trust or of close contact. Creole is often defined as a pidgin that has become the first language of a new generation of speakers.Pidginization generally involves some kind of simplification.2. Features of pidgin and creolesEach pidgin or Creole is a well organized linguistic system.1)The sounds of a pidgin are likely to be fewer and less complicatedTok Pisin( New Guinea Pidgin ) makes use of only five basic vowels and also has fewer consonants than English. The necessary vowel and consonant distinctions are not present.English: ship sheepTop Pisin: sip sipsip2) In pidgins and Creoles there is likely to be a complete lack of inflection in nouns, pronouns, verbs, and adjectives. Nouns are not marked for number and gender, and verbs lack tense markers. Pronouns will not be distinguished for case. So there will beno I-me, he-him alternation.Me ---- I me we ---- mipela ( I and others) / yumi( I and you) 3) Syntax is likely to be simplified in clausal structure.The development of embedded clauses, e.g. of relative clauses, is one characteristic of the process of embedded clauses.4) V ocabulary has a great similarities to that of the standard language.talk --- talk talktalk (chatter) looklook (stare)crycry --- cry continually san --- sun sansan --- sand3 Pidgin to Creole and BeyondNot every pidgin eventually becomes a Creole, i.e., undergoes the process of creolization. In fact, very few do.Creolization occurs only when a pidgin for some reason becomes the variety of language that children must use in situations in which use of a “full”language is effectively denied them.Tok Pisin as a Creole1)people speak Creoles faster than pidgins and they do not speak them word byword. Consequently, process of assimilation and reduction can be seen at work in Tok Pisin:mamblomi (assimilation) bilong-blo (reduction)2)Expansion of vocabulary resources: new shorter words are formed.3)Creole continuumAn English-based Creole can develop a number of varieties when it is in contact with Standard English. As the range of these varieties increases, Standard English may more and more influence them in a process of decreolization so that some varieties will come to resemble Standard English.Unit FiveDiglossia and Code-SwitchingWe may refer to a language or a variety of a language as a code. The term is useful because it is neutral. Terms like dialect, style, standard language are inclined to arouse emotions. In contrast, the term code can be used to refer to any kind of system that two or more people employ for communication.Ⅰ.Diglossia（双语体现象）1.Definition:A diglossic situation exists in a society when it has two distinct codes which show clear functional separation; that is, one code is employed in one set of circumstances and the other in an entirely different set.2.Features①A key defining characteristic of diglossia is that the two varieties are kept quite apart in their functions. One is used in one set of circumstances and the other in an entirely different set. For example, the H varieties may be used for delivering sermons and formal lectures, especially in a parliament or legislative body, for giving political speeches, for broadcasting the news on radio and television, and for writing poetry, fine literature, and editorials in newspapers. In contrast, the L varieties may be used in giving instructions to workers in low-prestige occupations or to household servants, in conversations with familiars, in …soap operas‟ and popular programs on the radio. You don‟t use an H variety in circumstances calling for an L variety, e.g., for addressing a servant; nor do you usually use an H variety when an L is called for, e.g., for writing a …serious ‟ work of literature.②The H variety is the prestige variety; the L variety lacks prestige. In fact, there may be so little prestige attached to the L variety that people may even deny that they know it although they may be observed to use it for more frequently than the H variety.③All children learn the L variety. Some may concurrently learn the H variety, butmany don not learn it at all. The H variety is likely to be learned in some kind of formal setting, e.g., in classrooms. To that extent, the H variety is …taught‟, where the L variety is …learned‟.④The L variety often shows a tendency to borrow learned words from the H variety,particularly when speakers try to use the L variety in more formal way. The result is a certain admixture of H vocabulary into the L.ⅡPower and SolidarityPower requires some kind of asymmetrical relationship between entities: one has more of something that is important, e.g. status, money, influence, etc., than the other or others.Solidarity is a feeling of equality that people have with one another. They have a common interest around which they will bond. A feeling of solidarity can lead people to preserve a local dialect or an endangered language to resist power, or to insist on independence.ⅢBilingualism (see PP44-48)ⅣCode-Switching1.DefinitionWhen two or more languages exist in a community, speakers frequently switch from one language to another. This phenomenon is known as code-switch. As Gal (Wardhaugh, 2000:100) says, …code-switching is a conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries; to create, evoke or change interpersonal relations with their rights and obligations‟.2.Types of Code-Switching①Situational code-switching occurs when the languages used change according to the situations in which the conversants find themselves: they speak one language in one situation and another in a different one. No topic changes is involved. Example: for a …typical‟ child growing up in Singapore, he will tend to speak Hokkien with parents and informal Singapore English with siblings. Conversation with friends will be in Hokkien or informal Singapore English. The language of education will be the formal variety of Singapore English and Mandarin. Any religious practices will be conducted in the formal variety of Singapore English if the family is Christian, but in Hokkien if Buddhist or Taoist. The language of government employment will be formal Singapore English but some Mandarin will be used from time to time; however, shopping will be carried on in Hokkien, informal Singapore English, and the …bazaar‟variety of Malay used throughout the region.②Metaphorical code-switching occurs when a change of topic requires a change in the language used. Some topics may be discussed in either code, but the choice of code adds a distinct flavor to what is said about the topic. The choice encodes certain social values.Example by Jan-Petter Blom and John Gumperz out of their research in a town in northern Norway.Bokmal --- standard (H) Ranamal --- (H)In the course of a morning spent at the community administration office, we noticed that clerks used both standard and dialect phrases, depending on whether they were talking about official affairs or not. Greeting and inquiries about family affairs tend to be exchanged in the dialect, while the business part of the transaction is carried on in the standard.③Conversational Code-Switching (Code-Mixing)This occurs when conversants use both languages together to the extent that they change from one language to the other in the course of a single utterance. Example:Das handlet von einem secondhand dealer and his son.“That is about a …”。
托福听力对话conversation考察话题细化分类
托福听力对话conversation考察话题细化分类托福听力对话类多为同学在学校生活中的各类场景，虽然看似发生场景并不多，但实际上对话中争论的细节内容还是有很大差异的。
下面就给大家带来托福听力对话conversation考察话题细化分类介绍，盼望能够关心到大家，一起来学习吧。
托福听力对话conversation考察话题细化分类介绍托福听力对话类话题细化分类一览托福听力对话conversation的话题包含争论论文/讨论项目、图书馆相关问题、工作选课相关问题等。
依据去年考试频次主要考察的是如下话题分类作业考试类，比如托福官方真题12-C1资讯类，比如托福官方真题5-C1校内服务类，比如托福官方真题33-C1图书馆相关类，比如托福官方真题27-C1、托福官方真题7-C2课堂内容争论类，比如托福官方真题31-C1工作就业类，比如托福官方真题6-C1、托福官方真题11-C2细化其内容，主要讲的包含：1、询问作业a) 澄清作业详细要求b) 作业详细要求,步骤,先后挨次等问题c) 同学对完成作业难易度的推断2、询问课程a) 同学询问选课方案,选多少,选哪些,及如何满意某些课的特别要求b) 教授对同学选课方案的担忧c) 教授对同学选课的建议d) 该课程最终得分状况3、询问论文a) 对话目的-确定论题, 选定题目有困难b) 争论论文得分及被教授指出优缺点c) 论文进度及教授的详细要求d) 恳求延期4、询问考试a) 关于考试建议,复习建议b)分数争论,过低如何补救c) 大小测验占总成果比重(出勤率及课堂参加度) d) 成果单消失的问题(出错/更改)5、图书馆场景a) 还书是否准时overdue, duedate b) 是否罚款fine, check out(付帐后离开) c) 借书时困难的解决put an hold on the book(预约借书) d) 还书时发生误会等托福听力讲座类话题学科词汇分类整理：绘画雕塑/建筑学词汇一览托福听力讲座类绘画雕塑话题词汇整理brush 画笔bust半身雕塑像canvas油画布caricature漫画charcoal drawing木炭画copy临本drawing board画板engraving版画fake假的figurine小雕像fine arts美术fresco 壁画gallery美术馆genuine真的landscape painting风景画lithograph石版画mix colors 调色mural壁画mural painting壁画Oil painting油画original原作pastel 彩粉画perspective 透视画法portrait肖像画replica复制品reproduction复制品sculptor雕塑家sculpture雕塑sketch速写;素描statue塑像still life静物画sculptor 雕塑家water color水彩画托福听力讲座类建筑学话题词汇一览aquarium水族馆architecture建筑学architect建筑学家archives档案馆beam光线building material建筑材料building technique建筑技术cabin棚屋castle城堡cathedral大教堂construction建筑物construct建设design设计design element设计元素elevator电梯gas station 加油站glass box 明箱法log structure 木结构metal-frame 金属结构mosque清真寺new material 新材料office building写字楼planetarium天文馆prototype原型pyramid金字塔repair person修理工skyscraper摩天楼Sphinx狮身人面像style 风格ten stories high 十层高the Statue of Liberty自由女神像the Triumphal Arch凯旋门wall墙壁wing侧楼。
人教版八年级上册英语单元教案(含教材分析)--Unit 5
Unit 5Do you want to watch a game show?本单元教学内容以Do you want to watch a game show？为中心话题，围绕着“谈论喜好和制定计划”展开，学习和运用句式Do you want to watch...？和What questions and answers以及一些描述性形容词，表达对某些电视节目的喜好(评价)。
Section A是基本语言内容的收集和学习，要求学生掌握一些常见电视节目类型的英文名称，如talk show，sitcom，news，soap opera，game show，sports show，talent show等，结合do引导的一般疑问句和what引导的特殊疑问句，进行简单会话，表达个人对某种电视节目的喜好。
Section B在Section A的基础上，进一步拓展学生基础知识和语言综合运用能力。
Section B 1a在Section A 1a呈现的6种TV shows的基础上增加了comedy，action movie，scary movie等内容。
Section B的教学应侧重于引导学生拾记并运用一些描述性形容词，如wonderful，relaxing，meaningless，enjoyable，exciting，boring等，自由谈论电视节目并表达个人的喜好。
同时，Section B也安排了一些读、写的任务活动，教师在教学过程中可以整合本单元教学内容，引导学生尝试着写简单的影评。
本单元是实用且学生感兴趣的话题，本单元的学习对于提升学生具体语境下的语言综合运用能力大有助益，同时也可以丰富学生生活，陶冶情操，对学生德育教育也是益处良多。
第一课时Section A(1a－2d)Teaching Goals【教学目标】Key words：news，educational，plan，hope，discussion，stand，happen，may，expect Key phrases：talk show，soap opera，game show，sports show，talent show，find outKey sentences：1.What do you think of talk shows？I don't mind them.2．Do you plan to watch the news tonight?Teaching Key Points【教学重点】The vocabulary：news，educational，plan，hope，discussion，stand，happen，may，expect，talk/game/sports/talent show，soap opera，find outTarget language：What do you think of talk shows？I don't mind them.Do you plan to watch the news tonight？Yes. I like watching the news. I watch it every night.Because I hope to find out what's going on around the world.Teaching Difficult Points【教学难点】Use the target language to express likes and dislikes.Teaching Aids【教学工具】An English textbook，a tape recorder，CAI or courseware.Teaching Steps【教学过程】★Step 1Leading inPrepare some things and make sentences.Say，Hello，boys and girls. Nice to see you here again. Today we're going to learn Unit 5.We are going to give opinions. This is a watch. What do you think of it?Ask some students to repeat the two sentences several times.★Step 2Pre－taskPage 33，1a.1．Match work. Ask the students to read the words and the pictures，and then match the TV shows with the pictures (a－g)．2．Encourage or help the students to say sth. about the pictures and do the match work.3．Line next to the words “soap opera”．(as shown below)4．Go on with the others in the same way. Then check the answers with the students.Page 33，1c.Pair-work. Ask students to practice：What do you think of...?Show the following：What do you think of sitcoms?I love/like them./I don't mind them./I can't stand them./I don't like them.★Step 3While－taskPage 33，1b.Listening.1．Ask students to read the verbs in Activity 1b and write the number from 1a.2．Play the recording for the first time. Let students just listen. Then point out the blank lines where students will write numbers from 1a.3．Play the recording a second time.4．Ask the students to listen to and read after the recording.Page 34，2a & 2b.Listening.1．Ask students to read the phrases in Activity 2a.Then ask them to listen to the conversation and write the answers on the line.2．Check the answers.3．Ask students to listen a second time. Then check the answers and let students read the sentences.★Step 4Post－taskPage 34，2c.1．Focus on the conversation in 2c.Read the instructions to the class.2．Pair-work：Ask students to read the four sentences in 2c.Ask students to practice the conversation using the TV show they know. Say，According to this conversation and using the TV shows you know，make up a conversation. I'll give you five minutes.3．Ask some pairs to practice.Page 34，2d.1．Make students scan the conversation in 2d.2．Teach and then make students role－play the conversation in pairs. In this part，student A will be Grace. Student B will be Sarah. As they talk，move around to monitor their work. Offer language or pronunciation support as needed.3．Have a group of students present their conversation to the class.★Step 5Homework1．Practice reading the conversation on Page 34.2．Do the exercises on Page 30 in students' book.Board Design板书设计Unit 5Do you want to watch a game show?The first period Section A(1a－2d)1．Key vocabulary：news，educational，plan，hope，discussion，stand，happen，may，expect，talk show，soap opera，game/sports/talent show，find out 2．Target language：A：What do you want to watch?B：What do you think of talk shows?A：They're OK.I don't mind them.B：Then let's watch a talk show.第二课时Section A(GF－3c)Teaching Goals【教学目标】Key words & phrases：joke，comedy，watch a movie/sitcom/sports show/game showKey sentences：1.Do you want to watch the news？Yes，I do./No，I don't.2．What do you think of talk shows？I don't mind them./I can't stand them！/I love watching them.3．What do you plan to watch tonight？I plan to watch Days of Our Past.Teaching Key Points【教学重点】Target language：Do you want to watch the news？Yes，I do./No，I don't. What do you think of talk shows？I don't mind them./I can't stand them！/I love watching them.Teaching Difficult Points【教学难点】Target language above.Teaching Aids【教学工具】An English textbook，CAI or courseware.Teaching Steps【教学过程】★Step 1Leading in1．Greetings.2．Check the homework by asking some students to read the sentences.★Step 2Pre－taskPage 35，Grammar Focus.Ask students to read the sentences in the grammar box and sum up the sentence structure.Say，Now read aloud the sentences in the grammar box. Then write down the sentence structure in your exercise books.★Step 3While－taskPage 35，3a & 3b.1．Ask the students to complete the blanks in Activity 3a.Say，I would like two students to finish 3a.Fill in the blanks.2．Choose a group to present the conversation.3．Ask students to look through 3b and then finish 3b.4．Choose 2 or 3 students to give their answers. The teacher asks the four questions and the students say their answers separately.★Step 4Post－taskPage 35，3c.1．Ask students to read the information in the left column. Then ask students to write the students' names. Say，Do you want to watch a movie？Fill in your opinions and find who agrees with you.2．Give the students a few minutes to prepare.3．Encourage the students to express their opinions.★Step 5Homework1．Revise the Grammar Focus.2．Do the exercises on Page 31 in students' book.Board Design板书设计Unit 5Do you want to watch a game show?The second period Section A(GF－3c)Target language：①A：Do you want to watch the news?B：Yes，I do./No，I don't.②A：What do you plan to watch tonight?B：I plan to watch Days of Our Past.③A：What do you think of talk shows?B：I don't mind them./I can't stand them！/I love watching them！第三课时Section B(1a－1d)Teaching Goals【教学目标】Key words & phrases：meaningless，action，cartoon，action movie，scary movieKey sentences：John wants to watch talk shows because they're enjoyable. I like to watch action movies because they're exciting.Teaching Key Points【教学重点】The vocabulary：meaningless，action，cartoon，action movie，scary movieTarget language：John wants to watch talk shows because they're enjoyable. I like to watch action movies because they're exciting.Teaching Difficult Points【教学难点】1.Enable the students to give opinions and talk about likes and dislikes on certain programmes.2．Help the students learn how to express opinions and tell the reasons using some description words such as educational，enjoyable，boring and so forth.Teaching Aids【教学工具】An English textbook，a tape recorder，CAI or courseware.Teaching Steps【教学过程】★Step 1Leading in1．Check the homework by asking some students to read the sentences in grammar box.2．Then show some TV shows and ask the students to give their opinions using the structure “What do you think of...？”★Step 2Pre－taskPage 36，1a.1．Show some new real things such as sunglasses，scarf，wallet，belt，watch and key ring to the students.Say，I have some fashionable things. I bought them yesterday. What do you think of my...?2．Help them to answer：I don't like it./I love it./I don't mind it./I can't stand it.3．Point to some things and ask a student：“What do you think of my new wallet？Then ask another student to point at the first one “What does he think of the wallet？”4．Ask the students to read the pictures. Ask the students to do the match work.5．Ask 1 or 2 students to give answers.★Step 3While－taskPage 36，1b & 1c.1．Ask the students to listen to the conversation.Say，Now let's listen to the tape. We are going to hear a conversation. And you have to write down the words you hear.2．Play the recorder. Then ask the students to write down the words to fill in the chart.3．Further activity：Ask the students to do some pair work in the following way if they can understand the listening material well.4．Then ask students to act out the conversation without the help of the recording.★Step 4Post－taskPage 36，1d.1．Point out the example in 1d.Ask a student to read it.2．Then encourage the students to ask and answer questions about what their parents think of the things in 1a.Say，I think you may like sports show. But I want to know what your parents think of it，please make up a conversation using the things in 1a.★Step 5Homework1．Ask students to remember the new words.2．Practice the structure：What does he/she think of your...?3．Do the exercises on Page 32 in students' book.Board Design板书设计Unit 5Do you want to watch a game show?The third period Section B(1a－1d)1．Key vocabulary：meaningless，cartoon，action movie，scary movie2．Sentences：John wants to watch talk shows because they're enjoyable. I like to watch action movies because they're exciting.第四课时Section B(2a－2e)Teaching Goals【教学目标】Key words & phrases：culture，famous，appear，become，rich，successful，might，main，reason，film，unlucky，lose，come out，be ready to，try one's bestKey sentences：1.When people say “culture”，we think of art and history.2．One of the main reasons is that Mickey was like a common man，but he always tried to face any danger.3．People today expect to see more than just a little mouse fighting bad guys，but many still know who he is.Teaching Key Points【教学重点】The vocabulary：culture，famous，appear，become，rich，successful，might，main，reason，lose，come out，be ready to，such as，think of，try one's bestTarget language：，but he always tried to face any danger. However，he was always ready to try his best. Today's cartoons are usually not so simple as little Mickey Mouse，but everyone still knows and loves him.Teaching Difficult Points【教学难点】1. Enable the students to read and write about their opinions and their likes and dislikes.2．Help the students learn how to read and write about their opinions and their likes and dislikes.Teaching Aids【教学工具】An English textbook，CAI or courseware.Teaching Steps【教学过程】★Step 1Leading inT：Do you like to watch cartoons?S：Yes，I do./No，I don't.T：What's your favorite cartoon?S：...T：Why do you like it?S：Because...★Step 2Pre－taskPage 37，2a & 2b.1．Project some cartoon animals，such as Mickey Mouse，Donald Duck，Tom and Jerry，Monkey King and so on. Ask Ss to talk about them.2．Project these new words on the screen or write them on the board and teach the new words. Ask students to repeat them. And make sure everyone knows the meanings.culture n．文化；famous adj.著名的；appear v．出现；become v．开始变得；rich adj.富有的；successful adj.获得成功的；might modal v．可能；main adj.主要的；reason n．原因；film(＝movie)n.电影；unlucky adj.不幸的；lose v．失去，丢失；ready adj.愿意的；be ready to愿意迅速做某事；come out出版，发行3．Make students scan the passage first. Ask students to put a mark in contents that are unfamiliar to them. Then the teacher leads students to learn the passagesentence by sentence. Pay attention to the key words and phrases.4．Students complete the task before 2c.5．Practice reading.★Step 3While－taskPage 38，2c & 2d.1．Make students read the passage again. Say，Before reading，scan the questions in the chart of 2c.2．Students complete 2c.3．Choose 1 or 2 students to give answers.4．Check the answers.5．Pair-work. Discuss the questions in 2d with the partner. First student A asks the questions and student B answers them. Then exchange.★Step 4Post－taskPage 38，2e.1．Ask 2 or 3 students to tell the meanings of the phrases in the box of 2e.Make sure everyone knows each phrase.2．Make students write their own sentences or questions using the phrases.3．Choose 1 or 2 students to read their answers out.★Step 5Homework1．Practice reading the passage on Page 37.2．Do the exercises on Page 33 in students' book.Board Design板书设计Unit 5Do you want to watch a game show?The fourth period Section B(2a－2e)1．Key vocabulary：culture，famous，appear，become，rich，successful，might，main，reason，film，unlucky，lose，come out，be ready to，try one's best 2．Sentences：①When people say “culture”，we think of art and history.②One of the main reasons is that Mickey was like a common man，but he always tried to face any danger.第五课时Section B(3a－Self Check)Teaching Goals【教学目标】Key words & phrases：army，dress up，take sb.'s place，do a good jobKey sentences：She dresses up like a boy and takes her father's place to fight in the army.Teaching Key Points【教学重点】The vocabulary：dress up，take sb.'s place，do a good jobTarget language：She dresses up like a boy and takes her father's place to fight in the army.Teaching Difficult Points【教学难点】Write a movie review.Teaching Aids【教学工具】An English textbook，CAI or courseware.Teaching Steps【教学过程】★Step 1Leading inSay，Yesterday we talked about one famous symbol in American culture—the cartoon Mickey Mouse. Today we'll focus on a movie review about Mulan that is a household name.★Step 2Pre－taskPage 39，3a.1．Scan the words in the box.2．Fill in the blanks in the movie review.3．Check the answers together.4．Practice reading.★Step 3While－taskPage 39，3b & 3c.1．Complete the task in 3b.Write notes for your own movie review.2．Writing practice. Write your movie review using the notes in 3b.3．Choose 1 or 2 students to present the compositions.4．Correct the mistakes.★Step 4Post－taskPage 40，Part 4.Work in pairs to talk about likes and dislikes about these TV shows or movies in the chart. Follow the example：—What do you think of soap operas?—I think they're boring!Write down the description words for each one.★Step 5ExercisePage 40，Self Check.1．Students complete the tasks individually.2．Check the answers.★Step 6Homework1．Review the Grammar Focus on Page 35.2．Do the exercises on Page 34 in students' book.Board Design板书设计Unit 5Do you want to watch a game show?The fifth period Section B(3a－Self Check)1．Key vocabulary：army，dress up，take sb.'s place，do a good job2．Sentences：She dresses up like a boy and takes her father's place to fight in the army.。
王蔷 英语教学法教程 第二版 Unit2
第2章CLT与TBLT一、Language use in real life vs. Traditional pedagogyThe ultimate goal of foreign language teaching is to enable students to use the foreign language in work or life when necessary. So we should teach that part of the language that will be used and we should teach language in the way it is used in the real world.The differences between language used in real life and language taught in the classroom:①In real life, language is used to perform certain communicative functions. e.g. to give directions, to exchange information, or to make a complaint, etc.; In a traditional language classroom, the teaching focus is often on forms rather than functions.②In real language use we use all skills, including receptive skills such as listening and reading, and productive skills such as speaking and writing. For various reasons, traditional pedagogy tends to focus on one or two language skills and ignore the others.③In reality language is always used in a certain context, but traditional pedagogy tends to isolate language from its context.二、CLT1. CLT refers to an approach to the teaching of foreign or second language through communicative activities.2. The goal of CLT is to develop students’ communicative competence, which includes both the knowledge about the language and the knowledge about how to use the language appropriately in communicative situations.3. Principles of CLT1) Communication principle: Activities that involve real communication promote learning.2) Task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning.3) Meaningfulness principle: language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process.4. Five components of communicative competenceHedge discusses five components of communicative competence. Namely, linguistic competence, pragmatic competence, discourse competence, strategic competence, and fluency.（1）Linguistic competence is concerned with knowledge of the language itself, its form and meaning. It involves spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary, word formation, grammatical structure, sentence structure and semantics.（2）Pragmatic competence refers to the appropriate use of the language in social context. That is to say, the choice of the vocabulary and structure depends on the setting, the relative status of the speakers, and their relationships.（3）Discourse competence refers to one’s ability to create coherent written text or conversation and the ability to understand them. In other words, it is one’s ability to express or to understand a topic logically and coherently by effectively employing or comprehending the cohesive markers used in the discourse, such as “first”, “it”.（4）Strategic competence is similar to communication strategies. It refers to strategies one employs when there is communication breakdown due to lack of resources.（5）Fluency means one’s ability to link units of speech together with facility and without strain or inappropriate slowness or undue hesitation.5. CLT and the teaching of language skillsThe translation of communicative competence in language teaching practice is to develop learners’ language skills, namely, listening, speaking, reading and writing.①Listening and speaking skills need to be redefined in terms of the real communicative use, that is, students should have the chance to listen to and produce what is meaningful, authentic, unpredictable, and creative ifpossible. Listening is viewed not only as the counterpart of speaking, but as an independent skill with its own objectives.②Reading is to extract meaning or information and the learning of grammar and vocabulary is to facilitate such a process. In CLT with different reading purposes, students use different skills, such as skimming, scanning, etc.③In writing, students should have the chance to write to express their own feelings or describe their own experiences, so making the practice of writing meaningful and authentic.In a word, CLT has not replaced the previous approaches or methodologies. It has expanded three areas: language content, learning process, and product.6.Main features of communicative activities如何设计交际活动(1)Functional communicative activities:Communicating patterns and picturesFollowing directionsIdentifying picturesDiscovering missing informationDiscovering missing featuresDiscovering differences(2) Social interaction activities:ImprovisationRole-playing through cues and informationRole-playing through situations and goals7. Six criteria for evaluating communicative classroom activities:（1）Communicative purposeThe activity must involve the students in performing a real communicative purpose rather than just practicing language for its own sake. There must be some kind of ‘information gap’ that students seek to bridge when they are communicating.（2）Communicative desireThe activity must create a desire to communicate in the students.（3）Content, not formWhen the students are doing the activity, they must be concentrating on what they are saying, not how they say it.（4）Variety of languageThe activity must involve the students in using a variety of language, not just one specific language form. （5）No teacher interventionThe activity must be designed to be done by the students working by themselves rather than with the teacher. （6）No materials controlThe activity should not be designed to control what language the students should use.三、TBLT1. TBLT is a method of instruction under CLT, which emphasizes taking various tasks as the center of the language teaching. It is widely promoted in English language teaching nowadays. It is a further development of CLT. It shares the same beliefs in the use of language in real life, but stresses the importance to combine form-focused teaching with communication-focused teaching.2. Task: A task is essentially goal-oriented; it requires the group, or pair, to achieve an objective that is usuallyexpressed by an observable result, such as brief notes or lists, a drawing, a spoken summary.3. Four components of a task:a purpose: making sure the students have a reason for undertaking the task;a context:the task can be real, simulated or imaginary, and involves sociolinguistic issues such as thelocation, the participants and their relationship, the time, and other important factors;a process: getting the students to use learning strategies such as problem solving, reasoning, inquiring,conceptualizing and communicating;a product: there will be some form of outcome, either visible or invisible.4. How to design a task:Teachers need to address four sets of questions when designing tasks:①What is the objective of the task?②What is the content of the task?③How is the task to be carried out?④In what situation is the task to be carried out?There are basically five steps:Step 1: Think about students’ needs, interests, and abilities.Step 2: Brainstorm possible tasks.Step 3: Evaluate the list.Step 4: Choose the language items.Step 5: Preparing materials.四、PPP1. PPP is a model of teaching consisting of the presentation, practice, and production.①Presentation of single ‘new’ item: introduce new vocabulary and grammatical structures in what ways appropriate;②Practice of new item: drills, exercises, dialogue practice: the lesson moves from controlled practice to guided practice and exploitation of the texts when necessary;③Production: activity, role-play or task to encourage ‘free’ use of language: the students are encouraged to use what they have learned and practiced to perform communicative tasks, at this stage, the focus is on meaning rather than accurate use of language forms.A typical PPP lesson would start by the teacher introducing a new language item in a context followed by some controlled practice, such as drilling, repetition, dialogue reading, etc. Students then move on to produce the language in a more meaningful way, such as a role play, a drama, an interview, etc.2. Differences between PPP and TBLTWillis explains the differences between the two models from two perspectives: one perspective looks at the way students use and experience the language; the other perspective looks at the procedures and context of learning.（1）The way students use and experience language in TBL is radically different from PPP.①free of language control and learners rely on their own linguistic resources;②a free exchange of ideas;③a genuine need to use language to communicate;④a genuine need to strive for accuracy and fluency;⑤appropriateness and accuracy of language form in general, not production of a single form;（2）TBL can provide a context for grammar teaching and form-focused activities, PPP is different in this aspect.①a task-established context;②encourages students to analyze and think, not simply to apply, repeat, and manipulate;③a more varied exposure to natural language;④language forms not pre-selected for focus;⑤learners’ free selection of language;⑥TBL cycle lead from fluency to accuracy;⑦In TBL integrated skills practiced.五、评价1.评价CLT①The first is whether it will meet the needs of learners from different contexts becomes a questions.②The second problem relates to the design of the syllabus for teaching purposes in the classroom. And it is very different to design a syllables with a one to one correspondence between a function and a form.③The third problem is that whether such an approach is suitable for all age level of learners or all competence level of learners.2.评价TBLT①The first is that it may not be effective for presenting new language items. Neither may it be appropriate for those contexts where language exposure is not sufficient and class time is limited.②The second constraint is time as teachers have to prepare task-based activities very carefully. This makes demands on the teacher, who is already busy with many other professional duties.③The third is the culture of learning. Some students may find it difficult to adapt to TBLT.④The forth is level of difficulty. Students may find task-based learning very difficult if they don’t have sufficient linguistic resources to handle holistic communication.Despite these potential drawbacks, TBLT can help students learn English in a challenging and stimulating way.3.评价pppPPP offers a simplified approach to language learning. It is based on the idea that you can present language in a clear way. And your language develops by adding new forms from one lesson to the next. However, simply being able to produce forms in isolations will not help learners acquire the language for communication.。
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“召唤——回答”系列
（Sunmmons— Answer Sequence）
• 警察给美国红十字会打的电话，在听到对 方拿起话筒约一秒钟但仍不见有人说话后， 打电话的警察不得不先说了“Hello”
“召唤——回答”系列 （Sunmmons— Answer Sequence）
以上的几种技巧， Sacks 考虑比较多的还是句法上的标记，实 际上，在一个听话人判断说话人是否到达一个“可能结束之处”时， 他是从语义上来判断对方的话是否到了可以告一段落的时候。
整体结构
• 作为一个整体，会话在结构上也呈现出某些特 点和规律。任何一次完整的会话都由开端 （opening ）、本体（body）和结尾（closing ） 三个部分构成。 • 比较起来，开端和结尾更能体现出结构上的特 点，本体则因各次会话的性质、内容的不同而 具有不同的结构上的特点。
3. 说话人既不指定下一个说话 人，也不指定下一步的会话活动， 而是完全由参加会话的其他人自 选，并决定说什么。
Q1：自选的人怎么知道正在说话的人话已讲完，他自己 可以开始说话了呢？ A：不存在绝对的话语结束之处，自选的说话人所要寻 找的只是话语的可能结束之处。 Q2：自选的说话人是否具备对别人的话中的“可能结束 之处”的识别能力呢？ Dan: The guy who doesn't run the race doesn't win it, but he doesn't lose it. Roger: ...lose it.
（刘虹，《会话结构分析》，北京大学出版社，2004：46）
话轮转换规则
Sacks等人发现，会话的一个重要特点是参与者轮 流说话。当一个人说话时，其他人不会同时说话。 而前一个人说完时，后一个人又会立刻开始说话， 中间几乎没有任何间隙。按Sacks的说法，就是： “每次至少，并且最多，有一个人说话”（转引自 Coulthard 1985:59），或称“既无间隙，也无重叠” （No gap, no overlap）。这并不是说会话中间真的 一点间隙、重叠也没有，而是说，万一出现间隙或 重叠，立刻就会有人出来纠正。间隙、重叠的时间 不会很长。
1.会话的开端
• 在对会话的开端所作的多种研究中，比较著 名的是Schegloff对电话会话的开端所作的研究。 在研究了五百多次电话通话后，他发现了一 条普遍规律，即在电话会话开始时，先说话 的总是接电话的一方，尽管说话的方式多种 多 样 ， 如 "Hello" ， "Yeah" ， "Dr. Brown's office" ， "Macy's" ， "Shoe department" 等等， 但是先说话的总是听到电话铃声后接电话的 人这一条分布规则不变。
1. 一个正在说话的人可以通过 提名来选定下一个说话人，同 时也指定了下一个说话人的话 语类型。其他人没有这种权利 或义务。此时说话人发生改变。 eg: I wonder if you could show me the letter, Mr.Fox. Do you know how to draw a panda, Mary? 2. 说话人可以限制下面一位说话人将来说的话的类型， 但不指定下一个说话人。第一个开始的人拥有下一个话 轮的说话权。此时说话人发生改变。 eg: Can anyone of you describe the picture?
Background
研究目的：通过探索自然会话的顺 序结构来揭示会话构成的规律，解 释自然会话的连贯性。 最早对会话结构进行实质性研究的是美国的一群社 会学家，或称民俗方法论者（ethnomethdologists）, 如：萨克斯（Harvey Sacks）、谢格罗夫 （Emanuel Schegloff）、杰弗逊（Gail Jefferson）
Conversation Structure
会话结构
Outline
• Background • Conversation structure Turn Rules of turn-taking Constitution of conversation structure • Adjacency pairs • Repair apparatus • Other perspectives
Background
• 对会话结构进行研究，存在多种途径和方法， Levinson提到三种对会话结构进行研究的主要途径： 1. 篇章语法学家采用的方法 （不成功。试图用分析句子结构的方法来分析话语） 2. 以言语行为为基础的研究 （颇有成效。但完全不能脱离对语境因素的考虑的） 3. 以经验为基础的归纳方法——会话分析家所采用的 （代表人物：Schegloff，Sacks，Jeffer构
• 话轮及其转换规则
话轮（Turn）：
定义：1.指在会话过程中的某一时刻成为说话人的机会 2.指一个人作为讲话人时所说的话。 衡量标准：
1.说话者是否连续，即在一个语法语义完成序列的末尾有 无沉默。如有沉默，那么说话者的话就不止一个话轮。 2.是否发生了说话者和听话者的角色互换。如果发生，就 标志着一个话轮的结束和下一个话轮的开始。
说话中的“可能结束之处”都出现在 句子的结束处，不在句子中间，如果 说话人想越过一个“可能结束之处” 而继续往下说，有以下三种技巧： 1. 采用被Sacks称为“话语未结束语”（utterance incompletor） 的一些词项，如but，and，however等从句或句子之间的连接词 2. 用像since，when这样的“未完成标记”（incompetion marker） 来向听话人表明在第一个可能的结束处出现之前至少还有两个分句 3. 在说话人一时没有考虑好说什么，但又不愿放弃说话的轮次的 情况下，可以使用所谓的“搪塞语”(hesitation filler)，如Er, Well, Um, You know, Let me see等来为自己争取时间，保住说话的轮次