实用英语修辞PracticalEnglishRhetoric

Practical English RhetoricI. Introduction1. What Is Rhetoric?Rhetoric is the art or science of communication in words.Longman Modern English Dictionary修辞是依据题旨情境，运用各种语言材料，各种表现手法，恰当地表现写说者所要表达的内容的语言活动。

《辞海》Rhetoric is choice in a context for a purpose.(Patrick Hartwell: Open to Language)修辞学，照我们的看法，应该是在各种可供选择的语言手段之间，各个词语之间，各种句式之间，各种风格之间进行选择，选择那些最适合、最需要的，用于当前特定的目的。

吕叔湘修辞就是选择。

张志公Summary1. Rhetoric is the art or science of effective communication in words. Whether speaking or writing, one has to get oneself across effectively, ., to be eloquent, accurate, impressive, persuasive and expressive. The study of how to express oneself effectively is the main concern of rhetoric.2. Effective communication is based on precise and appropriate choice of words, sentence patterns and figures of speech, etc. In other words, rhetoric is choice of linguistic means and choice of ways of expression. So, in this sense, rhetoric is “choice”.2. Classification of English RhetoricCommunicative Rhetoric交际修辞：炼字；锻句Aesthetic Rhetoric美学修辞：各种修辞格Communicative rhetoric lays particular stress on lexical accuracy, structural meticulousness and contextual appropriateness so as to bring its linguistic communicative role into full play.Example (1)She sat at the window watching the evening invade the avenue. Her head was leaned against the window curtains and in her nostrils was the odor of dusty cretonnes.She was tired.(James Joyce: “Eveline”) Example (2)Dick Boulton looked at the doctor. Dick was a big man. He knew how big a man he was. He liked to get into fights. He was happy. Eddie and Billy Tabeshaw leaned on their cant hooks and looked at the doctor. The doctor chewed the beard on his lower lip and looked at Dick Boulton. Then he turned away and walked up the hill to the cottage. They could see from his back how angry he was. They all watched him walk up the hill and go inside the cottage.(E. Hemingway: “The Doctor and the Doctor’s Wife”)Aesthetic rhetoric gives special emphasis to the employment of figures of speech in virtue of imagination and association so that the language used will be more colorful and expressive, the images created on the reader’s mind will be more vivid and impressive. As a result, the writing will be more persuasive and of more artistic appeal.Example (3)We are resolved to destroy Hitler and every vestige of the Nazi regime. From this nothing will turn us—nothing. We will never parley, we will never negotiate with Hitler or any of his gang. We shall fight him by land, we shall fight him by sea, we shall fight him in the air until, with God’s…(Churchill: “Speech on Hitler’s Invasion of theExample (4)She looked bloated, like a body long submerged in motionless water, and of that pallid hue. Her eyes, lost in the fatty ridges of her face, looked liked two small pieces of coal pressed into a lump of dough as they moved from one face to another while the visitors stated their errand.(William Faulkner: “A Rose for Emily”)3. Why Is Rhetoric to Be Learned?Rhetoric is ubiquitous. It permeates our life. Without rhetoric there would be no media, no language, no life.实用英语修辞是一门重要的课程，它对于提高英语学习者对语言的悟性，增强他们语言表达的得体性至关重要。

从理论上看，修辞学可以帮助我们揭示人类的语言之迷，阐明人类的认知活动，而且具有美学价值。

从实用方面上看，实用英语修辞一是可以帮助学习者提高英语表达能力，即运用于说、写和译；一是提高英语理解能力，即运用于读和听。

II. Communicative Rhetoric1. Choice of Words1)Basic Rules of Word ChoiceTo communicate our ideas precisely and effectively, we should choose the right words that are exact, fresh, vivid and appropriate.(1) ExactnessThe primary principle of diction is to choose words that exactly express your ideas in communication.Example (1)*The figures before me inferred that our enrollment had increased significantly this year.The figures before me implied that our enrollment had increased significantly this year.From the figures before me I inferred that our enrollment had increased significantly this year.Example (2)*The retired professor takes healthy exercises every morning.The retired professor takes healthful exercises every morning.(2) ConcisenessGood communication is economical and concise, expressing an idea in the fewest possible words.Conciseness—using words economically—is fundamental to clear communication.Example (3)*In the early part of the month of August, a hurricane was moving threateningly toward Houston.In early August, a hurricane threatened Houston.Example (4)*Each actor has a unique talent and ability that he or she uses in his or her acting.Each actor has a unique talent.Example (5)*The inspiring likelihood that beings of superior intellect are flourishing on celestial bodies other than earth has been made gloriously manifest to this author.It is likely that intelligent life exists elsewhere in the universe.I believe that human life exists on other planets.(3) ClarityMake your meaning clear by including all necessary words in communication.Example (6)*In Nostromo, Conrad’s style is ironic and his setting is highly symbolic, so that it sometimes confuses the reader.In Nostromo, Conrad’s style is ironic and his highly symbolic setting sometimes confuses the reader.Conrad’s ironic style and highly symbolic setting in Nostromo sometimes confuse the reader.Example (7)*The causal factors of her poverty become obvious when one considers the number of offspring she possesses.She is poor because she has too many children.Example (8)*It is the feeling of the president that there are enormous responsibilities which are to be assumed with an office public trust.The president feels that a government has great responsibilities.2) Denotation and ConnotationThe meaning of a word has two aspects: denotation and connotation.Denotation is the specific, direct, and literal meaning of words. Connotation is the associative or suggestive meaning of a word.Example (9)She was too cheap to take a vacation.She was too frugal to take a vacation.Example (10)The officer peered intently at the troops and issued a command.The officer glared at the troops and barked a command.Example (11)The Shakespeare scholar presented a fascinating lecture on the theme of betrayal of King Lear.I got a big lecture from my mom when I came home at 4:00 a. m.Example (12)The apparently random choice of reds and oranges is a departure from the more serene blues and greens that Monet used in earlier paintings of the same scene.By incorporating reds and oranges in his rendition of this scene, Monet makes a bold anddramatic departure from the conventional color combinations of his earlier works.Summary:Denotation refers to the actual dictionary definition of the word, without the attachment of an emotional response.Connotation is the emotional response attached to a word.3) General Words and Specific WordsWe call a word “general” when it refers to a group or a class; “specific”, when it refers to a member of that class.The specific word tends to give color and tang, tends to appeal to the imagination.Example (13)Janet spoke to Tom.Janet whispered to Tom.Example (14)The cartilage in my ankle ripped painfully as I slammed onto the icy sidewalk. As I lay on my back, cursing myself for jogging in subzero weather, the chill of the morning wind made me shudder. I tried to raise my body but my ankle would not move, and all I could do was fall back on my concrete bed. I felt nothing but pain, cold and dismay.4) Abstract Words and Concrete WordsA concrete word has an object as its referent, while an abstract word, a concept.Example (15)Friendliness is the salesman’s best asset.A smile is the salesman’s best asset.Example (16)He is immortal, not because he alone among creatures has an inexhaustible voice, but because he has a soul, a spirit capable of compassion.(William Faulkner)2. Choice of Sentences句子是一个完整的语言单位。