alevel economics 基础 讲义
Alevel 中的经济词汇释义整合版
很多同学在学习A-level经济学课程的时候，A-level经济学专业词汇决定难背是一方面，还有就是经济学概念不太好理解，今天小编给大家收集一些常见的经济学词汇意思。
1 稀缺Scarcity有限的资源相对于人类无限的欲望总会显得不足，因而我们说资源是稀缺的。
稀缺并不意味着难以得到，而仅仅意味着，不付出代价就不能得到。
稀缺是每一个人所面对的现实。
即使是一个亿万富翁，他似乎可以拥有他想要的一切，但在他的字典里，仍然有“稀缺”这个词：他的时间是有限的，他可以得到一切，却没有时间一一地享受这一切。
2 自由物品Free Goods我们不用花钱就可以得到的物品被称为自由物品。
在这个稀缺的世界上，自由物品是一种例外，它们是大自然的恩赐。
不幸的是，因为人们不加珍惜，这种恩赐正在一样一样地减少。
空气曾经被公认为是自由物品，但是随着污染遍及世界的每个角落，自由地呼吸清洁的空气似乎越来越变成人们的一种奢望。
3 经济物品Economic Goods一种物品是稀缺的，需要花费代价才能得到，这种物品就是经济物品。
经济物品是稀缺的事实并不意味着它是难以得到的，而仅仅意味着，它是不能自由取用的。
“经济物品”前面的“经济”两个字就决定了这种物品绝对不是“免费的午餐”。
4 经济人Economic Man经济学家说，经济学研究的是人类的行为。
但是，世界上没有相同的两个人，他们的行为可能大相径庭，经济学家如何克服这个矛盾?很简单，经济学家从不关心具体某个人的行为，他们关注的是人类行为的共性。
在他们眼里，千差万别的活生生的个人都是经济人：不懈地追求自身最大程度满足的理性的人。
显然，经济人是自利的，但自利不等于自私。
举个例子来说，一个虔诚的基督教徒由于相信上帝的原因，会充满行善的愿望，他人得到幸福时，他会觉得自己更幸福——他是自利的，但并不自私。
5 理性行为Rational Behavior人们所追求的行动都是能让他们实现最大满足（效用）的行为。
爱德思 alevel经济学 考试内容
爱德思 alevel经济学考试内容Studying for the A-Level Economics exam can be a daunting task, but with the right approach and dedication, you can achieve success. It is essential to have a thorough understanding of economic concepts and theories to excel in this subject. A good grasp of microeconomics and macroeconomics is crucial for tackling the questions that may come up on the exam.准备A-Level经济学考试可能是一项艰巨的任务，但如果采取正确的方法和投入适当的精力，你就能取得成功。
要在这门学科中取得优异成绩，对经济概念和理论有透彻的理解是至关重要的。
对微观经济学和宏观经济学有良好的掌握是解答考试可能出现的问题的关键。
One key aspect of preparing for the A-Level Economics exam is practicing past papers. By going through previous years' exam questions and attempting to solve them, you can get a sense of the types of questions that might be asked in the upcoming exam. This will also help you familiarize yourself with the format of the exam and improve your time management skills.准备A-Level经济学考试的一个重要方面是练习往年的试题。
经济学基础教程课件第1章导论
经济学方法论
•实证与规范 •优化与均衡 边际分析 •经济模型
经济模型
明确定义 作出假设 提出假说 进行预测
经济方法论
➢经济学中的数学 ➢微观经济学和宏观经济学
宏观经济学... 微观经济学...
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alevel经济essay范文
A-Level经济Essay范文任务名称：A-Level经济Essay1. 引言•介绍A-Level经济Essay的背景和重要性•概述本文的结构和讨论内容2. 理解经济学的基础概念2.1 经济学的定义和作用•解释经济学的定义和其在现代社会中的作用•提到经济学对于政策制定和资源配置的重要性2.2 供求关系•解释供求关系的概念和作用•提及供求关系对于市场价格和数量的影响2.3 边际效应•解释边际效应的概念和原理•强调边际效应在经济决策中的应用3. 宏观经济学的重要理论3.1 国民生产总值（GDP）•解释国民生产总值（GDP）的概念和计算方法•强调GDP在衡量经济活动和经济增长中的重要性3.2 失业与通胀•分析失业和通胀的概念和相互关系•探讨失业和通胀对经济稳定和货币政策的影响3.3 货币供应与利率•讨论货币供应和利率的关系•分析货币政策对经济活动和通货膨胀的影响3.4 经济增长与发展•解释经济增长和发展的概念•探讨人力资本、技术创新和投资对经济发展的作用4. 微观经济学的重要理论4.1 供给和需求决定价格•解释供给和需求对价格决定的作用•强调市场机制对资源配置和利益分配的重要性4.2 市场结构和竞争•分析不同市场结构对竞争和价格形成的影响•探讨垄断和垄断竞争对经济效率和消费者福利的影响4.3 生产与成本理论•讨论生产函数和成本曲线的概念•强调生产效率和成本优化在企业决策中的作用4.4 国际贸易与全球化•讨论国际贸易和全球化的概念和重要性•分析贸易壁垒和自由贸易对国际经济关系的影响5. 政府在经济中的角色5.1 市场失灵•介绍市场失灵的概念和原因•探讨政府干预的必要性和方式5.2 税收与财政政策•分析税收对经济活动和财政政策的影响•强调财政政策在经济调控中的作用5.3 货币政策与央行•讨论货币政策对经济稳定和央行的角色•探讨货币政策工具和目标的选择5.4 社会福利与经济公平•分析社会福利和经济公平的概念和关系•强调政府在减少贫富差距和提高社会福利中的作用6. 结论•总结论点和讨论内容•强调经济学的重要性和应用领域注：本文仅为示范范文，具体内容请根据需要进行扩展和修改。
iGCSE经济学Economics讲义0103P1_3教材国际学校双语留学2
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The opportunity cost of building an additional airport terminal is the public housing for low-income families that the same government funds could have been used for. The opportunity cost of a school purchasing 100 laptops for use in the classroom might be the science equipment that cannot be bought as a result. Case Study: Government spending in Hong Kong In the 2013 Hong Kong Budget, the government announced the following: 17% of the budget would be spent on infrastructure 17% on education 14% on social welfare 12% on healthcare. The government raises a finite amount of taxation revenue and must decide how much of the budget to allocate to each area of public spending. There is an opportunity cost attached to the decisions made, as increased spending in one area may lead to decreased spending in another. Next Episode Preview P1.4 – Choice and Allocation of Resources – Production Possibility Curve Important Points Note:
文蓝名师精讲ALevel经济学Termsoftrade知识点讲解！
文蓝名师精讲ALevel经济学Termsoftrade知识点讲解！International trade 是open economy的重要研究范畴，不似micro 的切入点那么小，也不像macro眉毛胡子一把抓，但是因为其更加复杂多样，反而激起了同学们的strong curiosity。
从comparative advantage着手是研究为什么以及如何进行trade是必要的。
所以我们需要确定一个exchange rate of good以形容交换的比率，这就是terms of trade 的来源。
那么，换句话说，也就是说terms of trade 可以用来衡量一定时期内某个国家出口相对于进口的盈利能力和贸易利益，以此反应该国的对外贸易状况。
同学们一定还记得，如果两个在两种产品上具有相对优势的国家进行specialization过后,以A国对robot具有comparative advantage，B具有coffee的comparative advantage为例，则A exports robots and imports coffee，如果A生产coffee的opportunity cost为10个robot，此时如果A进口coffee的价格超过10个robot，A的状况则不及自己成产coffee，此时也就相当于export price/import price 下降了，是不是就意味着A的terms of trade 下降了，A过的international profitability下降了。
反之亦然；当然，我们这里仅仅是以两种产品为例，在面对无数类出口进口产品之时，我们便采取了类似计算inflation的方法，需要一个index来形容进出口整体price level 的变化，所以其实我们说的TOT是一个index of TOT。
话已至此，同学们应该可以理解为什么用terms of trade 来表示international competitiveness了吧！或许有同学会问，可以代表international competitiveness 只有TOT吗？在这里老师可以告诉大家当然不止，我们还有收入贸易条件和要素贸易条件，有兴趣的同学可以继续深究啊！还有需要提醒同学们注意的是，international competitiveness 不是price competitiveness！下面附上terms of trade的相关信息：Concept:The terms of trade is a concept that relates the prices that a country receives for its exports to the orices it pays for its imports, and can be defined asimprovement in the terms of trade：an increase in the value of the ratio of average export prices to average import prices. It involves a fall in the opportunity cost of imports.deterioration in the terms of trade：a decrease in the value of the ratio of average export prices to average import prices.It involves an increase in the opportunity cost of imports.Determinants:Causes of changes in the short termChanges in global demandChanges in global supplyChanges in the domestic rate of inflation relative to other countriesChanges in exchange ratesCauses of changes in the long termGrowth in incomes, affecting global demandChanges in productivityTechnological advancesTrade protection。
国际经济学讲义英文版
Course Syllabus of International EconomicsFor undergraduate student who major in economics(Class hours:72)Course Description:This course is designed for undergraduate student who have had a course in economic principles, but do not have the opportunity to study international trade and money on a regular basis.Course Objective:·To grasp and retain the underlying theory of international trade and money.·To show the intellectual advances in this dynamic field.·To provide an up-to date and understandable analytical framework for illuminating trade policy, past and current.·To review principles of economics as necessary.Course Contents and Schedule:Textbook and Reference Books:Textbook·Paul , Maurice Obstfeld. International Economics , 6e, 清华大学出版社，2004. Reference Books·[美]保罗•克鲁格曼，茅瑞斯•奥伯斯法尔德，《国际经济学》，第五版，中译本，中国人民大学出版社，2003.·李坤望主编，《国际经济学》，第二版，高等教育出版社，2005.·姜波克、杨长江编著，《国际金融学》，第二版，高等教育出版社，2004. ·Dominick Salvatore. International Economics, Prentic Hall International , 8e, 清华大学出版社，2006.PREFACE§ place of this book in the economics curriculum§ Distinctive Features of International Economics: Theory and PolicyThis book emphasized several of the newer topics that previous authors failed to treat in a systematic way :·Asset market approach to exchange rate determination.·Increasing returns and market structure.·Politics and theory of trade policy.·International macroeconomic policy coordination·The world capital market and developing countries.·International factor movements.§3. Learning Features·Case studies·Special boxes·Captioned diagrams·Summary and key terms·Problems·Further readingCHAPTER 1 Introduction§1. What Is International Economics About?Seven themes recur throughout the study of international economics :·The gains from trade(national welfare and income distribution)·The pattern of trade·Protectionism·The balance of payments·Exchange rate determination·International policy coordination·International capital market§2. International Economics: Trade and Money·Part I (chapters 2 through 7) :International trade theory·Part II (chapters 8 through 11) : International trade policy·Part III (chapters 12 through 17) : International monetary theory·Part IV (chapters 18 through 22) : International monetary policyCHAPTER 2Labor Productivity and Comparative Advantage:The Ricardin Model*Countries engage in international trade for two basic reasons :·Comparative advantage : countries are different in technology (chapter 2) or resource (chapter 4).·Economics of scale (chapter 6).*All motives are at work in the real world but only one motive is present in each trade model.§1. The Concept of Comparative Advantage1.Opportunity cost: The opportunity cost of roses in terms of computers is the number of computers that could have been produced with the resources used to produce a given number of roses.Table 2-1 Hypothetical Changes in ProductionMillion Roses Thousand ComputersUnited States －10 ＋100South America ＋10 －30Total 0 ＋70advantage: A country has a comparative advantage in producing a good if the opportunity cost of producing that good in terms of other goods is lower in that country than it is in other countries.·Denoted by opportunity cost.·A relative concept : relative labor productivity or relative abundance.3. Comparative advantage and trade : Trade between two countries can benefit both countries if each country exports the goods in which it has a comparative advantage. §2. A One-Factor Economypossibilities : a LC Q C + a LW Q LW≤LFigure 2-1Home’s Production Possibility Frontierprice and supply·Labor will move to the sector which pays higher wage.·If P C/P W>a L C/a LW (P C/a L C>P W/a LW, wages in the cheese sector will be higher ), the economy will specialize in the production of cheese.·In a closed economy, P C/P W =a L C/a LW.§3. Trade in a One-Factor World·Model : 2×1×2·Assume: a L C/a LW< a L C*/a LW*Home has a comparative advantage in cheese.Home’s relative productivity in cheese is higher.Home’s pretrade relative price of cheese is lower than foreign.·The condition under which home has this comparative advantage involves all fourunit labor requirement, not just two.(If each country has absolute advantage in one good respectively, will there exist comparative advantage?)the relative price after trade·Relative price is more important than absolute price, when people make decisions on production and consumption.·General equilibrium analysis: RS equals RD. (world general equilibrium)·RS: a “step” with flat sections linked by a vertical section.(L/a L C)/(L*/a LW*)Figure 2-3World Relative Supply and Demand·RD: subsititution effects·Relative price after trade: between the two countries’ pretrade price.(How will the size of the trading countries affect the relative price after trade? Which country’s living condition improve more? Is it possible that a country produce both goods?)gains from tradeThe mutual gain can be demonstrated in two alternative ways.·To think of trade as an indirect method of production :(1/a L C)( P C/P W)>1/a LW or P C/P W>a L C/a LW·To examine how trade affects each country’s possibilities of consumption.Figure 2-4Trade Expands ConsumptionPossibilities(How will the terms of trade change in the long-term? Are there incomedistribution effects within countries? )numerical example :·Two crucial points :(1)When two countries specialize in producing the goods in which they have a comparative advantage, both countries gain from trade.(2)Comparative advantage must not be confused with absolute advantage; it is comparative, not absolute, advantage that determines who will and should produce a good.Table 2-2 Unit Labor RequirementsCheese WineHome a LC=1 hour per pound a LW=2 hours per gallonForeign a*L C=6 hours per pound a*L W=3 hours per gallon Analysis: absolute advantage; relative price; specialization;the gains from trade.wages·It is precisely because the relative wage is between the relative productivities that each country ends up with a cost advantage in one good.·Relative wages depend on relative productivity and relative demand on goods. Special box : Do wages reflect productivity ?Table 2-3 Changes in Wages and Unit Labor CostsCompensation Compensation Annual Rate of Increaseper Hour, 1975Per Hour,2000in Unit Labor Costs,(US=100) (US=100) 1979-2000United States 100 100South Korea 5 41Taiwan 6 30Hong Kong 12 28 NASingapore 13 37 NASource: Bureau of Labor Statistics（foreign labor statistics home page, ）·Debates about relative wages and relative labor productivity.·Long-run convergence in productivity produces long-run convergence in wages.§4. Misconceptions About Comparative AdvantageThe proposition that trade is beneficial is unqualified. That is, there is no requirement that a country be “competitive” or that the trade be “fair”.and competitivenessmyth1:Free trade is beneficial only if your country is strong enough to stand up to foreign competition.·The gains from trade depend on comparative advantage rather than absolute advantage.·The competitive advantage of an industry depend on relative labor productivity and relative wage.·Absolute advantage: neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for comparative advantage (or for the gains from trade).pauper labor argumentmyth2: Foreign competition is unfair and hurts other countries when it is based on low wages.·Whether the lower cost of foreign export goods is due to high productivity or low wages does not matter. All that matter to home is that it is more efficient to “produce” those goods indirectly than to produce directly.myth3:Trade exploits a country and make it worse off if its workers receive much lower wage than workers in other nations.·Whether they and their country are worse off?·What is the alternative ?(if it refuse to trade, real wages would be even lower ).§5. Comparative Advantage With Many Goods·Model: 2×1×n·For any good we can calculate a Li /a Li*, label the goods so that the lower the number, the lower this ratio.a L1/a L1*<a L2/a L2*<…<a LN/a LN *(or a L1*/a L1>a L2*/a L2>…>a LN*/a LN)wages and specialization·Any good for which a Li*/a Li>w/w* will be produced in home. (Relative productivity is higher than it’s relative wage, wa Li<w*a Li*, goods will always be produced where it is cheapest to make them.)·All the goods to the left of the cut end up being produced in home.Table 2-4 Home and Foreign Unit Labor RequirementsRelative HomeHome Unit Labor Foreign Unit Labor ProductivetyRequirement(a Li)Requirement(a*Li)Advantage(a*Li/a Li)Apples 1 10 10Bananas 5 40 8Caviar 3 12 4Dates 6 12 2Enchiladas 12 9If w/w*=3, A、B、C will be produced in Home and D、E in Foreign.·Is such a pattern of specialization beneficial to both countries?(Hint: Comparing the labor cost of producing an import good directly and indirectly).the relative wage in the multigood model·w/w*: RD of labor equals RS of labor.·The relative derived demand for home labor (L/L*) will fall when the ratio of hometo foreign wages (w/w*) rises, because:(1)The goods produced in home became relative more expensive.(2)Fewer foods will be produced in home and more in foreign.Figure 2-5 Determination of relative of wages.RD: derived form relative demand for home and foreign goods.RS: determined by relative size of home and foreign labor force (Labor can’t move between countries).§6. Adding Transport Costs and Nontraded Goods·There are three main reasons why specialization in the real international economy is not so extreme:(1)The existence of more than one factor of production(2)Protectionism(3)The existence of transport cost.Eg: Suppose transport cost is a uniform fraction of production cost , say 100 percents.For goods C and D in table 2-4:D: Home 6hours < 12hours×1/3×2 foreignC: Home 3hours×2 >12hours×1/3 foreignThus, C and D became nontraded goods.·In practice there is a wide range of transportation costs.In some cases transportation is virtually impossible: services such as haircut and auto repair ; goods with high weight-to-value ratio, like cement.·Nontraded goods : Because of absence of strong national cost advantage or because of high transportation cost.·Nations spend a large share of their income on nontraded goods.§7. Empirical Evidence on the Ricardian Model·Misleading predictions :(1)An extreme degree of specialization.(2)Neglect the effects on income distribution.(3)Neglect differences in resources among countries as a cause of trade.(4)Neglect economics of scale as a cause of trade.·The basic prediction of the Ricardian model has been strongly confirmed by a number of studies over years.(1)Countries tend to export those goods in which their productivity is relative high.(2)Trade depend on comparative not absolute advantage.Figure 2-6Productivity and exportsAnswers to Problems of Chapter 21. a. b. a LA/ a LB=3/2=c. P A/ P B= a LA/ a LB=2. a.b.If the relative price of apples after trade is between and 5 Home and Foreign will specialize in the production of apples and bananas respectively. The world relative supply of apples is 3. a .RD include the pointsb. the equilibrium relative price of apples is P A /P B =2c. Home produces only apples and trades them for bananasForeign produces only bananas and trade them for applesd. Home ：(1/ a LA )（P A /P B ）=（1/3）×2= Foreign ：(1/*LB a )（P A /P B ）=（1/1）× =4.211/8003/1200//**==LB LA a L a L 21/132=>LB a 51/121*=>LA a 21)212()11()2,21()5,51(，、，、、The equilibrium relative price of apples is , it equals pretread relative price of apples in Home, So Home produces both apples and bananas, neither gains nor loss form trade; Foreign produces only bananas and trades it for apples, Foreign gains from trade.answer is identical to that in problem3 since the amount of “effective labor”has not changed.6.·Pauper labor argument.·Relative wage reflects relative productivity, international trade can’t change it ·Trading with a less productive and low-wage country will rise, no lower its standard of living.7.·to determine comparative advantage need for all four unit labor requirements (forboth the manufacture and the service sectors)·is an absolute advantage in services, this is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for determining comparative advantage.·The competitive advantage depends on both relative productivity and relative wages.8. ·*ωω=·Since . is considerably more productive in services, Service prices are relative low.·Most services are nontraded goods·P= , . purchasing power is higher than that of Japan.9.·The gains from trade decline as the share of the nontraded goods increases, notrade, no gains.10.·Label the countries so that(a LC /a LW )1<(a LC /a LW )2…<( a LC /a LW )N·Any country to the left of RD produces cheese and trades it for countries to right of RD produces wine and trades it for cheese.·If the intersection occurs in a horizontal portion, the Country with that a LC /a LW produces both goods.*LSLSaa<*31PCHAPTER 3Specific Factors and Income Distribution* The failures of the Ricardian model·A n extreme degree of specialization.·W ithout effects on the income distribution.( because it supposes labor is the only factor )* There are two main reasons why international trade has strong effects on the distribution of income.·S hort-term: specific factor, chapter3.·L ong-term: relative abundance and relative intensity, chapter4. (resource endowment theory or factor proportions theory ).* What is a specific factor?Specific factor: --- can be used only in the particular sector.Mobile factor: --- can move between sectors.·Think of factor specificity as a matter of time.·Labor is less specific than most kinds of capital.§1. The Specific Factors Modelof the model : 2×3×2.·America and Japan;·Labor (L)、Capital (K)、Terrain (T) ;mobile factor specific factorQ M=Q M(K,L M)、Q F=Q F(T,L F)、L=L M+L F·Manufacture and Food.possibilities·Production of manufactures and food is determined by the allocation of labor.Figure 3-3·Because of diminishing returns, PP is a bowed-out curve instead of a straight line. ·The slope of PP, which measures the opportunity cost of manufacture in terms of food is =MPL F/MPL M.dQ F/dQ M=(dQ F/dL)/(dQ M/dL)=－MPL F /MPL M=－1/MPL M* MPL F; (MPL F↑/MPL M↓)↑, wages, and labor allocation·The demand for labor: MPL M*P M=W M , MPL F*P F=W F·The allocation of labor: W M=W F , L=L M+L FFigure3—4P M、P F L M、L F Q M、Q F·The production of specific factor modelMPL M*P M=MPL F*P F=W MPL F/MPL M=P M/P F(opportunity cost=relative price)Figure 3-5distribution of income within the manufacturing sectorFigure 3-2MPL M*dL Mtotal income: Q M=∫Lwages: (W/P M)*L MMPL M*dL M (W/P M)*L Mincome of capitalists: ∫L·What happens to the allocation of labor and the distribution of income when P M andP F change? ( Figure3-6. 3-7. 3-8 )① Notice that any price change can be broken into two parts : an equal proportional change in P M and P F , and a change in only one price.Eg: P M↑P M↑10% + P M↑7%P F↑F↑10%② A equal proportional change in price have no real effects on the real wage, real income of capital owner and land owner.Figure 3-6③ A change in relative priceFigure 3-7·Wage rate rise less than the increase in P M.·Labor shifts from the food sector to the manufacturing sector andQ M rises while Q F falls.Figure 3-8 P M/P F↑5. Relative prices and the distribution of income①A rise in P M benefits the owners of capital , hurts the owner of land.Figure 3A-3W/ P M↓, income of capitalists in term of P M rises (the shadow), income of capitalists in term of P M、P F rises.Figure 3A-4②Because W/P M drops and W/P F rises, the real wage of the workers is uncertain. Itdepends on their consumptions structure.§2. International Trade in the Specific Factors Model·For trade to take place, the two countries must differ in P M/ P F. If RD is the same, RS is the source of trade ; if technologies is also the same , differences in resources can affect RS.Figure 3-9and relative supplyAn increase in the capital stock (capital per worker) raises the marginal product of K↑M↑Q M↑Q F↓,RS shift to the right.Figure 3-10Correspondingly, T MPL F↑M↓Q F↑, RS shift to the left. Suppose L J=L A , K J>K A, T J<T Aor(K/L)J>(K/L)A,(T/L)J<(T/L)A).Then the situation will look like that in Figure 3-11.Figure 3-11pattern of trade·The amount of the economy can afford to import is limited by the amount it exports. ·Budget constraint: D F－Q F =( P M/ P F)×(Q M－D M)import exportFigure3-12two fectures:①slope = －P M/P F②tangent PF at the production point after trade. ·The budget constraint and the trading equilibrium.Figure 3-13Japan: ( P M/P F)↑Q M↑Q F↓, D M↓D F↑,Figure 3-13 continuedAmerican: ( P M/ P F)↑Q M↓Q F↑, D M↑D F↓,§3. Income Distribution and the Gains from Tradedistribution: who gains and who loses from international trade?·Trade benefits the factor that is specific to the export sector of each country but hurts the factor to the import-competing sectors, with ambiguous effects on mobile factors.gains from trade.Does trade make each country better off?Is trade potentially a source of gain to everyone?Figure 3-14① The pretrade production and consumption point is shown as point 2.② Part of the budget constraint (AB) represents situations in which the economyconsumes more of both manufacture and food than it could in the absence of trade (point2).③ It is possible in principle for a country’s government to use taxes and subsidiesto redistribute income to give each individual more of both goods.·The fundamental reason why trade potentially benefits a country is that it expands the economy’s choices. This expansion of choice means that it is always possible to redistribute income in such a way that everyone gains from trade.§4. The Political Economy of Trade: A Preliminary ViewThere are two ways to look at trade policy:(1) (Normative analysis) Given its objectives, what should the government do?What is the optimal trade policy?(2) (Positive analysis) What are the governments likely to do in practice?trade policy·Economists: to maximize the national welfare, free international trade is the optimal policy.·Three main reasons why economists do not regard the income distribution effects of trade as a good reason to limit trade (P57).distribution and trade politics·An example : an import quota : . sugar (P200).·Problems of collective action (P 231).·Typically, those who lose from trade in any particular product are a much more concentrated, informed, and organized group than those who gain.·The formulation of trade policy: A kind of political process.Special box: Specific factors and the beginning of trade theory.CHAPTER 4Resources and Trade:The Heckscher-Ohlin Model(Factor Endowment Theory)*Comparative advantage is influence by the interaction between relative abundance and relative intensity.*Relative abundance: the proportions of different factors of production are available in different countries.If(T/L)H<(T/L)F, Home is labor-abundant and Foreign is land-abundant“per captia”,“relative” , no country is abundant in everything.*Relative intensity: the proportions of different factors of production are used in producting different goods.At any given factor prices, if (T C/L C)<(T F/L F), production of Cloth is labor-intensive and production of Food is land-intensive. A good can’t be both labor-intensive and land-intensive.(Factor-proportions theory)§1. A Model of Two-Factor Economy1. Assumption of the modelThe same two factors are used in both sectors: T、L ; Cloth、Food.(1)Alternative input combinations: In each sector, the ratio of land to labor used in production depends on the cost of labor relative to the cost of land, w/r.Figure 4A-2w/r↑T↑L↓T/L↑(T C/L C↑and T F/L F↑)(2) Relative intensityAt any given wage-rental ratio, food production use a higher land-labor ratio, foodproduction is land-intensive and cloth production is labor-intensive.Figure 4-2price and goods prices(1)One-to-one relationshipBecause cloth production is labor-intensive while food production is land-intensive. The one dollar worth isoquant line of cloth and food are shown as 4-3-1 two isoquants CC and FF are tangent to the same unit isocost line.Figure 4-3-1When P C rises, the slope of the unit isocost line w/r rises, that is, there is one-to-one relationship between factor price ratio w/r and the relative price of cloth P C/P F (Figure4-3-2). The relationship is illustrated by the curve SS.(Suppose the economy produce both cloth and food).Figure 4-3-2Figure 4-3-3(2)Stolper-Sammelson effectIf the relative price of a good rises, the real income of the factor which intensivly used in that good will rise, while the real income of the other factor will fall.↑↑T C/L C↑,T F/L F↑MPL C↑, MPL F↑W/P C↑, W/P F↑Figure 4-4and output(1)Relative price、resources and productionGiven the prices of cloth and food and the supply of land and labor, it is possible to determine how much of each resource the economy devoted to the production of each good; and thus also to determine the econom y’s output of each good.Figure4-5.The slope of OcC is Tc/Lc, the slope of O F F is T F/L F(2)Rybczynski effectIf goods prices remain unchanged, an increase in the supply of land will rise the output of food more than proportion to this increase, while the output of cloth will fall.Figure4-6T↑T F↑L F↑;T C↓L C↓Q F↑Q C↓Rybczynski effect: At unchanged relative goods price, if the supply of a factor of production increases, the output of the good that are intensive in that factor will rise, while the output of the other good will fall.Figure 4-7·The economy could produce more of both cloth and food than before.·A biased expansion of production possibilities.·An economy will tend to be relatively effective at producing goods that are intensive in that factors with which the country is relative well-endowed.§of International Trade Between Two-Factor Economies1. Resources、relative prices and the pattern of tradeAs always, Home and Foreign are similar along many dimentions, such as relative demand and technology. The only difference between the countries is their resources: Home has a lower ratio of land to labor than Foreign does.·relative abundance relative supply relative prices trade(T/L)H<(T/L)F (T C/L C)<(T F/L F)RS lies to the right of RS*,(P C/P F)H<( P C/P F)F Home trade Cloth for Food,Foreign trade Food for Cloth.·H-O proposition: Countries tend to export goods whose production is intensive in factors with which they are abundantly endowed.Figure 4-82. Trade and the distribution of income·According to Stolper-Samuelson effect, a rise in the price of cloth raises the purchasing power of labour in terms of both goods, while lowering the purchasing power of land in terms of both goods. Thus,in Home,laborers are made better off while landowners are made worse off.·Owners of a country’s abundant factors gain from trade,but owners of a country’s scare factors lose.·The distinction between income distribution effects due to immobility and those due to differences in factor intensity.The specific factor model: Sectors; temporary and transitional problemThe H-O model: Factors; permanent problem·Resources and trade (factor endowment theory)Short-run analysis: The specific factor modelLong-run analysis: H-O model3. Factor price equalization·Factor price equalization proposition: International trade produces a convergence of relative goods prices. This convergence, in turns, causes the convergence of the relative factor prices. Trade leads to complete equalization of factor prices. (Figure4-8,4-4 or Figure 4A-3)Figure 4A-3·One-dollar-worth isoquant lines.·G oods’ price and technologies are the same, so CC、FF are the same inboth countries.·w/r are the same in both countries.·In an indirect way the two countries are in effect trading factors of production. （Home exports labor: more labor is embodied in Home’s exports than its imports；Foreign exports land: more land is embodied in F oreign’s exports than its imports.）·In the real world factor prices are not equalized (Table4-1). Why?Table 4-1 Comparative lnternational Wage Rates(United States=100)Hourly compensationCountry of production workers,2000United States 100Germany 121Japan 111Spain 55South Korea 41Portugal 24Mexico 12Sri Lanka* 2*1969. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Foreign Labor Staistics Home Page.Three assumptions crucial to the prediction of factor price equalization are in reality certainly untrue.(1)Both countries produce both goods.(Trading countries are sufficiently similar intheir relative factor endowments)(2)Technologies are the same.(Trade actually equalizes the prices of goods in twocountries).(3)There are barriers to trade: natural barriers (such as transportation costs) andartificial barriers (such as tariffs, import quotas, and other restrictions).Case study: North-south trade and income inequality·Why has wage inequality in . increased between the late 1970s and the early 1990s?(1)Many observers attribute the change to the growth of world trade and inparticular to the growing exports of manufactured goods from NIEs.Table 4-2 Composition of Developing-Country Exports(Percent of Total)Agricultural Mining ManufacturedProducts Products Goods1973 30 221995 14Source: World Trade Organization(2)Most empirical workers believed that trade has been at most a contributingfactor to the growing inequality and that the main villain is technology.§3. Empirical Evidence on the H-O Model1.Tests on dataTable 4-3 Factor Content of and lmports for 1962Imports ExportsCapital per million dollars $2,132,000 $1,876,000 Labor(person-years) per million dollars 119 131 Capital-labor ratio (dollars per worker) $17,916 $14,321 Average years of education per workerProportion of engineers and scientists in work forceSource:Rodert Baldwin,“Determinants of the Commodity Structure of Ecomomic Review61(March1971), ·Leontief paradox: . exports were less capital-intensive than . imports. (Capital-labor ratio)·. exports were more skilled labor-intensive and technology-intensive than its imports. (Average years of education; scientists and engineers per unit of sales)·A plausible explanation: . may be exporting goods that heavily use skilled labor and innovative entrepreneurship(such as aircraft and computer chips), while importing heavy manufactures that use large amounts of capital (such as automobiles).on global dataTable 4-4 Testing the Heckscher-Ohlin ModelFactor of Production Predictive Success*CapitalLaborProfessional workersManagerial workersClerical workersSales workersService workersAgricultural workersProduction workersArable landPasture landForest*Fraction of countries for which net exports of factor runs in predicted direction.Source: Harry , Edward , and Leo Sveikauskas,“Multicountry, Multifactor Tests of the Factor Abundance Theory,”American Economic Review 77(December 1987), .·If the factor-proportion theory was right, a country would always export factors for。
alevel economics 基础 讲义 ppt课件
•Resources can also be called the
factors of production.
Three categories of resources
•Land •Labour •Capital
Economics is the study of society’s decisions about
– production – consumption – allocation of scarce resources
in order to satisfy as many unlimited wants as possible.
−Earlier: axe, bow and arrow
−Now: buildings, production equipment, software, factories.
– the social implications of choice society i.e. taking
into consideration how a certain choice may have an indirect cost on
7
Resources
•Resources are the basic categories
lawyers
Entrepreneurship is a special type of labour the creative ability of individuals to manage the combination of resources to produce products.
alevel的高数知识概要 -回复
alevel的高数知识概要-回复[A-level高数知识概要]高等数学是一门重要的数学课程，它是大学数学的基础。
在A-level数学中，高等数学起到了承上启下的作用，既是高中数学的延伸，也是大学数学的预备。
本文将从基本概念、函数与极限、导数与微分、积分以及微分方程等方面，详细介绍A-level高等数学的知识要点。
第一部分：基本概念在学习高等数学之前，我们首先需要了解基本概念。
数学的基本概念有实数、复数、集合、数列等。
实数包括有理数和无理数两部分，有理数是可以表示成两个整数之比的数，无理数是不能表示成两个整数之比的数，例如根号2。
复数是由实部和虚部构成的数，通常用a+bi的形式表示，其中a是实部，b是虚部。
集合是具有特定性质的事物的总体，数学中有很多集合，例如自然数集、整数集、实数集等。
数列是数的按照一定顺序排列的一个序列，例如等差数列和等比数列。
第二部分：函数与极限函数是数学中的一种重要关系，它将一个集合中的每个元素映射到另一个集合中的唯一元素。
数学中常见的函数有多项式函数、指数函数、对数函数、三角函数等。
极限是函数在某一点或无穷远处的特征值，用来描述函数的趋势和性质。
研究函数极限时，我们需要学习邻域、数列极限以及无穷小量等概念。
邻域是指函数在某一点附近的取值范围，数列极限是指数列中的值随着自变量的变化趋于某个常数，无穷小量是指当变量趋于无穷大或无穷小时，函数值无限趋近于0。
第三部分：导数与微分导数是函数在某一点的变化速率，是描述函数局部行为的重要工具。
学习导数时，我们需要掌握导数的定义、求导法则以及常见函数的导数。
导数的定义是极限的概念，表示函数在某一点的切线斜率。
求导法则是用来求解不同函数导数的公式，包括常数倍、和差、乘积、商数法则以及复合函数法则等。
常见函数的导数是指常见函数的导数表达式，如幂函数、指数函数、对数函数以及三角函数的导数等。
微分是函数局部变化的线性近似。
学习微分时，我们需要了解微分的定义、微分的性质以及微分的应用。
经典经济学入门教材英文讲义1(Principles of Economic)
Utility Theory
• Utility is the degree of a preference an individual assigns to a state. If situa tion A is preferred to B, we say that A offers a higher utility than B.
Monotonicity examples
• Suppose values of y and x must be pos itive. In all of the following, y is a monotonic transformation of x:
–y –y –y –y = = = = 2x x+4 x^2 ln(x)
Monotonicity
• g(x) is a monotonic transformation of f(x) if, for all x1 and x2, f(x1) <, =, > f(x2) if and only if g(x1) <, =, > g (x2)
• In other words, monotonic transformat ions are order preserving. • Utility functions are equivalent to m onotonic transformations of themselve s
Branches of Economics
• Microeconomics is the study of how ho useholds and firms make decisions and how they interact in specific markets .
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alevel economics 基础 讲义
2
• Human wants are unlimited, but • Resources are limited (scarce) • A central problem therefore exists…we call
this the problem of SCARCITY
alevel economics 基础 讲义
6
6 Microeconomic Issues
– demand and supply decisions of what to produce, how to produce, for whom to produce
– the concept of opportunity cost based on comparing what
nature used in the process of production
•For example: forests, minerals,
wildlife, oil, rivers, lakes, oceans
•May be renewable or non-
renewable
alevel economics 基础 讲义© 2007 Pearson Education Australia
alevel economics 基础 讲义
3 Definition of economics
Economics is the study of society’s decisions about
– production – consumption – allocation of scarce resources
– the social implications of choice society i.e. taking
into consideration how a certain choice may have an indirect cost on
alevel economics 基础 讲义Biblioteka 7Resources
you have decided vs what is the next best alternative you have given up
– rational decision making based on cost vs benefit; best value for
money
– weighing up marginal costs and marginal benefits based on comparing the extra benefit with the extra cost
in order to satisfy as many unlimited wants as possible.
alevel economics 基础 讲义
4
4 Two branches of economics
• Microeconomics is the branch of economics that studies decision-making by a single individual, household, firm, industry or level of government.
• Macroeconomics is the branch of economics that studies decision-making for the economy as a whole.
alevel economics 基础 讲义
5
5 Macroeconomic Issues
– aggregate demand, aggregate supply – economic growth – unemployment – inflation – balance of trade – exchange rates
Three categories of resources
•Land •Labour •Capital
alevel economics 基础 讲义© 2007 Pearson Education Australia
Resources: land
•Any natural resource provided by
•Resources are the basic categories
of inputs used to produce goods and services.
•Resources can also be called the
factors of production.
alevel economics 基础 讲义© 2007 Pearson Education Australia
A-LEVEL Microeconomics basic
alevel economics 基础 讲义
1 What is Economics about? The problem of scarcity
• Economics is the study of how society chooses to allocate its scarce resources to the production of goods and services in order to satisfy unlimited wants.
Resources: labour
•The mental and physical capacity of
workers to produce goods and services
•For example: farmers, nurses,
lawyers
Entrepreneurship is a special type of labour the creative ability of individuals to manage the combination of resources to produce products.