习语 谚语 暗喻
习语 谚语 暗喻
水果
• 英汉中对于水果的隐喻几乎没有什么相似 之处，但是英语文化中对苹果情有独钟， 如：the apple of one’s eye 掌上明珠 • apple也常常被视为眼睛的瞳仁 • one’s apple of eye • lemon 常被视作是次品，如：This car is a lemon. 这辆车是次品。 在汉语中“软柿子”是利用熟的柿子软的特 点比喻软弱好欺负。
影响因素----宗教信仰
• 西：基督教是英美国家的主要宗教信仰，由此产 生了许多独具宗教特色的文化 .如： • Christmas comes but one year. 圣诞节一年才过一次./佳节难逢。 • Merry in lent , and you’ll live to repent. • 四旬斋结婚，悔恨终生。 • 中：与基督教不同，佛教有大慈大悲的观世音， 也讲普渡众生，但更重视劝人行善，讲究因果报 应。这方面的谚语有“善恶到头终有报，只争来 早与来迟”，“善必寿长，恶必早亡”等。
暗喻（metaphor）：是一种含蓄的比喻，本体和 喻体同时出现，两者之间是相合的关系，没有 比喻词。在文字上，暗喻比明喻更简洁，更幽 默。
英汉饮食文化中的暗喻
• Milk & Tea
• 牛奶在西方人的饮食中一直占有很重要的地位， 很多表达也与牛奶有关： • It is no use of crying split milk.覆水难收。 • the milky way 银河 • 茶文化在英国被视为是很有生活情趣的活动，比 如：one’s cup of tea 某人喜爱的东西 • 而茶在中国是及其常见的，一般被认为是生活必 需品，比如“柴米油盐酱醋茶”，“粗茶淡饭”。
• meet one’s waterloo 历史故事 遭遇惨败（拿破仑在滑铁卢的惨败，类似于 中国的败走麦城） • Mickey mouse 名人轶事 • 米老鼠（无关紧要的人物） • no spring chicken 动物习性 • 已不再年轻的女人 • go with stream 航海 • 随波逐流 • …
俗语
• ①凡事若能按时做，一日能抵三天用。 • ②饭后三百步，不用进药铺。 • ③笑一笑，少一少；愁一愁，白了头。 • 以上三例，将每一种行为的结果都进行了夸大， 显然是夸张修辞格的运用。
例如，“兵败如山倒”，“救兵如救火”，“伴 君如伴虎”，“军令如山倒”，“人心不似长流 水”等，有本体，有喻体，有喻词。 “如”“似”，结构上为一般单句，本体和喻体 都是词。 又如“车辙是路引”，“有病方知健 是仙”，“失败是成功之母”，“ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ妇家中宝”， “人生一盘棋”等，前三句用“是”字联结本体 喻体，后两句干脆省略了喻词，是典型的暗喻式 谚语。
例如，“兵败如山倒”，“救兵如救火”，“伴 君如伴虎”，“军令如山倒”，“人心不似长流 水”等，有本体，有喻体，有喻词。 “如”“似”，结构上为一般单句，本体和喻体 都是词。 又如“车辙是路引”，“有病方知健 是仙”，“失败是成功之母”，“丑妇家中宝”， “人生一盘棋”等，前三句用“是”字联结本体 喻体，后两句干脆省略了喻词，是典型的暗喻式 谚语。
• “杀鸡焉用牛刀”比喻办事不需要大人物动 手；“枪打出头鸟”，比喻人不可过于显 示自己； • 例如“不如虎穴，焉得虎子”比喻不经历 险境就达不到目的；“捡了芝麻，丢了西 瓜”比喻做事因小失大，得不偿失。
有的谚语也使用借喻的手法，不仅省去了比喻词， 还省略了本体，直接把喻体当作本体来说。例如： ①天上无云不下雨，地下无水不行船。 ②一根草绳搓不成绳，一片篾编不成箩。 ③日中则昃，月满则亏。
• 拜倒在石榴裙下 • 熬得过初一，熬不过十五
①幼年时学习的如同石上的雕刻。 ②锻炼好比灵芝草，何必苦把仙方找。 ③优良的示范是最好的说服。 ④时间是检验真理的尺度。 ⑤巧妇难为无米之炊。 ⑥拉大拉大旗，做虎皮。 ①②句是明喻，③④句是暗喻，⑤⑥句是借喻。真 可谓麻雀虽小，五脏俱全。
谚语修辞浅析(修辞学论文)
浅析谚语修辞摘要：英国作家培根说过：“一个名族的天才，智慧和精神都可以在其谚语中找到。
”谚语是人们在长期工作、生产、生活实践中总结出来的经验，是智慧的结晶，具有生活化，口语化的特点，读起来琅琅上口，以通俗易懂，又耐人寻味。
特别是谚语中不自觉的融入的修辞格，充分显示了谚语独特的艺术魁力。
关键词：思想内容、语言特点(一)思想内容大多数谚语是人民群众智慧的结晶。
不少谚语以通俗简洁的语言，道出了深刻的哲理。
如：①山外有山，天外有天。
②千里之堤，溃于蚁穴。
③巧妇难为无米之炊。
④Time tries all things.（实践检验一切。
）⑤As the touchstone tries gold, so gold tries the men. (试金石试金，金子则考验人。
)大多数谚语来自生活，总结人们的生活的经验。
如：①慢工出细活。
②三个和尚没水喝。
③Many hands make light work .(人多好办事。
）④Clothes make the man.（人靠衣服马靠鞍。
）谚语也是阶级社会的产物，因此很多谚语反映了世态炎凉、尔虞我诈以及阶级社会的种种丑陋面。
如：①窃钩者诛，窃国者侯。
②有钱能使鬼推磨。
③人不为己，天诛地灭。
④各人自扫门前雪，休管他人瓦上霜。
谚语依存于社会生活，它与本名族特定的历史、生活习惯、物产风貌、自然环境等密切相关。
因此在各个具体的表述上，各个名族不尽相同。
如：在提到某人，某人就来了的时候，汉语的谚语是“说曹操，曹操就到”，而英语的对等谚语是“Speak of the wolf, and you will see his tail”。
许多汉语谚语与农业有关，因此就有了“瑞雪兆丰年”“”。
而英语中的谚语却与航海有关。
如：A good sailor may mistake in a dark night.It is safest sailing within reach of the shore.Many drops of water will sink the ship.（二）语言特点1》富于形象很多谚语不是直截了当地发表议论、阐述道理，而是用生动形象的语言创造一个具体形象，然后再用这个具体形象来表达抽象的意思。
有隐喻的经典谚语
有隐喻的经典谚语好的，以下是一些含有隐喻的经典谚语：1. 水至清则无鱼，人至察则无徒：意思为水过于清澈则不会有鱼，人过于精明则会孤立无援。
这句谚语旨在提醒人们不要过分追求完美和精明，要懂得适度和宽容。
2. 青出于蓝而胜于蓝，冰水为之而寒于水：意思为青是从蓝色中提取的，但比蓝更胜一筹；冰是水凝结而成的，但比水更寒冷。
这句谚语强调了后辈可以超越前辈，告诫人们要不断努力进步。
3. 三人行，必有我师：意思为许多人走在一起，其中就一定有我的老师。
这句谚语告诉人们要谦虚好学，随时可以向他人学习。
4. 树欲静而风不止，子欲养而亲不待：意思为树希望静止不摆，风却不停息；子女想赡养父母，父母却已离去了。
这句谚语表达了世事无常、生命短暂的感慨，告诫人们要及时行孝。
5. 磨刀不误砍柴工：意思为磨刀虽然花费时间，但不会耽误砍柴的进度。
这句谚语告诉人们在做事情前要充分准备，找对方法，不要盲目行动。
6. 路遥知马力，日久见人心：意思为路途遥远才能知道马的力气大小，长时间的相处才能真正了解一个人的品格。
这句谚语告诫人们不要轻易下结论，要有长远的眼光和深入的了解。
7. 大义灭亲：意思为为了维护正义或人民的利益，对违法犯罪的亲人也不徇私情，使之受到应有的惩处。
这句谚语告诫人们在维护正义时要不畏亲疏关系，严格依法办事。
8. 巧妇难为无米之炊：意思为即使聪明能干的妇女，没有米也做不出饭来。
这句谚语比喻即使有才能的人，也难以完成没有必要的任务。
9. 天下无难事，只怕有心人：意思为只要用心去做，世界上没有什么事情是困难的。
这句谚语鼓励人们只要有决心和毅力，就能够克服任何困难。
10. 万事开头难：意思为万事开始时往往会遇到困难和挫折。
这句谚语提醒人们在做事情时要坚持不懈，持之以恒，才能够获得成功。
以上这些谚语都具有深刻的思想内涵和人生智慧，是中华民族优秀传统文化的珍贵遗产之一。
它们可以启迪人们的思维和智慧，引导人们正确地认识和处理各种复杂的社会现象和人际关系。
论英语习语中的隐喻
一、引言隐喻传统上属于文学和诗学研究的范畴，近年来随着普通语言学和应用语言学研究的不断深入，成为学术界的一个热门话题，隐喻研究被赋予了新的生命和活力。
作为英语语言精华的习语，其数量可观，内容丰富，应用广泛，是英语词汇中的一个重要组成部分。
由于受思维方式和文化因素的影响，英语习语在人们脑海中形成的意义往往是十分委婉而隐蔽的。
因此，人们在学习习语时不能仅仅记住并模仿运用，还应该了解习语的深层结构，特别是英语习语中的隐喻意义，从而培养和提高创造性地使用英语习语的能力。
二、理论知识简介（一）关于隐喻的基本知识隐喻是一种普遍现象，它的发展经历了漫长的历史时期，出现了三种主要理论。
“西方最初的隐喻研究发源于古典修辞学……柏拉图与亚里士多德还分别开启了西方隐喻研究的浪漫主义与古典主义传统。
”［１］亚里士多德在《诗学》和《修辞学》两部著作中提出了隐喻的定义，并论述了隐喻的种类、性质及其作用。
中世纪至文艺复兴时期的隐喻研究处于相对低潮，当时的隐喻被认为是一种表达风格，失去了其哲学意义。
１６至１９世纪的隐喻研究在前一阶段积累的基础上得到了进一步发展。
研究者们以诗学领域的研究为突破口，为２０世纪隐喻研究奠定了基础。
２０世纪上半叶隐喻研究的焦点集中在语言学上，２０世纪下半叶的隐喻研究呈现多元化趋势，在语言学、诗学、认知哲学等各个领域都成绩斐然。
其中布莱克发表的《隐喻》一文成为隐喻研究史上的一个里程碑。
“正是从布莱克开始，隐喻才引起了人们越来越广泛的关注。
”［２］西方隐喻研究史上先后出现了三种不同的理论：比较论（ｃｏｍｐａｒａｔｉｖｅｔｈｅｏｒｙ）、替代论（ｓｕｂｓｔｉｔｕｔｉｏｎｔｈｅｏｒｙ）和互动论（ｉｎｔｅｒａｃｔｉｏｎｔｈｅｏｒｙ）。
比较论的代表人物是亚里士多德。
基本模式为Ａ是Ｂ，认为“隐喻可以看成缩短了的明喻”，［３］表达的意思为“Ａ在某些方面像Ｂ”。
替代论的基本模式也是Ａ是Ｂ，但在这一模式中，一个陌生的词代替了自有的词，即表达的意思为Ａ是Ｃ。
英语谚语中的隐喻应用
第 页I The Application of Metaphor in the English ProverbsA Graduation Thesis Submittedby Lu Qifento Faculty of Applied TechnologyKunming University of Science and Technologyin partial fulfillment of the requirementsfor the degree ofBachelor of Arts in the subject of English LanguageSupervisor: Yang YuDepartment of Foreign LanguagesKunming, YunnanApril 15, 2013第 页II 摘要在传统隐喻研究中，隐喻是一种修辞手段。
随着认知语言学的发展，隐喻成了一种认知手段，和人类体验世界的方法，也成了人类思维和生活的方式。
动物谚语是最生动的语言的集合，它们经常出现在人们的日常交流中，但人们却没意识到这些动物谚语是隐喻。
事实上，在 George Lakoff & Johnson 的概念隐喻框架之下，动物谚语中的源域是动物，目标域是人或与人有关的行为，人们利用人与动物之间的相似性把人类自己的感情表现出来。
本研究从概念隐喻的角度对比分析了汉英动物谚语中动物形象所具有的隐喻意义的相似性与相异性，并通过汉英两种语言中的动物形象来认知人的本质与特点。
关键词：概念隐喻 动物 谚语 对比分析第 页II ABSTRACTMetaphor is seen as a rhetorical method in traditional metaphor research. As time goes by, metaphor becomes a cognitive mechanism. Metaphor is the tool that we use to think and experience the external world, which is seen as …the metaphor we live by‟by George Lakoff and Johnso n.The animal proverbs are the most vivid collection of language, which are frequently used in daily life, but we seldom consider the animal proverbs as metaphor. In fact, under the frame of conceptual metaphor, the source domain of animal proverbs is animal and the target domain is human or concerned human action. People use the similarities between man and animals to express their motions. This research contrastively analyzes the some animal of animal proverbs both in English and Chinese and tries to find the similarities and differences. The animal image can help us have cognition of the nature and features of human being in English and Chinese.Key Words : C onceptual metaphor, Animal, Proverb, Contrast第 页IVACKNOWLEDGEMENTSIn writing this thesis, I have benefited from the support of my teachers and my classmates. They generously helped me collect materials I needed and made many invaluable suggestions. I hereby extend my grateful thanks to them for their kind help, without which this thesis would not have been possible.First of all, I am extremely indebted to Prof. Yang Yu, my supervisor, for her support, patience and remarkable ideas during the course of writing. Without her thorough and constructive commentary and indispensable help, this thesis could not have become a reality.I am deeply grateful to Prof. Cun Hongbing, Prof. Li Xuefang, Prof. Shi Nianxiang, Prof. Wang Yi, and all the teachers at the College of Foreign Studies, whose wonderful lectures proved to be indispensable to my study.Thanks also go to Lu Fang, Gao Qian, Xie Rui, and all my friends and classmates who helped me in collecting the linguistic data. Their help has been essential.Last but not least, I would like to thank my family for their love, support, and good humor.第 页VTable of ContentsTitle Page ...................................................................................................................i Abstract(Chinese)......................................................................................................... ii Abstract(English)................................................................................iii Acknowledgements.......................................................................................................iv Table of Contents.. (v)1. Introduction (1)1.1. Purpose, significance and methodology of this thesis (1)1.1.1. Purpose, significance (1)1.1.2. Methodology (2)2. Conceptual Metaphor (3)2.1. The traditional theory of metaphor (3)2.2. The contemporary theory of metaphor (3)2.3. Conceptual metaphor (4)2.4. Some basic terminologies concerning conceptual metaphor (6)2.4.1. Image schema (6)2.4.2. Domain (6)2.4.3. Mapping (7)2. 5. A Summary (9)3. Comparison of Conceptual Metaphor of Animals in Chinese and EnglishProverbs (10)3.1. Definition of proverbs (10)3.2. Comparison of conceptual metaphor of animals in Chinese and Englishproverbs (11)3.2.1. Similarities of conceptual metaphors of animals in Chinese and EnglishProverbs (11)第 页 V I3.2.2. Differences of conceptual metaphors of animals in Chinese and English proverbs (12)3.3. A Summary (19)4. Conclusion...............................................................................................................20 References .. (VII)第 页1 1. Introduction Metaphor is seen as a rhetorical method in traditional metaphor research. As time goes by, metaphor becomes a cognitive mechanism. Metaphor is the tool that we use to think and experience the external world.The animal proverbs are the most vivid collection of language, which are frequently used in daily life, but we seldom consider the animal proverbs as metaphor. In fact, under the frame of conceptual metaphor, the source domain of animal proverbs is animal and the target domain is human or concerned human action. People use the similarities between man and animals to express their motions. This research contrastively analyzes the some animal of animal proverbs both in English and Chinese and tries to find the similarities and differences. The animal image can help us have cognition of the nature and features of human being in English and Chinese.The authors draw the conclusion: (1) The Conceptual Metaphor has universality and it is applicable to the contrastive research of Chinese and English animal proverbs; (2)For the same natural property, animal source domain in both English and Chinese proverbs has the similar understanding. But the target domain of Chinese proverbs‟ cannot correspond to that in English; (3)Differences and similarities are brought by different cognition mode, cultural values and so on.1.1. Purpose, significance and methodology of this thesis1.1.1. Purpose and significanceThe purpose of this study is to prove conceptual metaphor theory allows the development of human understanding of the proverbs to a deeper level. More important in the study of proverbs, conceptual metaphors can become a new research point of view, to help us understand a proverb to produce the effect.This topic is based on the following considerations: first, the proverbs are cultural accumulation and circulation. What it reflects is by no means obvious literal meaning, so users of the native language is perceived to have a difficulty in understanding. The difficulty of conceptual metaphor theory can help us tap the latent meaning of proverbs in,第 页2 thus this Institute Value is in doubt. Second, the study of proverbs there are many, but most is from the culture, language. Semantic research and teaching perspective, people paid little attention to the level of conceptual metaphors and, therefore, the research must contribute to enrich the study of proverbs.1.1.2. Methodology(1). Contrast methodologyThis article main utilization contrast methodology, through contrast, in order to discover the differences, similarities and the reasons of the concept metaphor in the Chinese-English animal proverbs.All the important conclusions of this article are based on comparison of proverbs instance, and, most of the corpus of this article come from the corpus of commercial Press book Dictionary of proverbs and, therefore, the conclusion has a certain persuasive power.第 页32. Conceptual Metaphor2.1. The traditional theory of metaphor Traditionally, metaphor is viewed as a linguistic phenomenon. Lakoff and Johnson summarize the main ideas of the traditional theory of metaphor as follows:1. Metaphor is a matter of words, not thought. Metaphor occurs when a word is applied not to what it normally designates, but to something else.2. Metaphorical language is not part of ordinary conventional language. Instead, it is novel and typically arises in poetry, rhetorical attempts at persuasion, and scientific discovery.3. Metaphorical language is deviant. In metaphor, words are not used in their proper senses.4. Conventional metaphorical expressions in ordina ry everyday language are “dead metaphors,” that is, expressions that once were metaphorical, but have become frozen into literal expressions.5. Metaphors express similarities. That is, there are preexisting similarities between what words normally designate and what they designate when they are used metaphorically. (Lakoff & Johnson, 1999: 119)Metaphor is for most people a device of the poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourish —a matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language and as a matter of words rather than thought or action (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980: 3). The classical view of metaphor had been taken for granted over centuries until it was challenged in the late 1960s, a time when cognitive metaphor research began to flourish and the contemporary theory of metaphor came into being.2.2. The contemporary theory of metaphorThe contemporary theory of metaphor can be summed up as follows:1. Metaphor is the main mechanism through which we comprehend abstract concepts第 页4 and perform abstract reasoning.2. Much subject matter, from the most mundane to the most abstruse scientifictheories, can only be comprehended via metaphor.3. Metaphor is fundamentally conceptual, not linguistic, in nature.4. Metaphorical language is a surface manifestation of conceptual metaphor.5. Metaphor allows us to understand a relatively abstract or inherently unstructured subject matter in terms of a more concrete, or at least a more highly structured subject matter. (Lakoff, 1993: 202-251)The contemporary theory of metaphor that metaphor is primarily conceptual, conventional, and part of the ordinary system of thought and language can be traced back to Michael Reddy (see Reddy, 1979). Whereas Lakoff and Johnson‟s book Metaphors We Live By (1980) is widely acknowledged as a significant landmark in the cognitive approach to the study of conceptual metaphor. It is in this book that Lakoff and Johnson initiate the key concept “conceptual metaphor” (or short for “metaphor”)and persuasively cla im, “We have found, on the contrary, that metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action. Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature” (Lakoff & Jo hnson, 1980: 3). In a word, human beings‟conceptual system is structured and defined via metaphor.2.3. Conceptual metaphorWith the creation and development of cognitive linguistics, metaphor is claimed to be a primary way of thinking. In the cogniti ve linguistic view of metaphor, “our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is metaphorically structured and fundamentally metaphorical in nature” (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980:3).In the cognitive linguistic view, metaphor is defined as understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain. Examples of this include when we talk and think about life in terms of journey, about arguments in terms of war, about love also in terms of journey, about theories in terms of buildings, about ideas in terms of第 页5 food, about social organizations in terms of plants, and many others. A convenient shorthand way of capturing this view of metaphor is the following: CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (A) IS CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (B), which is what is called conceptual metaphor. (Zǒltán Kǒvecses,2002:4)As stated above, a conceptual metaphor can literally be modeled in the form of “A is B”. In practical applications, conceptual metaphor can be varied in many different metaphorical linguistic expressions. The following are some classic examples from Lakoff and Johnson‟s Metaphors We Live By.(1) Conceptual metaphor: AN ARGUMENT IS A WAR.Some related metaphorical linguistic expressions(see italics):1) Your claims are indefensible.2) He attacked every weak point in my argument.3) His criticisms were right on target.4) He shot down all of my arguments.(2) Conceptual metaphor: LOVE IS A JOURNEY .Some related metaphorical linguistic expressions(see italics):1) We are at a crossroads.2) Our marriage is on the rocks.3) I don‟t think this relationship is going anywhere.4) This relationship is a dead-end street.(3) Conceptual metaphor: THEORIES ARE BUILDINGS.Some related metaphorical linguistic expressions(see italics):1) Is that the foundation of your theory?2) The theory needs more support.3) We need to construct a strong argument for that.4) So far we have put together only the framework of the theory.(4) Conceptual metaphor: IDEAS ARE FOOD.Some related metaphorical linguistic expressions(see italics):1) There are too many facts here for me to digest them all.第 页6 2) I just can‟t swallow that claim.3) Let me stew over that for a while.4) That‟s food for thought.(Zǒltán Kǒvecses,2002:5-6) Although I only listed four metaphorical linguistic expressions for each of the four conceptual metaphors above, we can state the nature of the relationship between the conceptual metaphors and the metaphorical linguistic expressions in the following way: the linguistic expressions are manifestations of the conceptual metaphors, and they make the conceptual metaphors explicit. To put the same thing differently, it is the metaphorical linguistic expressions that reveal the existence of the conceptual metaphors; after being rearranged, most metaphorical expre ssions can be returned to the form of “A is B”.2.4. Some basic terminologies concerning conceptual metaphor“On various traditional views, metaphor is a matter of unusual language, typically novel and poetic language that strike us as deviant, imagina tive, and fanciful” (Lakoff & Turner, 1989:136), it‟s necessary to make clear some related terminologies like image schema, source domain, target domain and mapping, which will be dealt with in the following section.2.4.1. Image schemaImage schema has ever been discussed by Lakoff (1987), Johnson (1987), Lakoff and Turner (1989). Lakoff and Johnson argued that metaphors are based on some certain image schemas, which are derived from the external world and stored in fixed structures in the mind of human being.Image schemas are some imaginable clear structure or framework that have been created, developed, highly conceptualized and then conventionalized in minds of human beings. They are powerful tools and shortcuts for people to cognize their mysterious outer world or themselves. When to think or act, people employ similar image schemas to comprehend the abstract matters like life, love, theory, ideas, social organizations and so on.第 页7 According to Lakoff (1987), image schema can be summarized as structural schema and special schema, the former includes Container Schema, Path Schema, Part-Whole Schema, Link Schema, Forces Schema and Balance Schema, and the latter involves Up-Down Schema, Front-Back Schema, Part-Whole Schema, Center-Periphery Schema, Starting-Path-Ending Schema, and so on.2.4.2. DomainAccording to Zǒltán Kǒvecses, CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (A) IS CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN(B) (Zǒltán Kǒvecses,2002:4) is the structure of conceptual metaphor. Domain is an essential terminology concerning the Conceptual Metaphor Theory.In a conceptual metaphor, there are two domains, one of which is named source domain (concept B), and the other is target domain (concept A). According to important generalization that emerged from conceptual metaphors, people tend to employ a more concrete or physical concept as the source domain, and a more abstract concept as the target. The source domain is usually simple and familiar to us, and used as an aid to understand the target domain, which is invisible, elusive, complex, and unfamiliar to us. In the conceptual metaphor Life is a journey, life is the target domain, and a journey is the source domain.Life is inclusive and abstract, which actually can be comprehended as a career or a span of time by people. Seen from the angle of a specific career, life can be understood by a soldier as to fight, by a teacher as to teach, or by a farmer as to cultivate and so on. Seen from a span of time, life can refer to a long time when we mention the whole lifetime of a person, and it also can refer to a very short period when we mean the blossom of a flower or the thriftiness of grass and so on.The above discussions demonstrate that the definition of life is really endless and hard to define. From a certain perspective under the concrete context, we just regard life as a journey, which also contains a starting point, series of processes and an end. Here life is comprehended in terms of the concept of journey. Thus, Life is a journey is a widely accepted and easily understood conceptual metaphor.第 页8 2.4.3. Mapping What is transferred, then, by a metaphor is the structure, the internal relations or the logic of a cognitive model. In other words, from a cognitive perspective a metaphor is a mapping of 5 the structure of a source model onto a target model. (Ungerer and Schmid, 1996:120)Mapping is one of the theories aiming at exploring the working mechanism of a conceptual metaphor. It was created by Lakoff and Johnson to explain how the metaphorical meaning is formed and how the understanding of it can be realized. According to the Mapping Theory of Lakoff and Johnson, conceptual metaphors are actually sets of systematic correspondences between conceptual domains. In other words, in order to better understand an abstract target domain (the purpose concept), we had better use a more concrete, tangible and specific concept as the source domain. Mapping serves as the process to cast the image schemas of source domains (concept B) onto the target domains (concept A).Generally speaking, mapping has the following features:(1) Metaphorical mapping is unidirectional which means the mapping is always from the source to the target, but not the reversal.(2) Metaphorical mapping is not random but systematic. It follows the Invariance Principle: Metaphorical mapping always casts the preexisting image schema of a source domain, which can reflect the inherent structure of the purpose concept, onto a target domain.(3) Metaphorical mapping is partial, i.e., only some of the characteristics of the source domain are highlighted and then mapped onto the target domain, while the others like the relationship, the outlook, or something else are latent and out of concern.第 页9 2. 5. A Summary Conceptual Metaphor Theory makes a very important contribution to the system of contemporary metaphor theory. Source domain and target domain are two essential terminologies related to CMT (Conceptual Metaphor Theory). They form the model of CMT as: CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (A) IS CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (B). People tend to employ the more concrete and physical concept as a source domain in understanding the more abstract and intangible purpose concept, a target domain.The mapping process is actually to cast the image schema of the source domain onto the target domain, or to find out the inherent universality between the source domain and the target domain, by which the target domain can be understood easily.第 页103. Comparison of Conceptual Metaphor of Animals in Chinese and English Proverbs3.1. Definition of proverbs Human beings should be delighted to enjoy owning so many animals. They are one of the most radical conditions for the development of human society. Moreover, they are animate. It is the existence of animals that makes the world more colorful and fascinating, so if one says that human beings have a very, very close relationship with animals, he will invite no objection. Now that human beings have a very close relationship with animals, it is not surprising that animals will go into languages, therefore, the notion that animals will not set foot in proverbs, the elite of all kinds of languages, will be ridiculous.Because the most important thing this thesis wants to touch is English and Chinese proverbs containing animal words, it is wise to begin with the definition and common features of proverbs. It should be pointed out that, in this thesis, proverbs containing animal words are often shortened to animal proverbs for convenience.What is a proverb? The definition given by Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (2002:1192-1193) is "short well-known saying that states a general truth or gives advice". Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2001:1136) defines proverb as "a short well-known statement contains advice about life in general". Dictionary of Lexicography (Hartmann&James, 2000:113) defines proverb as "a culturally significant pithy saying with a moral or practical message". Different scholars may have different opinions on the definition, but they all shed some light on proverb, therefore, it will be bright to take an all-inclusive or all-embracing attitude.In order to understand the common features of proverbs, it will be smart to pay attention to some proverbs about proverbs themselves.Wise men make proverbs and fools repeat them.A proverb is a short sentence based on long experience.Proverbs are the daughter of daily experience.A proverb is much matter decocted into few words.第 页11 Proverbs bear age, and he who would do well may view himself in them as in a looking glass. Actually, there are many proverbs about proverbs themselves. After careful observation, six traits of proverbs regarding proverbs themselves are summed up in Chinese-English Proverbs and Culture (Wang Dechun et al, 2003), that is, the glittering of wisdom, the crystallizing of experience, the refining of language, the edifying of life, the flying of no wings, and the painting of reality.3.2. Comparison of conceptual metaphor of animals in Chinese and English proverbs3.2.1. Similarities of conceptual metaphors of animals in Chinese and English Proverbs(1). Conceptual metaphor about “wolves”Wolf mapping crueltyExample:狼走千里吃人狼肚子里没有好心肝The wolf may lose his teeth, but never his nature.（狼牙会掉，狼性难改。
英语谚语修辞
英语谚语修辞
很多英语谚语大量使用修辞格，使之精练简洁、形象生动、寓意深刻，具有强烈的艺术感染力和语言艺术美，使人们在得到经验教诲的同时，又得到了一次美好的艺术享受。
英语谚语常用的修辞手段有明喻、暗喻、拟人、夸张、排比等。
头韵：Liberty is no license.(自由不是特别通行证)
尾韵：Birds of a feather flock together.(物以类聚，人以群分)
对仗：Art is long, but life is short.(人生有限，学问无涯)
明喻(Simile)：There is no place like home.(金窝银窝，不如自己的狗窝)
暗喻(Metaphor): Deeds are fruits, words are but leaves. (行动是果，言语是叶) 拟人（Personification）: Walls have ears.(隔墙有耳)
夸张（Hyperbole）: The pen is mighter than the sword.(笔能杀人)
运用修辞手段，使抽象的事物形象化，使深奥的道理通俗化，增加谚语的形象性和生动性，从而更富于艺术感染力。
英语谚语修辞手法
英语谚语的修辞手法和艺术特征英语谚语在“牛津高级英汉双解词典”中的定义是谚语是受大家欢迎而短小的建议和警告的警句。
英语谚语有很长的历史，它是人们在生活中对抗自然的经验，英语谚语的特征是言简意赅，富涵哲理。
英语谚语由于使用简单的词而易于理解，由于韵律的和谐而易于背诵，由于生动的比较和描述而给人留下深刻印象。
诚如罗素所言“谚语乃以一人才华表达众人智慧”，弗朗西斯·培根也说过：“一个民族的天才、智慧和精神寓于它的谚语之中。
”英语谚语的内容包括许多：政治、社会、地理、国家习俗、历史和文化，它是帮助我们深刻理解英语国家的宝贵钥匙。
一些谚语含有人类生活的哲学事实，如“Life is long if it is full”翻译成汉语即“生活充实，生命长久。
”一些谚语与学习和工作有关，如“If you lie upon rose when young，you lie up on thorns when old.”即“少壮不努力，老大徒伤悲。
”有些与镇定及人际关系有关，如“Better die standing than live kneeling.”即“宁愿站着死，不愿跪着生。
”其他的与家庭和社会有关，如“He who keeps company with a wolf will learn to howl.”即“近墨者黑。
”英语谚语不仅含有许多哲学理论，而且还被认为是语言和修辞艺术的珠宝屋。
通过研究英语谚语中的修辞手法，我们能够理解和学习英语民族人们表达观点和描述事物的技巧和方法。
修辞学是有效使用语言的艺术。
修辞手法在英语谚语中起了很重要的作用。
是修辞美化和人化了英语谚语。
正因为人们在英语谚语中使用了很多修辞手法，才使得英语谚语迷人而令人难忘，才使得谚语精确表达事物的本质和深奥的真理。
有如下修辞手法被使用在英语谚语中：1.比喻比喻最频繁使用在英语谚语中，比喻可分为明喻、暗喻、讽喻以及转喻。
它有许多形式帮助人们有效地表达他们的观点和经验。
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• 在英语习语中，常以狗的形象来比喻人的 行为。如You are a lucky dog（你是一个 幸运儿），Every dog has his day（凡人 皆有得意日），Old dog will mot learn mew tricks（老人学不了新东西）等等。 形容人“病得厉害”用sick as a dog， “累极了”是dog-tired。 与此相反，中国人十分喜爱猫，用“馋猫” 比喻人贪嘴，常有亲呢的成份，而在西方 文化中，“猫”被用来比喻“包藏祸心的 女人”。
吃的方式
• 尽管英汉在思维，认知方面都有差异，但是在吃的 方式的对比中还是有相通之处。 • 英：woof one’s food down 汉：狼吞虎咽 用狼的贪婪凶猛来比喻人饥饿时候的吃相。 英：bite off more than one can chew 汉：贪多嚼不烂 英：digest new ideas 汉：消化新事物 英：swallow the excuse 汉：囫囵吞枣 Swallow本义是“吞”，比喻义是相信的意思，和 汉语的囫囵吞枣都有类似的意思，表示不加以分析 就轻易相信。
水果
• 英汉中对于水果的隐喻几乎没有什么相似 之处，但是英语文化中对苹果情有独钟， 如：the apple of one’s eye 掌上明珠 • apple也常常被视为眼睛的瞳仁 • one’s apple of eye • lemon 常被视作是次品，如：This car is a lemon. 这辆车是次品。 在汉语中“软柿子”是利用熟的柿子软的特 点比喻软弱好欺负。
• meet one’s waterloo 历史故事 遭遇惨败（拿破仑在滑铁卢的惨败，类似于 中国的败走麦城） • Mickey mouse 名人轶事 • 米老鼠（无关紧要的人物） • no spring chicken 动物习性 • 已不再年轻的女人 • go with stream 航海 • 随波逐流 • …
肉类
• 肉类在英语中有着最基本的含义，“内容， 实质，要点” • the meat of something 比喻最重要的一部 分内容 One man’s meat is another man’s poison. 各有所爱。 • “肉”在汉语中多为贬义，比如：人为刀 俎，我为鱼肉。意为生死由对方掌控，自 己只能任人宰割。 • 又如：鱼肉百姓，意为搜刮剥削老百姓
影响因素---地理因素
• 英国是一个岛国，历史上航海业曾一度领先 世界；人们英语中有许多关于船和水的习语， 如to keep one’s head above water（奋力 图存），all at sea（不知所措） • Still waters run deep.静水流深 • In a calm sea, every man is a pilot.海面平 静，人人都可当舵手。 • A small leak will sink a great ship.小洞不堵 要沉大船。
•
成语(set phrase)，俗语(common saying)， 谚语(proverb)，典故(allusion)， 格言 (maxim) ，歇后语(allegorical saying)，部分 俚语(slang)
The origin of idioms
• • • • • • • • man Friday 文学名著 忠仆，得力助手——出自《鲁滨逊漂流记》 Judas‘s kiss 圣经故事 犹大之吻（比喻出卖朋友） Pandora's box 希腊、古罗马神话传说 潘多拉的盒子（引申为灾祸之源） cat’s paw 古代寓言故事 被别人利用的人
气候因素
• 在汉语中，“东风”即是“春天的风”，夏 天常与酷署炎热联系在一起，“赤日炎炎似 火烧”、“骄阳似火”是常被用来描述夏天 的词语。 • 英国是海洋性气候，报告春天消息的是西风， 英国的夏季正是温馨宜人的季节，常与“可 爱”、“温和”、“美好“相连，英国诗人 雪莱的《西风颂》就是对春天的讴歌。英国 多雨多雾，对习语也有影响。如： come rain
主食
• • • • • • • • • • 英语中主食直接与“生计”相联系起来，如： a bread and butter job 谋生的工作 breadline 等候领取救济金的队伍 out of bread 失业 汉语中使用“饭碗”来表示工作，比如砸饭碗，抢 饭碗，端饭碗…… 家常饭 比喻司空见惯的事情 大锅饭 比喻平均分配的方式 汉语中也有用主食来比喻事物或形容某类人，比如： 空心汤圆 比喻没有内容而徒有形式 土包子 比喻没有见过世面的人
影响因素----宗教信仰
• 西：基督教是英美国家的主要宗教信仰，由此产 生了许多独具宗教特色的文化 .如： • Christmas comes but one year. 圣诞节一年才过一次./佳节难逢。 • Merry in lent , and you’ll live to repent. • 四旬斋结婚，悔恨终生。 • 中：与基督教不同，佛教有大慈大悲的观世音， 也讲普渡众生，但更重视劝人行善，讲究因果报 应。这方面的谚语有“善恶到头终有报，只争来 早与来迟”，“善必寿长，恶必早亡”等。
暗喻（metaphor）：是一种含蓄的比喻，本体和 喻体同时出现，两者之间是相合的关系，没有 比喻词。在文字上，暗喻比明喻更简洁，更幽 默。
英汉饮食文化中的暗喻
• Milk & Tea
• 牛奶在西方人的饮食中一直占有很重要的地位， 很多表达也与牛奶有关： • It is no use of crying split milk.覆水难收。 • the milky way 银河 • 茶文化在英国被视为是很有生活情趣的活动，比 如：one’s cup of tea 某人喜爱的东西 • 而茶在中国是及其常见的，一般被认为是生活必 需品，比如“柴米油盐酱醋茶”，“粗茶淡饭”。
价值观念
• 英美价值观念的主线是个人主义，崇尚个人相对社 会的独立自主性。 • 谚语“Don’t put your finger in the pie.不要多管闲 事。Time is money时间就是金钱。 • 谚语“Punctuality is the politeness of kings。守时 乃帝王之理。 • Punctuality is the soul of business.恪守时刻，为 立业之本。 • 中国人比较崇尚集体主义价值观，它是中国文化的 主线。集体主义体现在亲情和友情上.“士为知己者 死”，体现了朋友之间的肝胆义气和自然形成的责 任意识。集体主义也体现在个人与集体之间的关系， 主张“个人服从集体，小家服从国家”，从而产生 了“先天下之忧而忧，后天下之乐而乐”等崇高的 集体主义思想。
Metaphor
• A metaphor is a figure of speech that describes a subject by asserting that it is, on some point of comparison, the same as another otherwise unrelated object. In simpler terms, a metaphor compares two objects/things without using the words "like" or "as".
•
Proverbs
• A proverb is a simple and concrete saying, popularly known and repeated, that expresses a truth based on common sense or the practical experience of humanity. They are often metaphorical. A proverb that describes a basic rule of conduct may also be known as a maxim.
• 汉民族主要生活繁衍在亚洲大陆，土地对人 们来说是至关重要的，汉语中有许多与土地、 农业有关的习语。如“斩草除根”、“土生 土长”、“卷土重来”、“瑞雪兆丰年”、 “枯木逢春”、“拔苗助长”、“顺藤摸瓜” 等等。 • 骨瘦如柴be as lean as a rake • 对牛弹琴cast pearls before swine • 众人拾柴火焰高many hands make light work.
历史文化
英谚“Talk of the devil, and he is sure to appear” 或“peak of angels and you will hear the their wings”意思接近于汉谚“说曹操曹操就到”，然 而前者则与历史有关，后者带有浓厚的西方宗教 色彩，而关。其对应的汉谚为“情人眼里出西 施”，带有明显的汉族历史文化的痕迹。 英谚”The bread never falls but on its buttered side”类似于汉谚“人倒霉，吃豆腐也塞牙”，但 二者去反映出不同的生活习惯。
Cultural-related Idioms ，Proverbs and Metaphors
Idioms
• Idioms are the expressions in a language gradually developed in the populace's physical life and widely accepted and used among a community of people.
蔬菜
• 英语中有很多用蔬菜来做暗喻的表达，有些 和汉语意思相同，比如： • hot potatoes 烫山芋 • spring up like mushroom 像雨后春笋般冒出 • 而又有些在汉语中找不到对应的意思，如： full of beans 形容人精力充沛 • spill the beans 有意或无意泄露消息 • 在汉语中，“小萝卜头”表示小人物，“大 杂烩”表示拼凑堆积而成的事。