1 categorization
! Categorization of genres
Criteria(分类标准） Generic categories are generally defined on the basis of subject matter, formal properties（属性）, style or affective response. subject matter：The science fiction and gangster genres, for example, are defined primarily on the basis of their subject matter: We expect science fiction to immerse us in an imaginary futuristic (未来主义的）world，and we expect the gangster film to tell the story of a gangster. formal properties： Action films and musicals, on the other hand, are distinguishable on account of certain necessary formal qualities: action set-pieces(固定套路） in the case of the former, and song and dance routines for the latter.
Action
Musical Formal Criteria
Presence of action set-pieces
Presence of song and dance performances
Blockbuster Style Film Noir
认知语言学1
这些识解以我们实际上站在不同的角度去观察自行车 和汽车为前提。
3.Categorization （范畴化）
Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. 范畴化是基于人类经验的异同将我们的经验划分成 不同的类型。 •There are three levels in categories: the basic level, the super-ordinate level, and the subordinate level.
The figure-ground alignment seems to apply to space with the ground as the prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relational configuration. It also applies to our perception of moving objects. Since the moving object is typically the most prominent one, because it is moving, it is typically the figure, while the remaining stimuli constituent the ground.图形-背景关系似乎可以运用于空间研究，背景充当
约翰逊把意象图式定义为通过感知的相互作用和运动 程序获得的对事物经验给以连贯和结构的循环出现的 动态模式。
原型范畴理论
Prototype
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《全科医学》词汇
AAbdominal pains-腹痛Academic bodies-学术机构Academies-专科学校Affiliation-友好关系Afflicted with-受…折磨affluent-丰富的、流畅的algorithm-算法allegiance-效忠Allocation-分配amputation-截肢analgesics-镇痛药Anatomy-解剖Anesthesiology-麻醉学Apothecaries-药剂师Appetite-食欲Apprenticeship-学徒Arbitrary- 任意的Ascertain-确定、查明at intervals-每隔一段时间Attain-达到BBe elusive-难以解释的Belching-嗳气Bereavement-丧亲biopsy-活检bottom up-反转bowel-肠brush aside-扫除、漠视bubble-like-气泡状Buffeted-被冲击Bypass-绕开、忽视CCall for-需要capitation-人头税Categorization-分类、分门别类causal-因果的Causation of disease-病因cessation-停止Cfs-慢性疲劳综合症Chart-图表Chief complaint-主诉Chills-寒颤Chiropractic-脊髓按摩Cholecystectomy-胆囊切除术Clinical Guidelines-临床指南Cognitive-认知的、认识的Coherence-一致性、连贯性cold remedies-感冒药Collaboration-协作Collaborative-协作的Colonies-殖民地Complication-并发症Comprehensibility-理解能力Comprehensive-综合的Compulsory-强制义务的Condemned-被定罪的Conduct-行为Congenital-先天性Congruent-适合的、一致的Conserve resource-优化资源Consistency-一致性Consultation-咨询Context-环境Contracts-合同、契约Convening-召开Convulsions-抽搐Coordinate-协调Cope-处理Correlation-相关Cortisone-可的松，肾上腺皮质酮Cost effective-划算的Covary-共变Craft skill-工艺技术Craftsman-匠人Crisis-危机Criterion-标准Crucible-严酷的考验Cues-线索、开端Cultivate-培养Curability-词根cure，治愈可能性Curriculum-课程DDe novo-重新,更始,来自拉丁语Defined-明确的Definitive-最后的、决定的deleterious-有害demoralization-道德败坏denied-拒绝denote-指示Deny-否认depletion-耗尽detached-分离的、超然的Deterioration-恶化Devastate-毁灭differential diagnosis-鉴别诊断Diffuse-散开的Discipline-学科；纪律Disclosing-公开Discretionary-自由决定的Discretion-判断力Dislocating-使脱臼；使混乱Disorder-失调,错乱Disorganized-紊乱的、无组织的Dispense-分发Disposal-处理、清理Dispute-争议Dissent-不同意Distress-危难；不幸Dizziness-头晕眼花Domicile-住宅Dramatic-激动人心的Dustrophy-营养障碍Dynorphins-强啡肽Dysfunctional-功能失调的Dyspepsia-消化不良Dystrophy-营养障碍EEconomic-经济的ectopic pregnancy-异位妊娠Ectopic-异常的Eliminate waste-消除浪费Elusive-难懂的，难以捉摸的Emancipate-释放Embark-从事、着手Emergence-出现Empiric-经验Encompassed-包绕、环绕Engage-召集、参加Enhancement-增加、放大、提高Enkephalin-脑啡肽Enquiry-询问Ensuing-随后的enuresis-夜尿Epidemics-流行病episodes-发作Episode-片段；一段经历Equilibrium-平衡Ethics-伦理学Evolved from-由…进化来Excessive-过度的exempted from-免除exerted-外露extended-扩充的extroversion-外向性FFaculties-教职员工Fainting spell-昏厥Family Physician/Doctor-全科(家庭)医生Fatigue-疲倦Feasible-可行的Febrile-发热fee for service-服务费Fixation-固定Flatus-屁food hygiene-食品卫生Formation-形成Foster-培养、形成Fragile-脆的、易碎的Fragment from-从…分裂出Free floating anxiety-游离性焦虑GGeneral practitioner-通科医生General/family medicine-全科(家庭)医学General/family practice-全科(家庭)医疗Generalists-通才Gum-牙龈Gynecologists-妇科医生Hhemoglobin-血红蛋白Hemorrhoids/piles-痔疮Hiccup-打嗝Hinting-暗示Holistic-整体Horizontal integration-横向合并hospitalization-住院治疗Hypnosis-催眠Hypothesis-假设IIllustrate-说明Immediacy-直接性Implication-暗示、含义in indemnity-损害赔偿Inclination-倾向Incompetent-无能力的Incongruous Referral-不协调的转诊病人Incorporated-包含入内的indemnity insurance-赔偿保险Infirmity-体弱的Influential-有影响力的人informed consent-知情同意Inherent-固有的、内在的、遗传的、与生俱来的Innovation-创新Insight-(更深刻/肤浅的)理解Inspection-检查Integrated with-一体化Intercostal-肋间部分Interpersonal-人际关系的Intervention-干预Interview survey-访谈Intestinal infections-肠道感染Intimates-密友；贴身衣物Intuitively-直观的Investigation-调查研究Irreversible-无可挽回irritable bowel syndrome-肠道易激综合症irritable colon syndrome-结肠激惹综合症.JK Key figure-关键人物Kinship-亲属关系Kin-亲戚、同族LLabels-标签、贴标签、分类Lump-肿块MM.R.C.S-皇家学院外科医师会员Maintenance-维护、维持Malady-严重的疾病Malpractice suits-治疗不当所致的诉讼案件Malpractice-治疗不当Mammography frequency-乳房x光检查频率Manageability-管理能力Mandatory-强迫、命令Maneuver-演戏、谨慎或熟练的动作、巧计Manifested-显示、证明Manipulation-操作Manufacture-制造Marital status-婚姻状况Mastectomy-乳房切除术Mechanoceptors-机械感受器Meditation-冥想Menstruation-月经Metaphors-隐喻Migraine-偏头痛Miniature-微型的Mirage-幻想、妄想Mitigate-减轻Mobilize-动员Morbidity-发病率Mortality-死亡率Mortal-致命的NNaturopathy-物理疗法Neglect-疏忽Neurology-神经科neuroticism-神经质Non febrile convulsions-非发热性痉挛Nonverbal-不用语言的Normative-规范的Norms-规范、准则Nurtured-培育OObesity-肥胖Objective-目标Obligations-义务obsession-强迫Obsolete-过时的Obstetrics-产科Occupation-工作Omnipresent-无所不在的Ontario-安大略湖、安大略省Optimism-乐观主义Organelles-细胞器Orientation-定位、情况介绍Otolaryngology-耳鼻喉科Overlap-部分重叠、重复Overrides-压倒Override-推翻、不顾PPaediatricians-儿科医生PAP smears-子宫颈涂片Paradigm-范例、模式paranoid-偏执Pathogenicity-致病性、病原性Pattern-模式Perceive-感知、认知Percentile-百分位；百分率的Peristalsis-蠕动Persistent-持续的Perspective-观点Pessimism-悲观主义pest control-害虫防治Pest-害虫、有害之人PE-体格检查PHE-公共卫生Pickings-抠（鼻）或剔（牙）pneumococcal-肺炎链球菌Polygraph-测谎仪Poverty-贫困precede-优先于Precepts-规则Precepts-戒律Precise-精确的、精密的、严格的Precursor-先驱、前导，先兆（症状）Predominance-显著Prescribe-开处方给医嘱Prescription-药方Prestige-威望Presymptomatic-症状发生前的Privileges-特权.Profession-专业Profiel-概括、简况Profoundly-深刻地Progress-进步Prominent-突出的卓越的Prospective study-前瞻性研究Provision-供给psychiatric disease-精神疾病Psychiatry-精神病学Pursuit-追求QRRange-范围Rapport-人际关系Rash-皮疹Recommendations-推荐规范Recurrent-复发的、周期性的Referrals-引荐Referral-转诊Refraining-调整认知refuse disposal-垃圾处理Regression analysis-回归分析Relay-接班、接力赛、接班人Reluctant-不情愿的Remit-缓和、免除Renovation-革新Residence-住处、居住Respondents-调查对象Retrospective surveys-回顾性研究Reveal-透露Rigid-严格的Rigour-僵硬Rigour-震颤risk sharing provision-风险分担规定Rituals-典礼、宗教仪式Royal-皇室Rubric-标题SSalutogenesis-健康本源学Sanitation-环境卫生Scapegoats-替罪羊Scattered-分散的Schizophrenia-精神分裂症scope-范围scratchings-刮伤Screening-筛查Self Assessed Health-自我健康评价Session-会议Shakes-震颤Sheer-纯；纯粹的；十足的；全然的、偏倚Shuttle-往返simple correlations-简单相关smoking cessation-戒烟Sneezing-打喷嚏SOC（sense of coherence）-条理感、一致感、统合感（是Antonovsky这个人提出来的一种人与其所处环境之间的和谐一致状态）Social contexts-社会环境social obligations-社会责任somatic symptoms-躯体症状Somatization-躯体化specialists-专科医生Specialization-专门化spousal-结婚的Squander-浪费、滥用staphylococcal-葡萄球菌所致的Stool-粪便Streptococcal-链球菌所致的Subjective-主观的、个人的、自觉的subsequent-随后的Substance abuse-药物滥用subtle cues-精细的线索Subtle-微妙的Suffocating-窒息的Surgery-外科Surveillance-监督Sweat-汗TTerminology-术语Term-术语Tertiary-第三的the irritable colon syndrome-结肠激惹综合症Therapists-治疗师Tinged-轻微地影响traps-陷阱Trauma-创伤Triggers-诱导Trivia-琐事UUltrasound-超声波Underreporting-报道不够、强调不够Unmet-未满足的Unrivaled-无敌的、无比的、至高无上的Unrivaled-至高无上的unwary-粗心的Uprooting-根除Urgency-紧迫VVaginal-阴道的Valuation-评价Vertical integration-纵向合并vital signs-主要症状Vomiting- 呕吐Vulnerable-易感、易受伤害的WWholesale-批量地Win(flatus)-屁Wind (flatus)-屁WONCA (World Organization of National College and Academies of General Practice/Family Medicine)-世界家庭医生组织Yyield-收益。
语言学Categorization
members of neighboring categories
they are much less informative relative to their immediate
2
superior category
they are frequently polymorphemic, the most common pattern
superordinate categories have fewer defining features than basic level categories
immediate superordinate of basic level categories often have a singleattribute relation to higher superordinate category
Categorization
definition:
is the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated, and understood. is a major ingredient in the creation of human knowledge.
linguistically, names for superordinate categories are often mass nouns when basic level terms are count l
a composite form typically combines two or more words that signify basis level categories,like rain coat, apple juice, and wheel chair.
刻板印象的理论与研究方法综述
杨亚平1，王沛21宁波大学教师教育学院，浙江宁波 (315211)2上海师范大学教育学院，上海（200234）E-mail：yaping.yang@摘要：刻板印象是指按照性别、种族、年龄或职业等进行社会分类，形成的关于某类人的固定印象，普遍认为它与某些特征和行为相联系。
自刻板印象这一概念提出以来，就引起了社会心理学界广泛而持久的研究兴趣，作为用以解释社会知觉与印象形成过程的重要操作性构念，刻板印象一直以来都是社会认知领域的核心研究课题。
本文对刻板印象研究的理论进展以及研究方法进行了系统的回顾和总结，以期为以后的研究提供理论和方法的依据。
关键词：刻板印象，理论模型，研究方法1．引言刻板印象这一术语是1922年Lippman在其著作《公众舆论》中提出的，它是指按照性别、种族、年龄或职业等进行社会分类，形成的关于某类人的固定印象，普遍认为它与某些特征和行为相联系；从认知理论的角度出发，刻板印象可以定义为“一种涉及知觉者的关于某个人类群体的知识、观念与预期的认知结构”[1]。
自刻板印象这一概念提出以来，就引起了社会心理学界广泛而持久的研究兴趣。
作为用以解释社会知觉与印象形成过程的重要的操作性构念，刻板印象一直是社会认知领域的研究热点。
早期的刻板印象研究主要集中于对刻板印象概念的界定，以及对不同群体刻板印象内容的评估。
然而从20世纪70年代初开始，受认知心理学的影响，刻板印象的研究开始从内容向加工转移，这时的研究主要集中在作为一种认知结构的刻板印象是如何发生的，它又是如何影响后继的信息加工以及群体成员之间的知觉和行为的；研究视角也开始逐渐从意识代码的角度演变到认知神经科学的角度。
2．刻板印象的主要理论模型从不同的角度出发，刻板印象的理论模型主要体现在三个方面：刻板印象的理论解释，刻板印象的表征模型以及刻板印象的功效模型，下面从各模型理论进展的做一概述。
2.1 刻板印象的理论解释刻板印象的理论解释，其研究进展的趋势是由社会认同理论、社会认知理论到社会环境影响理论。
categorization
CategorizationClassical Theory & Prototype Theory of CategorizationClassical theory: necessary and sufficient conditions Prototype theory: fuzzy boundaries + typicality effectsThe Classical TheoryThe ‘classical theory’of categorisation was the prevalent model since the time of Aristotle and holds that conceptual and linguistic categories have definitional structure. This means that an entity represents a category member by virtue of fulfilling a set of necessary and (jointly) sufficient conditions for category membership.Classical Definition of BachelorBACHELOR [+unmarried +male +adult]a. The Popeb. Tarzanc. An adult male living with his girlfriendd. A male homosexuale. A male homosexual living with his boyfriendf. A seventeen-year-old living on his own, running his own Internet firm, and dating several women. [cf. a seventeen-year-old living with his parents andgoing to school, who virtually all agree is not a bachelor]The definitional problem of the classical theoryIt is remarkably difficult to identify a precise set of conditions that are necessary and sufficient to define a category. This requires the identification of all those features that are shared by all members of a category (necessary features) and that together are sufficient to define that category (no more features are required). Game ExampleThe game example by Wittgenstein reveals that there is no single set of conditions that is shared by every member of the category GAME. While some games are characterised by AMUSEMENT, like tiddlywinks, others are characterised byLUCK, like dice games, still others by SKILL or by COMPETITION, like chess.In other words, it appears to be impossible to identify a definitional structure that neatly defines this category.The problem of conceptual fuzziness of the classical theoryA second problem with the classical view is that definitional structure entails that categories have definite and distinct boundaries. In other words, an entity either will or will not possess the ‘right’properties for category membership.FURNITURE: table chair TV set combBIRD: robin sparrow penguin ostrichThe problem of prototypicality of the classical theoryThe problem of prototypicality concerns what happens at the centre of a category.If each member of a category shares the same definitional structure, then each member should be equally ‘typical’.Table or chair are good (typical) examples of the category FURNITURE. Carpet is a less good example.From Classical Theory to Prototype Theory: Two ExperimentsExperimental psychology has shown that we use focal or prototypical colors as points of orientation, and comparable observations have also been made with categories denoting shapes, animals, plants and man-made objects.Experiment by Berlin and KayExperiment by LabovEarly Empirical Research into Lexical CategoriesThe result of the comparison of the focal colorsFocal colors are not only shared by the speakers of one and the same language but they are also very consistent across different languagesColor categorization is anchored in focal colors.The boundaries of color categories vary between languages and even between speakers of one language.Focal colors are shared by different speakers and different languagecommunities.Focal colors are perceptually more salient than non-focal colors. The attention of 3 year olds is more often attracted by focal than by non-focal colors, and 4 year olds match focal colors more accurately to a given display of other focal colors than non-focal colors.Focal colors are more accurately remembered in short-term memory and more easily retained in long-term memory.The names of focal colors are more rapidly produced in color-naming tasks and are acquired earlier by children.Focal colors appear to possess a particular perceptual-cognitive salience, which is probably independent of language.The salience of focal colors reflects certain physiological aspects of man’s perceptive mechanisms.Focal color might relate to certain universally occurring phenomena like day and night (white and black), the sun (red), vegetation (green), the sky (blue) and the ground (brown) (Wierzbicka 1990).Rosch replaced Berlin and Kay’s “focus”with prototype since “focal”suggests a central position. “Prototype”stood for artificially created “best examples”and focal colors were natural prototypes.Experiment by William Labov (1973, 1978)The fuzziness of category boundaries has many facets, of which context-dependenceIs one of the most important.Labov’s FindingsCategories do not represent arbitrary divisions of the phenomena of the world, but should be seen as based on the cognitive capacities of the human mind. Cognitive categories of colors, shapes, but also of organisms and concrete objects, are anchored in conceptually salient prototypes, which play a crucial part in the formation of categories.The boundaries of cognitive categories are fuzzy, i.e., neighboring categories are not separated by rigid boundaries, but merge into each other.Between prototypes and boundaries, cognitive categories contain members which can be rated on a typicality scale ranging from good to bad examples. Prototype theoryPrototype theory is most closely associated with the experimental research of cognitive psychologist Eleanor Rosch and her colleagues.Principles of categorisation(1) the principle of cognitive economy(2) the principle of perceived world structurePrinciple of cognitive economyThis principle states that an organism, like a human being, attempts to gain as much information as possible about its environment while minimising cognitive effort and resources. This cost-benefit balance drives category formation. In other words, rather than storing separate information about every individual stimulus experienced,humans can group similar stimuli into categories, which maintains economy in cognitive representation.Principle of perceived world structureThe world around us has correlational structure. For instance, it is a fact about the world that wings most frequently co-occur with feathers and the ability to fly (as in birds), rather than with fur or the ability to breathe underwater. This principle states that humans rely upon correlational structure of this kind in order to form and organise categories.The categorisation systemGood examples, bad examples and category boundariesCategory membership is not a yes-or-no distinction. Rather it involves different degrees of typicality.Categories are formed around prototypes, which function as cognitive reference points.Some concrete entities do not have clear-cut boundaries in reality: e.g., body parts Vagueness applies to boundaries of entities. Mountains are vague because they are not clearly delimited as individual entities.Fuzziness/fuzzy category boundary applies to boundaries of the cognitive categories. The cognitive category of MOUNTAIN (or KNEE or FOG) is fuzzy because it does not have clear boundaries either.Comparison of some attributes for ROBIN and OSTRICHThe Internal Structure of Categories: Prototypes, Attributes, Family Resemblances Categorization is the process in which experiences and concepts are recognized and understood. Categorization implies that concepts are classified into categories based on commonalities and usually for some specific purpose. Categorization is fundamental in decision making, in all kinds of interaction with the environment, and in language. Categorization is central issue in Cognitive Linguistics in which it is argued to be one of the primary principles of conceptual and linguistic organization. PrototypeA relatively abstract mental representation that assembles the key attributes or features that best represent instances of a given category. Accordingly, the prototype is viewed as a schematic representation of the most salient or central characteristics associated with members of the category in question. According to Prototype Theory, the prototype provides structure to and serves to organise a given category, a phenomnon known as prototype structure. An important consequence of this is that categories exhibit typicality effects.The Attribute Structure of Prototype CategoriesPrototypical members of cognitive categories have the largest number of attributes in common with other members of the category and the smallest number of attributes which also occur with members of neighbouring categories. This means that in terms of attributes, prototypical members are maximally distinct from the prototypical members of other categories.Bad examples (or marginal category members) share only a small number of attributes with other members of their category, but have several attributes which belong to other categories as well, which is, of course, just another way of saying that category boundaries are fuzzy.Family ResemblanceThe principle of family resemblances: raised by Ludwig Wittgeinstein in his much-quoted passage about the category GAME.Wittgenstein’s Conclusion: Games are connected by a network of overlapping similarities, which he called family resemblances.On a somewhat more abstract level, the principle of family resemblances has been defined as a set of items of the form AB, BC, CD, DE. That is, each item has at least one, and probably several, elements in common with one or more other items, but no, or few, elements are common to all items. (Rosch and Mervis 1975: 575)Levels of CategorizationTaxonomies of categories are organized into levels of categorization. There are three levels:Superordinate level: Superordinate categories are the most general ones. They are the ones that are at the top of a folk taxonomy).Basic, or generic, level: categories at the basic, or middle, level are perceptually and conceptually the more salient. The generic level of a category tends to elicit the most responses and richest images, providing a basic gestalt, and seems to be the psychologically basic level. Basic level categories are members of superordinate level categories.Subordinate level: Subordinate level categories are the most specific ones. They are the members of the basic level categories. They have clearly identifiable gestalts and many individuating specific features.Characteristics of prototypicality1) categories are defined in terms of a family of resemblance rather than by means of a set of necessary and sufficient features2) membership in a category is determined by the perceived distance of resemblance of the entity to the prototype, there is no clear-cut boundaries. But there is a continumm3) All members of a category don’t enjoy equal status.The context-dependence of prototypesThe hunter took his gun, left the lodge and called his dog. (retriever)Right from the start of the race the dogs began chasing the rabbit. (greyhound) She took her dog to the salon to have its curls reset. (poodle)The policemen lined up with the dogs to face the rioters. (Alsatian)What turns out the most likely member of a certain category depends on the context.The two-fold effect of contextThe context can change the weight of attributes that seem to be relevant for a certain category.The context can emphasize attributes that are not prominent and even introduce new attributes which would not be mentioned at all in non-contextualized attribute-listing experiments.。
英语单词全脑高效记忆法
英语单词全脑高效记忆法1. 分类记忆法（Categorization）。
将单词分为不同的类别，如动物、颜色、数字、食物等，便于记忆和提取。
例如：记忆数字0-9，将其分为“圆形数字”和“直线数字”，然后再针对每个类别进行具体记忆。
2. 联想记忆法（Association）。
将一个单词和另一个单词或者一个形象联系起来，便于形成记忆联想。
例如：记忆单词“apple”，可以联想到“a happy people”，这样可以使单词更加生动有趣，更容易记忆。
3. 故事记忆法（Storytelling）。
将单词串联成一个故事，使得单词之间相互联系，便于记忆和回忆。
例如：记忆单词“cat、bag、coat、bat”，可以编一个故事，如“一只猫拿着一个包和一件外套在玩蝙蝠”，这样可以使单词组成的故事更加生动有趣。
4. 视觉记忆法（Visualisation）。
通过图像化的方式来进行记忆，将单词转换成具体的图像或者场景，便于记忆和提取。
例如：记忆单词“car”，可以想象一张图片，其中有一辆汽车在行驶。
5. 缩写记忆法（Acronym）。
将单词的首字母组合起来，形成一个新的缩写单词，便于记忆和提取。
例如：记忆较长的单词“International Business Machine”，可以简化成“IBM”。
6. 词根词缀记忆法（Root and Affixes）。
词根指单词中具有独立意义的部分，词缀指单词中附加在词根之后的部分，通过记忆词根和词缀的组合形式，可以记忆单词的意义和用法。
例如：记忆单词“autobiography”，可以通过词根“auto”（自己）和“bio”（生命）以及词缀“graphy”（写作）分析出单词的意思。
7. 反复朗读记忆法（Repetition）。
通过反复朗读单词来进行记忆，可以帮助加深记忆和提高记忆的可靠性。
例如：背诵单词时可以反复的重复单词，直到能够熟练记忆。
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名词解释
1 categorization范畴化: Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences.
2 image schema意象图示: Mark Johnson defines an image schema as a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience.
3 language语言: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
4 duality二重性: the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.
5 competence语言能力: A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.
6 vowel元音: A vowel is produced without such “stricture” so that “air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose.”There is no obstruction of airstream.
7 concept概念: that something is abstract, which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our minds. This abstract thing is usually called concept.
8 phoneme音位: the word “phoneme”simply refers to a “unit of explicit sound contrast”:the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts.”
9 Inflection(屈折）：indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, the adding of inflectional affixes will not change the grammatical class of the stems.
10 Bound morpheme(粘浊语素）：those can not occur alone. They must appear with at least one different morpheme.
11 Lexeme(词位): the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language, which appears in different grammatical contexts.
12 Positional relation(位置关系): or word order, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.
13 Endocentric construction(向心结构): is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of word, which serves as a definable center or head.
14 Performatives(施为句): sentences do not describe things. They can not be said to be true or false. The uttering of these sentence is, or is a part of, the doing of an action.
15 Displacement(移位性): means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present( in time and space) at the moment of communication.。