Learning term to concept mapping an ontology based approach
新一年学习计划英文
新一年学习计划英文英文回答：New Year's Study Plan.The year 2023 marks a new chapter in my academic journey. As I embark on this new year, it is crucial for me to establish a comprehensive study plan that will guide me towards my academic goals.1. Goal Setting.I begin by setting clear and specific academic goalsfor the year. These goals should be achievable yet challenging, providing me with a sense of purpose and direction. Some of my key goals include:Achieve a high GPA in all my courses.Develop a strong foundation in core subjects.Explore new areas of interest through elective courses.Participate actively in academic clubs and activities.2. Time Management.Effective time management is essential for academic success. I create a realistic schedule that allocates time for studying, attending classes, completing assignments,and extracurricular activities. I prioritize my tasks based on their importance and urgency, using techniques such asthe Pomodoro Technique to stay focused and productive.3. Study Techniques.I employ a variety of study techniques to enhance my comprehension and retention. These techniques include:Active reading: Reading and highlighting key points, summarizing paragraphs, and making notes.Spaced repetition: Reviewing material at increasing intervals to strengthen memory.Concept mapping: Creating visual representations of concepts to connect ideas.Cooperative learning: Studying with peers to share knowledge and perspectives.4. Course Preparation.Preparation is key to academic success. I make sure to preview course materials before lectures, take detailed notes during class, and seek clarification on any conceptsI am unsure about. I also utilize online resources and attend office hours to enhance my understanding.5. Assignments and Projects.I approach assignments and projects with a pro-active attitude. I begin working on them as soon as they are assigned, breaking them down into smaller, manageable tasks.I allocate sufficient time for research, planning, and execution. I also seek feedback from professors and peers to improve the quality of my work.6. Revision and Reflection.Regular revision is crucial for reinforcing learning and identifying areas for improvement. I set aside time each week to review course notes, practice problems, and reflect on my progress. I make adjustments to my study plan as needed to ensure that I am on track to meet my goals.7. Physical and Mental Health.Academic success is not just about studying. Iprioritize my physical and mental well-being by engaging in regular exercise, maintaining a healthy diet, and getting enough sleep. I also make time for relaxation andactivities that bring me joy.By following these strategies, I am confident that I can make the most of the upcoming academic year and achievemy desired academic outcomes.中文回答：新年学习计划。
词语教学外文翻译一
外文翻译一：Excerptwords to more and more complex phrases. Children learn to listen and to talk long before they learn to read and write. The same sequence should be followed in classroom teaching. Extra difficulty would be created if one would try to develop English reading and writing skills before children can speak the language. In order to be able to speak the language, students need to know some vocabulary first. In this paper I will focus on how to teach vocabulary that enables students to construct a rich vocabulary bank. Guiding methods are introduced and sample activities are provided.II. Main Part1. The Importance of Teaching Vocabulary1.1. Vocabulary Development in the Primary GradesThe findings of the “National Reading Panel” indicate that vocab ulary instruction does lead to gains in comprehension, but that methods must be appropriate to the age and ability of the reader. Using both indirect and direct teaching methods to build students’ oral and reading vocabularies should be a part of a balanced reading program. Indirect methods would include read-alouds, shared reading and writing experiences, and independent reading. Direct teaching of vocabulary should respond to the needs of the students and should actively engage them in the process(National Reading Panel, 2000).All word learning tasks are not equal in difficulty. A child may understand the concept behind a word, but not know the word itself. For example, the word cease represents a known concept to most children; however, a young child has probably not heard this word used for stop.Learning a new word that represents a known concept is not as difficult as learning a new word that represents a new concept. Teachers in the primary grades introduce many new concepts, and direct instruction is necessary to build up the understanding of these concepts and the vocabulary words that represent them.When teaching vocabulary words that represent known concepts, the emphasis should always be on the context in which the word appears. Discussing the meaning2of the word from the context of the reading selection together with supplying a definition of the word will help to build meaning for students. If students are to acquire this word as part of their vocabulary, then they must be given repeated exposure of the word in a variety of contexts. They must also have opportunities to practise using the word in conversation and/or writing.By the time children enter second grade, they are likely to know between 2,000 and 5,000 vocabulary words. This amazing growth continues throughout the elementary years, as most children gain 3,000 - 4,000 new vocabulary words each year that they can read and understand ( Teaching Reading in the 21st Century, 2001). By encouraging independent reading and providing both indirect and direct instruction in vocabulary, students can be helped to develop the vocabulary knowledge they will need for effective comprehension.1.2. Educators View on Teaching Vocabulary"Teaching one word at a time out of context is the worst way of teaching vocabulary, with rapid forgetting almost guaranteed," asserts Frank Smith, author of "The Book of Learning and Forgetting" (1998), recently published by Teachers College Press. According to Smith, people assimilate new vocabulary words from context the first time they read them, "provided that the gist of the material being read is both interesting and comprehensible. Within five more encounters, the word and its conventional meaning are usually firmly established in the mind of the reader."Other educators who share this view add that when reading material isn't instantly interesting or comprehensible, it's the teacher's job to build context by activating students' prior knowledge of the topic. With regard to vocabulary, that means having students identify difficult words themselves and pool their knowledge to get the meaning. Ann Marie Longo, director of the Boys Town Reading Center, argues that teens can't use context effectively when their vocabularies are limited. Limited vocabulary is the most common problem among weak readers she's worked with. Longo begins with indirect instruction in words and their meanings and then provides high-interest opportunities to use the words. Vocabularyexpert Isabel Beck of the University of Pittsburgh embraces both approaches. For her, there are3four ways to learn vocabulary: wide reading, hearing unfamiliar words in speech, direct instruction in words and "gimmicks" to boost students' interest.Beck suggests teachers incorporate difficult words into their classroom routines and encourage students to look for the words in reading outside class. Longo agrees that students need to put new words to use in writing and conversation as well as reading. "For vocabulary instruction to increase comprehension," says Longo, "you have to see those words over and over again" ( When Adolescents Can´t Read: Methods and Materials that Work, 1999).1.3. Memory and Storage SystemsUnderstanding how our memory works might help us create more effective ways to teach vocabulary. Research in the area, cited by Gairns and Redman (1986) offers us some insights into this process. It seems that learning new items involve storing them first in our short-term memory, and afterwards in long-term memory. We do not control this process consciously but there seem to be some important clues to consider. First, retention in short-term memory is not effective if the number of chunks of information exceeds seven. Therefore, this suggests that in a given class we should not aim at teaching more than this number. However, our long-term memory can hold any amount of information.Research also suggests that our “mental lexicon” is highly organised and efficient, and that semantic related items are stored together. Word frequency is another factor that affects storage, as the most frequently used items are easier to retrieve. We can use this information to attempt to facilitate the learning process, by grouping items of vocabulary in semantic fields, such as topics (e.g. types of fruit). Oxford (1990) suggests memory strategies to aid learning, and these can be divided into creating mental linkages (grouping, associating, placing new words into a context), applying images and sounds (using imagery, semantic mapping, using keywords and representing sounds in memory), reviewing in a structured way and employing action (physical response or sensation, using mechanical techniques). The techniques just mentioned can be used to greater advantage if we can diagnose learning style preferences (visual, aural, kinesthetic, tactile) and make students aware of different memory strategies.4Meaningful tasks, however, seem to offer the best answer to vocabulary learning, as they rely on students’ experiences and reality to facilitate learning. More meaningful tasks also require learners to analyse and process language more deeply, which should help them retain information in long-term memory. Forgetting seems to be an inevitable process, unless learners regularly use items they have learnt. Therefore, recycling is vital, and ideally it should happen one or two days after the initial input. After that, weekly or monthly tests can check on previously taught items. The way students store the items learned can also contribute to their success or failure in retrieving them when needed. Most learners simply list the items learnt in chronological order, indicating meaning with translation. This system is far from helpful, as items arede-contextualised, encouraging students to over generalise their usage. It does not allow for additions and refinements nor does it indicate pronunciation. Teachers can encourage learners to use other methods, using topics and categories to organise a notebook, binder or index cards. Meaning should be stored using English as much as possible. Diagrams and word trees can also be used within this topic/categories organisation. The class as a whole can keep a vocabulary box with cards, which can be used for revision/recycling regularly.1.4. Why Vocabulary is ImportantTeachers may wonder why it is important to teach vocabulary. Well, there is a very clear answer to that question, namely that vocabulary is critical to reading success for three reasons, which I will explain now briefly. First of all, comprehension improves when you know what the words mean. Since comprehension is the ultimate goal of reading, you cannot overestimate the importance of vocabulary development. Secondly, words are the currency of communication. A robust vocabulary improves all areas of communication which are listening, speaking, reading and writing. Last but no least, when children and adolescents improve their vocabulary, their academic and social confidence and competence improve, too.In turn, a deficit in vocabulary knowledge causes comprehension problems, and comprehension problems prevent people from improving their vocabulary knowledge on their own. Intensive vocabulary instruction can be effective in turning this situation around. What is required, though, is a clear and deliberate focus on facilitating students’ creation of meaning ful contexts for the word meanings they are learning,5and a frequent and consistent emphasis on helping them make connections to what they already know.1.5. Levels of Word Knowledge“Word knowledge” refers to how well you know the meaning of a word. Research shows that there are three kinds of word knowledge. Firstly, there is a lack of word knowledge where the meaning is completely unfamiliar. Secondly, there is acquired word knowledge where the basic meaning is recognized after some thought. And last, there is established word knowledge where the meaning is easily, rapidly and automatically recognized (Beck, McKeown, and Omanson, 1987). Words from the third category are already established in the personal vocabulary bank and are the words you would use in conversation and writing. Though it’s enough for students to have a surface understanding of some words in a selection, for most words students must have this same established level of knowledge if they are to understand what they are reading (Nagy, Herman, and Anderson, 1985).2. Teaching Vocabulary2.1. Which Words Should be TaughtWhen making instructional decisions as to which words to teach, it is helpful to have a framework for decision-making in this area. Knowing what words to teach is the first step in providing effective vocabulary practice. Graves and Prenn, for instance, classify the words that should be devided into three types, each requiring a higher investment of teacher and learner time for instruction. With words that are already in the student's oral vocabulary, the students need only to identify the written symbol for such a word. When the word is one for which the student has acquired no concept and it appears frequently in the context, the teacher must take time to develop the concept through instruction. When the word is in the student's listening vocabulary, it may be taught though writing experiences and activities. Focus should be on helping students become independent learners; they should be encouraged to become actively involved in selecting words.6I will shortly mention a practical guide that helps teachers to remember the types of words that they should teach explicitly. First of all, there are Type A Words.These words belong to academic language and thecontent areas.Academic language describes the language of schooling,words used across disciplines like genre and glossary. Content area words are specific to the discipline, words like organization in social studies and organism in science. Then there are Type B Words which arethe basics.There are hundreds of high-frequency words. The basics make up a large percentage of students´ reading and writing. Students must be able to read words like the, is, and, are, been and because.The so-called Type C Words are connectors and act as signal words. There may be some overlap with the basic words. Students need to understand the signals for cause and effect relationships, sequence and other important indicators of how text is organized. In Type D Words the D standsfor difficult- words with multiple meanings are a challenge for all students and may be especially so for learners of the English language.When considering words with multiple meanings teachers should also pay attention to the consonant-vowel-consonant words children encounter when first learning to read - for example words like jam and ham.These words have accessible meanings if you think of something you may eat with eggs in the morning (ham) or of the sweet, sticky stuff on toast (jam). But jam also describes a music playing session. So learning to decode should not be meaning-free, but should provide a good opportunity for teaching the meanings of words including multiple ones. This kind of experience with words improves comprehension.At last there are also Type X Words which are the extras. These are the words that will not be encountered frequently but in a certain story or context they are important for decoding meaning. A good example of this type of word is spindle in “Sleeping Beauty.” It is important to the fairy tale, but it is not a very high-utility word. I just tell kids what words like this mean without any special teaching.2.1.1. Basic Functional VocabularyIn order to understand, speak, read and write a language, the students must acquire the basic functional vocabulary. New words are carefully selected, gradually introduced, and graded to make language learning smooth and easy. The following77 of 27 pages - scroll topInformation on this eBookTitleThe Teaching of Vocabulary in the Primary School Foreign Language ClassroomAuthorDaniela PohlYear2003Pages27Archive No.V34883ISBN (eBook)978-3-638-34971-0ISBN (Book)978-3-640-44099-3DOI10.3239/9783638349710File size224 KBLanguageEnglishTagsTeachingVocabularyPrimarySchoolForeignLanguageClassroom翻译部分：国外小学词汇教学（The Teaching of Vocabulary in the Primary School Foreign Language Classroom）摘要：很多词语都变得越来越复杂，拥有很多的词组。
学数学的作文英语
Learning mathematics is an essential part of education that not only sharpens analytical skills but also fosters logical thinking and problemsolving abilities.Heres a detailed essay on the importance of studying mathematics and how it can be approached effectively.Title:The Significance of Mathematics in EducationIntroduction:Mathematics is often referred to as the language of the universe.It is a subject that transcends cultural and linguistic barriers,providing a universal framework for understanding the world around us.From counting to complex calculations,math is an integral part of our daily lives.Importance of Mathematics:1.Foundation for Other Subjects:Mathematics is a fundamental building block for other sciences such as physics,chemistry,and engineering.It provides the necessary tools to analyze and interpret data,making it indispensable for scientific inquiry.2.Critical Thinking:Studying math helps develop critical thinking skills.It encourages students to approach problems systematically and logically,breaking them down into manageable parts.3.ProblemSolving Abilities:Mathematical problems often have multiple solutions, which teaches students to think creatively and find the most efficient method to solve a problem.4.RealWorld Applications:Mathematics is not confined to the classroom.It is used in everyday life,from managing finances to understanding statistical data in various fields such as economics,medicine,and social sciences.Approaches to Learning Mathematics:1.Understanding Concepts:Rather than memorizing formulas,it is crucial to understand the underlying concepts.This approach helps in applying mathematical principles to new and unfamiliar problems.2.Practice:Mathematics is a subject that requires consistent practice.Regular exercises and problemsolving can significantly improve ones ability to tackle complex problems.e of Technology:Utilizing technology such as calculators,computer software,and online resources can enhance the learning experience.They can provide visual representations of mathematical concepts and offer interactive ways to solve problems.4.Group Work:Collaborative learning can be beneficial in mathematics.Discussing problems with peers can lead to new insights and a deeper understanding of the subject.Challenges in Learning Mathematics:1.Perception of Difficulty:Many students find mathematics challenging and may develop a fear of the subject.Overcoming this fear is essential for embracing the subject fully.ck of RealWorld Connection:Sometimes,the abstract nature of mathematics can make it difficult for students to see its relevance.Connecting mathematical concepts to realworld applications can help bridge this gap.Conclusion:In conclusion,mathematics is a subject of immense importance that offers a wealth of benefits to students.It not only equips them with analytical and problemsolving skills but also prepares them for various professional fields.By adopting effective learning strategies and recognizing the relevance of mathematics in everyday life,students can overcome challenges and excel in this fascinating subject.。
论弗罗斯特《摘苹果之后》中的死亡隐喻
论弗罗斯特《摘苹果之后》中的死亡隐喻发布时间：2022-07-21T08:53:03.876Z 来源：《时代教育》2022年5期作者：刘沛婷[导读] 乔治·莱考夫和马克?约翰逊于《我们赖以生存的隐喻》一书中指出隐喻不仅仅是一种修辞手法，更是一种思维方式刘沛婷湖南师范大学，湖南长沙 410006摘要：乔治·莱考夫和马克?约翰逊于《我们赖以生存的隐喻》一书中指出隐喻不仅仅是一种修辞手法，更是一种思维方式，在人们的日常语言和活动中无所不在。
诗歌是高度隐喻化的体裁，本文就将以弗罗斯特的短诗——《摘苹果之后》为例，通过挖掘诗歌中的结构隐喻、方位隐喻和本体隐喻，深刻剖析弗罗斯特的死亡观建构，为该诗的解读提供新的维度，也有助于丰富该理论的应用范畴。
关键词:《摘苹果之后》；结构隐喻；方位隐喻；本体隐喻；死亡On death metaphors in Frost’s “After Apple-Picking”Peiting LiuHunan Normal University, Hunan Changsha 410006Abstract: George Lakoff and Mark Johnson put forward in their book Metaphors We Live By that metaphor is not only a figure of speech but a way of thinking, pervasive in everyday language and action. Since poetry is highly metaphorical, this thesis is to explore how Robert Lee Frost construct his insight of death through structural metaphors, orientational metaphors as well as ontological metaphors in his short poem “After Apple-Picking”, with the hope to provide a new dimension for the interpretation of the poem and to expand the application scope of the theory. Key words: “After Apple-Picking”; structural metaphors; orientational metaphors; ontological metaphors; death 1.IntroductionLakoff and Johnson in their monograph Metaphors We Live Вy, point out that metaphor not only can be understood from the figurative perspective, but is the thinking way.[1] Ungerer and Schmid hold that conceptual metaphor, as a cognitive instrument, is not just a stylistically dramatic way of expressing thoughts by means of literary language, but a way of thinking.[2] K?vecses has put that conceptual metaphor is defined as understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain.[3] On the basis of the cognitive approach to the understanding of conceptual metaphor, it can be divided into structural metaphor, orientational metaphor and ontological metaphor. The development of conceptual metaphor theory has brought advance to Linguistics, Anthology, Literature and so on.Robert Lee Frost commands an important place in any list of outstanding poets in the twentieth century. His poem “After Apple-picking” is written in the first person. The speaker is an orchard worker who has picked apples long and hard but is now on the verge of being overwhelmed by fatigue and the depth of the experience. On the edge of falling sleep, he remembers not only the ripe apples successfully picked but also those that fell and were considered damaged and had to be sent to the cider mill. He knows that his sleep will be troubled by the failures more than by the successes. He is not sure about the nature of the sleep he is about to drop into—whether it will be ordinary sleep, more like a hibernation, or more like death.The entire poem is a kind of extended metaphor, in which the activity of harvesting apples represents people’ life and the speaker’s falling asleep suggests human death.As a classical literary work, the study of this poem mostly focuses on its rhythm and writing devices. The analysis of multiple themes and symbols has always been the research hotspot of literature works. Li Yingxue discussed the fuzziness of the meaning of poetry from the perspective of deconstruction, and there are many scholars who explore metaphors in Frost’s other poems.[4] Few people applied it to analyze “After Apple-Picking”. Therefore, this paper is to discuss how Frost structures his thoughts on death metaphorically by describing a laborer’s picking apples. The first three chapters of this thesis illustrate Frost’s views of death through the construction of structural metaphors, orientational metaphors and ontological metaphors in “After Apple-Picking” respectively. At last it is followed by a logical conclusion of this thesis.2.Structural MetaphorsIn structural metaphor, one greatly structured and explicitly delineated concept is applied to structure another. As Lakoff and Johnson point out that one domain of conceptual metaphor is metaphorically structured in light of another. Structural metaphor allows its source domain to offer a comparatively rich knowledge structure for the target domain, that is to say, the cognitive function of structural metaphor is to enable audiences to understand the target domain by the structure of the source domain. The poem “After Apple-Picking” include two key conceptual metaphors: DEATH IS SLEEP and PEOPLE ARE PLANTS.2.1 DEATH IS SLEEPFrost chooses a laborer who is overtired with apple-picking and falls asleep to reflect his insight of death. Hence the poem can be understood as a mapping from a source domain (sleep) to a target domain (death). The mapping is tightly structured. There are ontological correspondences. The dead correspond to those who have a sound sleep. The retrospection before death corresponds to the unconscious state near sleep. The darkness corresponds to the night. The cease of life corresponds to the stillness and motionlessness of sleep. As Lakoff puts it, “people use a concrete source domain to describe an abstract target domain.”[5] Death is an abstract concept, which can be understood vividly through the concept of sleep. The word “sleep”has been repeated five times. “Winter sleep” suggests the emotion of being decayed, forlorn and silent triggered by death because winter, in the metaphoric meanings, has strong associations with death.[6] Another euphemistic expression of death is “long sleep”, which is indicative of its permanence. “Human sleep” is the most evident reflection of conceptualization of death as sleep, showing that human death is what Frost has discussed. In the light of sleep, Frost’s “After Apple-Picking” is no longer a lyrical poem of a worker’s experience on the orchard farm and fatigue aftera day’s labor, but a profound thought on life and death through an extended conceptual metaphor of death as sleep.2.2 PEOPLE ARE PLANTSBoth man and tree are living beings that go through birth and wither, and the achievements of man are kin to the fruits of plants. “Apples I didn’t pick upon some bough” correspond to those unfilled dreams while apples that “struck the earth/ No matter if not bruised or spilled with stubble”correspond to people’s failed pursuits. The scent of apples refers to delight and satisfaction brought by success. In Frost’s poem, the act of apple-picking is a metaphor for the fruits the speaker has achieved in life.[7] It is universally acknowledged that success is what people desire and is something enjoyable. However, the speaker is overtired of the great harvest and wished to rest, which illustrates that the speaker has been bored with worldly sense of accomplishment and hopes to simple have a dream and a “long sleep”. Due to the sweet smell of the apple, the narrator actually falls asleep after fatigue and he enters into “long sleep”(death) with a sense of emptiness resulted from the excessive fruits he has gathered. The speaker’s experience reveals the poet’s meditation on life that it is futile people achieve a great deal of success but eventually own nothing after death. Therefore, the poet don’t ponder on human sleep for no reason but he penetrates the meaninglessness of long tough life struggles.The two root metaphors are carefully chosen to reflect Frost’s philosophy on death. This also confirms the cognitive value of metaphor, that is, vehicles(such as sleep) are usually well known to readers, and their features and structures will be mapped to relatively unfamiliar things when they interact with tenor (such as death) to help readers understand the characteristics and structures of ontology. The characteristics of sleep are mapped to the characteristics of death. Frost’ poem “After Apple-Picking” is not only a pastoral work of rural world in orchard farm but also a thought-provoking poem on death. The end of labor leaves the speaker with a sense of completion and fulfillment yet finds him blocked from success by winter’s approach and physical weariness. The futility that what people achieved as a result resembles fallen apples of no worth leads to fatigue and wish to seek relief in sleep, that is death. Therefore, this seemingly idyllic poem is in fact the ultimate exploration of human destiny through the metaphors of death as sleep and people as plants.3.Orientational MetaphorsOrientational metaphors do not structure one concept in terms of another but instead organize a whole system of concepts with respect to one another.[1] Most of them have to do with spatial orientation: up-down, in-out, front-back, on-off, deep-shallow, central-peripheral. These spatial orientations arise from the fact that we have bodies of the sort we have and that they function as they do in our physical environment. As Lakoff points out that CONSCIOUS IS UP; UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN. HEALTH SND LIFE ARE UP; SICKNESS AND DEATH ARE DOWN. This poem employs spatial antagonism to construct death metaphor. “The Apple-Picking” involves a development from consciousness to unconsciousness. At the very beginning, the farmer is sober enough on the long two-pointed ladder sticking toward heaven. The spacial position is rather high. After the speaker has been done with apple-picking, rest is badly needed after the arduous labour. He is drowsed off and no longer in his conscious state. Frost adopts simple past tense from line8 to line17, serving as a beginning of the speaker’s dream. In the half unconsciousness of the farmer, the autumn evening bursting with the aroma of the apples has for a moment changed into a winter morning with hoary glass. In farmer’s dream, things “melted”, “fall and break”, which suggests a downward trend. Finally both woodchuck and the farmer fall asleep on the ground. The perspective of the whole poem shifts from heaven to earth, that is from top to bottom, revealing the opposition of space. A pane of glass divides the world into two parts: reality and dream. The transition from reality to dream is the manifestation of change of the speaker’s consciousness. The higher position represents reality and consciousness while the lower dream and unconsciousnessWhat’s more, the positional contrast reveals the opposition of life and death. In the first line of “After Apple-Picking”, the ladder occupies a central position in the whole picture of the poem, acting as a bridge between heaven and earth, life and death. The imagery of heaven and apples evokes the garden of Eden. The act of ascending the ladder symbolized a re-approach to heaven and eternal life while the movement down the ladder symbolizes the descent from heaven to earth, also from life to death[4]. According to Bible, picking apples is considered as corruption and degradation. As baskets of apples fall down and are spiked, they become worthless. This is true of human beings. After the farmer has finished apple-picking, fatigue and emptiness has wrapped him. His vigorous life reaches a pause, which actually means the farmer’s death. Most of fundamental concepts are organized in terms of one or more spatialization metaphors. In Frost’s “After Apple-Picking”, the poet shows the transition from consciousness to unconsciousness as well as from life to death in virtue of the binary opposition of space. The physical basis of such division is that humans sleep and die lying down and stand up when they are awaken. Therefore, the antagonism of life and death is constructed through the opposition of up and down positions, which contributes to the further construction of the root metaphors.4.Ontological MetaphorsOntological metaphor helps us understand those abstract entities through conceptualizing them as these entities and substances which are related to human’s experience. As Lakoff and Johnson point out: “our experience of physical objects and substances provides a further basis for understanding.” Ontological metaphor could be classified into three types, which are entity and substance metaphor, container metaphor and personification.Firstly, an invisible abstract concept, in entity and substance metaphor, is considered as a visible concrete object. Human being expresses abstract concepts as these entities and substances which are related to human’s experience. Death is an abstract concept, which can be understood thanks to another common concept—sleep. The dark and bleak state of death is implied by night in winter. The poet also tries to clarify the hibernation of hamsters and the long sleep of human beings: one is short seasonal rest and the other is an eternal stop of motion. In this way, the characteristics of death are no longer vague. The first root metaphor of death as sleep receives deeper and more detailed illustrations. Similarly, human achievements becomes a measurable entity like apples in “ After Apple-Picking”. Through these well-known common things, the original abstract concept can be elucidated. The essence of metaphor lies in the comparison between two entities.Secondly, container metaphor is a kind of ontological metaphor in which an invisible abstract concept is regarded as a container which has a surface owning scope and range with an in-out orientation. In Frost’s poem, the farmer’s dream and sleep is a container, where he can see “magnified apples”, feel “the pressure of ladder-round”. The farmer’s falling into dreams shows the motion from one space to another space. The state of farmer can be classified into “in sleep” and “out of sleep”, which symbolize death and life respectively.Lastly, personification specifies the physical object as being a man, which can make people to comprehend these different physical objects in light of human characteristics, motivations and activities. In Frost’s poem, apple “struck the earth” and long sleep can “come on” are all personification. They are extensions of ontological metaphors and that they allow us to make sense of phenomena in the world on the basis of our own goals. It is carefully chosen to endow this poem a dynamic effect so that the theme of this poem can be effectively conveyed. All in all, the understanding of a poetic metaphor is a cognitive process.[8] Ontological metaphor makes us understand abstract concepts by use of concrete concepts. The poet uses sleep to explain death, making the abstract concept simplified and concrete. In the poem, the dream not only reflects the structural metaphor, but also reflects the container metaphor. It forms a contrast between “in dream” and “out of dream” so as to further strengthen the difference between life and death. Apple has bruises, and Death actively does come in. These anthropomorphic expressions embody the metaphorical nature of language and the symbolic nature of death. As a result, metaphor of death in this poem has been justified.5.ConclusionThe exploration of the relationship between Frost’s view of death and Lakoff’s cognitive metaphors will undoubtedly help readers to guard against deceptive surface meanings when interpreting and appreciating Frost’s poems, and to explore the profound life philosophy reflected in his poems through metaphorical thinking and active participation.Through dividing metaphors in Frost’s “After Apple-Picking” according to Lakoff’s classification, the way of constructing poem’s theme is evidently revealed. At the first glance, it seems to be a lyrical poem, but it actually a poem of death after further analysis. Frost implicitly depicts life actions as apple picking activities, apples are symbols of human achievements, and death is similar to long sleep, which are structural metaphors, through which the characteristics of abstract concept death can be easily understood. Moreover, the orientational metaphors constitute to the body of this poem. The up-down spatial position divides the farmer’s state into consciousness and unconsciousness, also a reflection of human’s state of life and death. The contrast between in-out categories reflects the whole poem’s structure: it shifts from reality to dream. Since the farmer’s dream is explained as a container, the state of dreaming metaphorically stands for death. Therefore the whole poem is based on structural metaphors of death is sleep and people are plants, which are illustrated with orientational metaphors and ontological metaphors.However, the thesis still has some limitations due to the author’s slim analysis. It can be better with more logical illustrations and evidences. But it is no doubt that the thesis provides a new perspective of discussing Frost’s poem. It expands the application scope of Lakoff’s conceptual metaphor and enriches its practice, and produces referential meaning to literature appreciation. References[1]Lakoff, G & M. Johnson. Metaphors We Live By[M]. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.1980.[2]Ungerer, F & H. J. Schmid. An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics.[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 2008.[3]K?vecses, Z. Metaphor: A practical introduction[M]. New York: Oxford University Press.2002.[4]李应雪. 一个解构批评的范本——析罗伯特·弗洛斯特诗歌《摘苹果之后》意义的模糊性[J]. 宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版), 2007(04): 78-81.[5]Lakoff, G. The Invariance Hypothesis: is abstract reason based on image-schemas?[J]. Cognitive Linguistics, 1990(01): 39-47.[6]Huo, Lirong. Comments on “After Apple-Picking”[J]. Overseas English, 2012(01): 196-197.[7]赵志宇. 罗伯特·弗洛斯特的《摘罢苹果》[J]. 文学语言学研究, 2007(02):70-71.[8]胡壮麟. 诗性隐喻[J]. 山东外语教学, 2001(03): 3-8.。
一个好的学习习惯对成功的学校生活英语作文
一个好的学习习惯对成功的学校生活英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1The Importance of a Good Study Habit in a Successful School LifeIntroductionAs students, we all strive for success in our academic endeavors. One key factor that can significantly influence our success in school is the development of good study habits. By establishing effective study routines and practices, we can enhance our learning and overall academic performance. In this essay, we will explore the importance of cultivating a good study habit and how it can contribute to a successful school life.Benefits of a Good Study HabitA good study habit is the foundation of academic success. When we develop effective study habits, we are more likely to retain information, understand complex concepts, and excel in our coursework. By establishing a regular study routine, we can improve our focus, concentration, and time management skills.This, in turn, can lead to better grades, increased confidence, and a more fulfilling academic experience.There are several key benefits of cultivating a good study habit:1. Improved Memory and Retention: When we study regularly and consistently, we are more likely to remember and retain the information we learn. By reviewing material regularly and practicing active recall, we can strengthen our memory and enhance our learning.2. Enhanced Understanding: Effective study habits can help us better understand complex subjects and concepts. By breaking down information into smaller, more manageable chunks and engaging in active learning strategies, we can deepen our understanding and make connections between different ideas.3. Better Grades: Developing good study habits can directly impact our academic performance. By dedicating time each day to study, setting specific goals, and monitoring our progress, we can improve our grades and achieve our academic goals.4. Increased Motivation: When we establish a routine of regular study and see the positive results it brings, we are morelikely to stay motivated and engaged in our learning. By setting deadlines, rewarding ourselves for achieving milestones, and seeking support from peers and teachers, we can maintain our motivation and drive to succeed.5. Reduced Stress and Anxiety: A good study habit can help us manage our workload more effectively and reduce feelings of stress and anxiety. By breaking tasks into smaller, more manageable parts, prioritizing our time, and practicing self-care, we can maintain a healthy balance between academics and personal well-being.Practical Tips for Developing a Good Study HabitThere are several practical tips and strategies that can help us cultivate a good study habit:1. Create a Study Schedule: Establish a regular study routine that fits your schedule and learning style. Set aside specific blocks of time each day for studying, and stick to your schedule as closely as possible.2. Set Clear Goals: Define your academic goals and objectives, and break them down into smaller, more achievable tasks. Set specific, measurable, and realistic goals for each study session, and track your progress regularly.3. Use Effective Study Techniques: Experiment with different study techniques and find the ones that work best for you. Some effective study strategies include active reading, summarizing information, creating flashcards, and practicing past exams.4. Minimize Distractions: Create a study environment that is conducive to learning and free of distractions. Find a quiet,well-lit space where you can focus and concentrate, and turn off or silence any electronic devices that may interrupt your study.5. Take Breaks: Incorporate regular breaks into your study routine to prevent burnout and maintain your focus. Take short breaks every hour or so to rest, refresh your mind, and avoid feelings of fatigue.6. Seek Support: Don't be afraid to reach out for help and support when needed. Consult your teachers, classmates, or academic advisors for guidance, feedback, and assistance with your studies.ConclusionIn conclusion, developing a good study habit is essential for success in school. By establishing effective study routines and practices, we can enhance our learning, improve our academic performance, and achieve our goals. By following the practicaltips and strategies outlined in this essay, we can create a study habit that works best for us and leads to a more fulfilling and successful school life. Remember, consistency, dedication, and perseverance are key to developing a good study habit and reaping the rewards of academic success.篇2Developing good study habits is crucial for a successful academic life. A good study routine can help students manage their time effectively, retain information more efficiently, and achieve better results in their exams and assignments. In this article, we will explore the importance of developing good study habits and provide some tips on how to cultivate them.First and foremost, a good study habit involves setting a consistent schedule for studying. This means allocating specific times each day for studying, reviewing notes, and completing assignments. By establishing a routine, students can create a sense of structure and discipline in their academic lives, which can help them stay on track and avoid procrastination.Another important study habit is creating a conducive study environment. This includes finding a quiet and comfortable space to study, free from distractions such as noise, clutter, orelectronic devices. By creating a dedicated study space, students can focus better on their tasks and improve their concentration levels.Effective note-taking is also a key study habit that can enhance learning and retention. Taking clear and organized notes during lectures or while reading can help students better understand the material and reinforce their memory through repetition. Additionally, reviewing and summarizing notes regularly can aid in long-term retention and comprehension.Furthermore, practicing active learning strategies, such as self-testing, concept mapping, and teaching the material to others, can deepen understanding and enhance critical thinking skills. By actively engaging with the material, students can reinforce their learning and develop a more profound grasp of the subject matter.In addition to these strategies, it is essential to prioritize and manage time effectively. By using tools such as to-do lists, calendars, and study planners, students can prioritize tasks, set achievable goals, and track their progress. This can help students avoid last-minute cramming and reduce stress levels during exam periods.Lastly, seeking help and support from teachers, tutors, or peers can be beneficial in enhancing learning and overcoming challenges. Building positive relationships with educators and classmates can create a supportive and collaborative learning environment, where students can receive feedback, guidance, and motivation to excel academically.In conclusion, developing good study habits is essential for achieving success in school. By establishing a consistent study routine, creating a conducive study environment, practicing effective note-taking, engaging in active learning strategies, managing time efficiently, and seeking support when needed, students can enhance their learning experience, improve their academic performance, and ultimately achieve their goals. So, start cultivating good study habits today and pave the way for a successful academic life.篇3Developing good study habits is essential for success in school. With the right habits, students can manage their time effectively, retain information better, and perform well on exams. In this article, we will discuss the importance of good study habits and provide tips for developing them.One of the key benefits of good study habits is better time management. By creating a study schedule and sticking to it, students can ensure that they allocate enough time for each subject and assignment. This prevents procrastination and cramming, which often lead to poor performance and high levels of stress. Additionally, good study habits help students prioritize tasks and focus on what is most important, allowing them to make the most of their time and achieve their academic goals.Another advantage of good study habits is improved retention of information. When students study regularly and consistently, they are more likely to remember what they have learned. This is because regular reviewing of material helps reinforce the information in their memory. By using techniques such as flashcards, summary notes, and practice quizzes, students can enhance their understanding of the material and increase their ability to recall it when needed.In addition, good study habits are crucial for performing well on exams. By studying effectively and efficiently, students can better prepare for tests and exams. This includes not only reviewing the material but also practicing problem-solving skills and test-taking strategies. With good study habits, students canapproach exams with confidence, knowing that they have put in the necessary effort to succeed.So, how can students develop good study habits? Here are some tips to help:1. Create a study schedule: Set aside specific times each day for studying and stick to them. This will help you establish a routine and make studying a regular part of your daily life.2. Find a quiet, comfortable study space: Choose a place where you can concentrate and minimize distractions. This could be a quiet corner of your room, a library, or a coffee shop.3. Take breaks: Give yourself short breaks during study sessions to rest your mind and recharge. This will help you stay focused and prevent burnout.4. Use active learning techniques: Instead of just reading and highlighting the material, engage with it through activities like summarizing, outlining, and discussing with classmates.5. Practice self-testing: Test yourself on the material by doing practice problems, taking quizzes, or teaching the material to someone else. This will help you gauge your understanding and retention.6. Stay organized: Keep track of assignments, due dates, and study materials to avoid last-minute rushes and confusion.7. Seek help when needed: Don't be afraid to ask for help from teachers, classmates, or tutors if you are struggling with a particular subject or concept.By following these tips and developing good study habits, students can set themselves up for success in school. With effective time management, improved retention of information, and better exam performance, they can achieve their academic goals and make the most of their educational experience. Remember, good study habits are a foundation for success in school and beyond.。
conceptual mapping
Conceptual Domains and Metaphorical Mappingin EnglishIsaac MachakanjaAfrica UniversityAbstractAccording to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), conceptual metaphor refers to a conceptual system where one domain, which is the source domain, maps onto another domain, which is the target. As a typical example of conceptual metaphor, consider the example ARGUMENT IS WAR. In this conceptual metaphor, two domains, argument and war are related. War is the source domain (SD), which maps onto argument, the target domain (TD). Lakoff and Johnson (1980) claim that in order to understand conceptual metaphors we have to reconstruct the ontological and epistemological correspondences that are mapped from the source domain to the target domain. Lakoff (1993) exemplifies the mapping of ontological and epistemic correspondences in a few conceptual metaphors only. If, according to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), the understanding of metaphor were so crucially dependent on the understanding of the ontological and epistemological essences of the relevant domains, then one would expect to find such analyses in all the discussions of the various conceptual metaphors. This, unfortunately, is not the case. Therefore, the objective of this paper is to reconstruct the epistemological and ontological aspects of the source and target domains so that the mapping of the correspondences from SD to TD is revealed.Conceptual metaphorsThe classical understanding of metaphor differs considerably from contemporary thought on the subject. Aristotle cited in Eubanks (1999) says that metaphor is a two part expression. Something is something else. Aristotle maintains that a metaphor has two main discursive locations namely the place where it has originated from and the place to which it has been transferred. He claims that it is made of two parts which can be easily extracted or concealed because all metaphors can be stated as similes and all similes as metaphors.According to Aristotle the two parts of a metaphor work on each other by sharing some obvious feature. Max Black (1962) offers a different view of metaphor. He calls Aristotle’s theory a comparison theory in which there are pre-existing similarities between compared terms. Black offers an alternative view in which he claims that when we say ‘man is a wolf’ we do not simply project the pre-existing characteristics of a wolf onto man but rather newly involve man in a system of commonplaces or an ‘implicative complex’ about wolf. According to Black (1962) the metaphorIsaac Taurai Machakanja is a Senior Lecturer in the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences in the Department of English at Africa University. He has a Doctor of Literature and Philosophy in Linguistics from the University of South Africa. He has vast experience in teaching English as a Second Language. E-mail: machakanjai@africau.ac.zw‘man is wolf’ influences both our idea of man and wolf. Metaphor theory has since undergone a revolutionary change.Lakoff and Johnson (1980) claim that our conceptual system, in terms of which human beings both think and act, is basically metaphoric in nature. Further, Lakoff and Johnson (1980) claim that the way we as humans think, what we experience, and what we do everyday, is very much a matter of metaphor. Metaphor then seems to function at the conceptual level. That is, at least, according to Lakoff and Johnson, metaphor is a cognitive instrument whereby we conceive of our world. On the other hand, we communicate these metaphorical conceptual construals in expressions that reflect the metaphoric nature of the concept, viz. metaphorical linguistic expressions.According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980:05), in metaphor interpretation, we understand one kind of thing or experience in terms of something else of a different kind. For example, in the conceptual metaphor, ARGUMENT IS WAR, we understand argument in terms of war. What we are saying is that, the structure of war is mapped onto the structure of argument to the extent that we see similarities between war and argument. According to Lakoff and Turner (1989: 38 – 39) the mapping is unidirectional: we use metaphor to map certain conceptual properties of a conceptual source domain onto a conceptual target domain thereby creating a new understanding of the target domain. That is, the mapping takes place at the conceptual metaphor level.The conceptual structure viewLakoff and Johnson (1980:03) claim:The way we think, what we experience, and what we do everyday are verymuch a matter of metaphor. Actions, events, and objects are understood interms of ‘structurally meaningful wholes within experience or so - called(“experiential gestalts”)’.Lakoff and Johnson (1980) exemplify their claims with reference to the conceptual metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR. They maintain that this metaphor structures not only the way we talk about arguments for example “he attacked the weak points of my argument”, “to defend a position”, “her criticisms were right on target”, “he shot down my best arguments”, but also the very way we conceive of and carry on arguments. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) say that the metaphorical meaning is based upon projections of one common gestalt structure (WAR) onto another (ARGUMENT). In his 1993 work Lakoff elaborates Johnson and his theory of conceptual metaphor. It is in this work that he explains the nature of the mapping between the source domain and the target domain. He uses the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY to illustrate his claims. According to Lakoff (1993:207) the ontology that constitutes the LOVE IS A JOURNEY metaphor arises from the mapping of the ontology of travel onto the ontology of love. According to Lakoff (1993:207) in the ontology of travel we can distinguish the following:TWO TRAVELLERS are in a VEHICLE, TRAVELLING WITH COMMONDESTINATIONS. THE VEHICLE can encounter some IMPEDIMENTSand get stuck, that is, it can become non-functional. If the travellersdo nothing they will not REACH THEIR DESTINATIONS. There are alimited number of alternative actions that they may take when they getstuck in their journey.They can try to get the vehicle moving again by fixing it or getting it pastthe IMPEDIMENT that stopped it.They can remain in the non - functional VEHICLE and give up REACHINGTHEIR DESTINATION.They can abandon the VEHICLE.The alternative of remaining in the non - functional VEHICLE takes the leasteffort, but does not satisfy the desire to REACH THEIR DESTINATION.Lakoff’s (1993) conceptual view of the nature of the mapping between the source and target domains is further elucidated by means of the Invariance Principle. He maintains that image schemas typical of the source domains (containers, paths etc.) are mapped onto target domains (categories, linear scales, etc). According to Lakoff (1993) the Invariance Principle states that:Metaphorical mappings preserve the cognitive topology (that is, theimage schema structure) of the source domain, in a way consistent withthe inherent structure of the target domain. The Invariance Principleguarantees that for container schemas, interiors will be mapped ontointeriors, exteriors onto exteriors, and boundaries onto boundaries; forpath schemas, sources will be mapped onto sources, goals onto goals,trajectories onto trajectories, and so on. One cannot find cases where asource domain interior is mapped onto a target domain exterior, or wherea source domain exterior is mapped onto a target domain path.Lakoff and Johnson (1980) have a particular assumption about how the nature of metaphor may be understood, namely, the ontology and epistemology of a domain underlying the mapping in conceptual metaphors. They show what the exact mapping from the ontological and epistemological point of view is. They show why there are source domains (SD) and target domains (TD).According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), conceptual metaphor is when we understand one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain. Kovecses (2002:04) puts it differently when he states that:When we talk and think about life in terms of journeys, about argumentsin terms of wars, about love in terms of journeys, about theories in termsof plants…This is, according to Kovecses then, what we mean by conceptual metaphor. According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), the two domains that take part in the conceptual metaphor have special names. The conceptual domain from which we draw metaphorical expressions to understand another conceptual domain is called the source domain (SD) while the conceptual domain that we understand throughthe source domain is the target domain (TD). Basically Lakoff and Johnson (1980), Lakoff and Turner (1989) and Lakoff (1993) say the same thing about the direction of the mapping of the ontological and epistemic correspondences between the SD and the TD.Lakoff and Turner (1989:62) categorically state that metaphorical mapping goes in one direction. They clearly spell out that uni-directional mapping is from SD to TD and not the reverse. They disagree with those who claim that the mapping in conceptual metaphors is bi-directional. Lakoff and Turner (1989) use the example of the conceptual metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY and make the claim that we organize our understanding of life in terms of a journey. According to Lakoff and Turner (1989:62):We map onto the domain of life the inferential structure-underlyingjourney, but we do not map onto the domain of journey the inferentialstructure underlying life.To support their claim, Lakoff and Turner (1989) point out that properties of life such as waking and sleeping cannot map onto journeys. In addition Lakoff and Turner (1989) point to the fact that we do not assume that travellers can have only a single journey as people can have only a single life. Lakoff and Turner (1989) conclude, therefore, that the direction of mapping in metaphors originates from a source domain to a target domain.Orientational MetaphorsAccording to Lakoff and Johnson (1980:14), Orientational metaphors involve the mapping of attributes in the domain of spatial orientation onto other conceptual domains. Typical orientations such as UP/DOWN and BACK/FRONT constitute source domains with attributes that are mapped onto target domains such as states and emotions. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) explicate the ontology and epistemology motivating Orientational metaphors by claiming that these spatial orientations are based on the nature of the human body and the way the body operates in our physical environment (ibid). Human beings walk erect. This means that they have the ability to overcome the gravitational force. As a result of this the erect body has a positive connotation and the prostrate posture has a negative one. This is the reason why UP has positive connotations. By way of illustration of the class of Orientational metaphors Lakoff and Johnson (1980) refer to the expressions such as: I am feeling low; my spirits rose. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) work backwards from the metaphorical expressions to the conceptual metaphors. Given their claims about epistemology and ontology, the proper way of analysing the conceptual metaphors would obviously be to reconstruct the epistemological and the ontological aspects of the domains involved in conceptual metaphor. Consider, for example a possible ontology for vertical spatial orientation.EMBODIMENT (GRAVITATION) = Values UP ERECT / UP =is goodHigher ThanLower ThanNormLEVEL NORM = Neutral with the possibility of beingeither Good or BadPROSTRATE = Not so good or badGood or Bad = LEOntology of Vertical SpaceBad = DOWNThe above figure shows that there are two domains: the orientation domain (source domain) and the states domain (target domain). The orientation domain maps onto the states domain. Embodiment motivates the mapping. So this is where the values get to be associated with the spatial orientation. The level position signifies a neutral position and it is neither good nor bad. If the position is on the level in both the ORIENTATION domain and the STATES domain, this is neutral. We can say that any position above LEVEL is good and any position below LEVEL is bad. Prostrate is not so good or bad. Therefore GOOD IS UP, BAD IS DOWN and LEVEL IS NOT SO GOOD OR BAD. It can, therefore be concluded that we can also have UP(above norm) or DOWN (below the norm) or LEVEL (neutral).The above figure also illustrates the Ontological mapping of the horizontal spatial Orientation. According to this spatial orientation we experience the world with the front part of our bodies. This is construed as good. Therefore anything that is in front of us is good. FRONT IS GOOD. Anything that is behind us is bad. BACK IS BAD.Before we go on to see how actual metaphorical expressions subsume this conceptual ontological schema we first need to make a few comments on metaphorical expressions. It would appear that metaphorical expressions consist of the following elements:a) One or more linguistic elements in an expression from the source domainused as an expression in the target domain.b) Optionally, some or other linguistic expression that designates the targetdomain involved in the mapping. Below are examples of metaphorical expressions in which the source domain is represented by up, rose, and high respectively as the domain designator.I’m feeling up.My spirits rose.You are in high spirits.Thinking about her put me in high spirits.The metaphorical expressions above show the mapping of the UP orientation onto emotional state. We also see that the DOWN orientation is mapped onto the emotional states in the following expressions:I’m feeling down.I’m depressed.My spirits sank.He is really low these days.Examples of metaphorical expressions that allude to the level plane in the domain of vertical orientation as a source domain are:He is level -headed.Be level with me.My presentation of data will inevitably appear to be repetitive. This, however, is deliberate. The purpose of the repetition is to show that a whole range of states: emotions, consciousness, wakefulness, asleep, economy, health, social stratification, etc all allude to the ontology of vertical orientation. I would like to emphasize the point that all the three points on the vertical orientation, that is, UP, LEVEL and DOWN are involved in the mapping to states. In the examples that are given below it will be observed that the ontology and epistemology of vertical Orientation is mapping onto the ontology and epistemology of states.We can reclassify Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) conceptual metaphors and their instantiations according to two categories, that is, those that are above level and those that are below level.HAPPY IS UP: SAD IS DOWNI’m feeling up.My Spirits rose.We must also analyse the metaphorical expressions that have been listed as instantiations of the conceptual metaphor SAD IS DOWN. Assuming that calm, composed represent the norm for emotional state; then high, excited etc. will be above level and down, depressed etc. will be below level in the emotional state. The analysis reveals that the domain of vertical orientation is being mapped or projected onto the domain of emotions.The following examples illustrate the below level of the conceptual metaphor:I fell into a depressionConscious is up: Unconscious is downLakoff and Johnson (1980) also present an analysis of the conceptual metaphor CONSCIOUS IS UP: UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN. The vertical orientation UP is mapped onto the target domain of states, which is consciousness in the CONSCIOUS IS UP conceptual metaphor. Below are analyses of some of thelinguistic expressions.Wake upI’m up alreadyA similar mapping of the vertical orientation domain ONTO the domain of states, that is, UNCONSCIOUSNESS is seen in the following sentence:He fell asleep.Another example is below.He dropped off to sleep.He sank into a comaHe is under hypnosisHealth and life are up: Sickness and death are downThe conceptual metaphors HEALTH AND LIFE ARE UP: SICKNESS AND DEATH ARE DOWN involve the mapping of the ontology and epistemologyof the vertical orientation domain onto the ontology and epistemology of states, particularly health. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) give a list of metaphorical expressions for which I have reconstructed the ontology and the epistemology of the mapping of this type of orientation metaphor.Lazarus rose from the deadHaving control or force is up: Being subject to control or force is downThe orientational metaphors HAVING CONTROL OR FORCE IS UP: BEING SUBJECT TO CONTROL OR FORCE IS DOWN are an illustration of the mapping of the ontology and epistemology of vertical orientation onto the ontology and epistemology of states {power}. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) give us a list of metaphorical expressions, which are instantiations of the above orientational metaphors. Below is a reconstruction of the ontology and epistemology of the domains involved.I have control over herI have control OVER her.TD: DESIGNATOR: STATE {POWER}ABOVE LEVEL SD: (vertical) ORIENTATION TD: STATE {POWER}I’m on top of the situationI’m of the situation ON TOP.TD: DESIGNATOR: STATE {POWER} SD: (vertical) ORIENTATION TD: STATE {POWER}ABOVE LEVELHe is at the height of his powerHe is of his power AT THE HEIGHTTD: DESIGNATOR: STATE {POWER} SD: (vertical) ORIENTATION TD: STATE {POWER}ABOVE LEVELHe is in the high command.He is in the command HIGHTD: DESIGNATOR: STATE {POWER} SD: (vertical) ORIENTATION TD: STATE {POWER}ABOVE LEVELHe’s in the uppe r echelonHe’s in the echelon UPPER.TD: DESIGNATOR: STATE {POWER} SD: (vertical) ORIENTATION TD: STATE {POWER}ABOVE LEVELHis power rose.His powe r ROSE.TD: DESIGNATOR: CHANGE OF STATE {POWER} SD: (vertical) CHANGE OF ORIENTATIONTD: STATE {POWER}ABOVE LEVELHe ranks above me in strength.He ranks me in strength ABOVE.TD: DESIGNATOR: STATE {POWER} SD: (vertical) ORIENTATION TD: STATE {POWER}ABOVE LEVELHe is under my control.He is my control UNDERTD: DESIGNATOR: STATE {POWER} SD: (vertical) ORIENTATION TD: STATE {POWER}BELOW LEVELHe fell from power.He from power FELLTD: DESIGNATOR: CHANGE OF STATE {POWER} SD: (vertical) CHANGE OF ORIENTATION TD: CHANGE OF STATE {POWER}BELOW LEVELGood is up: Bad is downThe Orientational metaphor GOOD IS UP: BAD IS DOWN involves the following underlying domains: the vertical orientation domain (source) and state domain {economy} or {value}, (target). Lakoff and Johnson (1980:16) list a number of metaphorical expressions, which, they claim, are instantiations of the conceptual metaphor. The following analysis reveals the mapping of the ontology and epistemology of the vertical orientation domain onto ontology and epistemology of the state domain.We hit a peak last yea r.W e hit last year a PEAKTD: DESIGNATOR: STATE IMPLIED {FINANCIAL}SD: (vertical) ORIENTATION: TD: STATE IMPLIED {FINANCES}ABOVE LEVELThings are looking up.Things are looking UPTD: DESIGNATOR: STATE I {ECONOMICS}SD:(vertical) ORIENTATION: TD: STATE {ECONOMICS}ABOVE LEVELHe does high quality workHe does quality work. HIGHTD: DESIGNATOR: STATE {STATUS}SD: (vertical) ORIENTATION: TD: STATE {STATUS}ABOVE LEVELIt has been downhill ever since.It has been ever since DOWNHILL.TD: DESIGNATOR: STATE IMPLICIT SD: (vertical) ORIENTATION: TD: STATE IMPLICITBELOW LEVELFrom the examples above it would appear that there are three main positions in the ORIENTATION domain and in the STATES domain of these orientational conceptual metaphors; the norm or level position, and then either a position above the norm or a position below the norm. The norm position is neutral; it may have either or both positive or negative connotations. However, a position above and below the norm will have positive or negative connotations respectively.Lakoff and Johnson (1980) only discuss the vertical (UP/DOWN) orientation and exclude the horizontal (FRONT/BACK) orientation. This omission means that a whole range of metaphors has been left out. The conceptual metaphors FRONT IS GOOD/BACK IS BAD is pervasive in English. My summary of the conceptual schema of the orientational metaphors reveals the metaphorical linguistic expressions that arise from this conceptual mapping. For instance when we hear someone saying: ‘He put on a good front’ or ‘I’m looking forward to seeing you’, we appreciate that these metaphorical expressions arise from the FRONT IS GOOD conceptual metaphor. When someone says: ‘He turned his back on me’, we realize that this linguistic expression arises from the conceptual metaphor BACK IS BAD.Container MetaphorsLakoff and Johnson (1980) did not reconstruct the ontology and epistemology of the conceptual domains involved in the mapping in metaphorical linguistic expressions. Instead, they inferred the conceptual metaphors from the metaphorical expressions when they were analysing the CONTAINER metaphors. They do not give an adequate schema or ontology of containers. If we start by explicating the ontology of containers, we will be able use to see what the concept of containment involves. This will also lead to an explication of the metaphorical expressions that arise from the ontology. The ontology of container metaphors is understood through the analysis of one-dimensional, two-dimensional and three-dimensional containment. It is on the basis of our experience with the concept of containment that we come to have container metaphors. Johnson (1987) claims that we are intimately conscious of our bodies as three-dimensional containers into which we put things (food, water, air) and out of which things emerge (food and water, wastes, air and blood and other things as well). Johnson (1987) maintains that the concept of containment is developed in us from birth in that we experience constantphysical containment in our surroundings. For example, we experience going in and out of rooms. We experience putting objects into containers and so forth. We can represent the ontology of containers by means of the following diagrams:Figure 1.3: One – dimensional, and three – dimensional containersBelow is the reconstruction of the ontology of a one- dimensional container • Line, that is, one dimension.• It may have a beginning.• It may have an end.• The line may therefore be a bounded space.• The line may, therefore, imply progression or direction.A three- dimensional container• A three-dimensional container has delimited space with an inside and an outside through which things go in and out.• A three-dimensional container can become full or empty.• A three-dimensional container can only contain volume of matter relative to the space inside.• Three-dimensional containers can be closed off.The following are examples which illustrate the mapping of the ontology and epistemology of containment onto the ontology and epistemology of an event.He is on course for completing his doctoral degreeHe is for completing his doctoral degree. On course.TD: DESIGNATOR: EVENT {DOCTORAL DEGREE} {COMPLETION}SD: CONTAINER {ONE DIMENSIONAL}TD: EVENT {DOCTORAL DEGREE}{COMPLETION}He is off course for the running of the PresidencyHe is for the running of the Presidency OFF COURSETD: DESIGNATOR: EVENT {PRESIDENCY}SD: CONTAINER {ONE DIMENSIONAL}TD: EVENT {PRESIDENCY}He is in line for promotion.He is for promotion. IN LINETD: DESIGNATOR: EVENT {PROMOTION}SD: CONTAINER {ONEDIMENSIONAL}TD EVENT {PROMOTION}Below are examples of the mapping of the ontology and epistemology of the domain containment onto the ontology and epistemology of the state domain.This behaviour will send him straight to hellThis behaviour will send himSTRAIGHT TO HELLTD: DESIGNATOR: EVENT {BEHAVIOUR}SD: CONTAINER {THREE DIMENSIONAL}TD EVENT {BEHAVIOUR}Three-dimensional containerAn explication of the ontology of the three dimensional containment brings out a number of things. Take a look at the following three-dimensional figure:HeightWidthLengthFigure 1.5: Three-dimensional containerThree-dimensional containers have length, width and height as shown in the diagram above. As a consequence of the three-dimensional space (this is presumably the most typical container) we can talk of putting something ‘in’ a box, going ‘out of’ or going ‘into’ a house. It is this ontology of containers that is mapped onto states, events and actions. Below are examples of metaphoric expressions that illustrate this.You are in trouble.We have entered the war.He is out of contention for the presidency.Another aspect of container metaphors is illustrated below.Events, Actions, Activities and StatesAccording to Lakoff and Johnson (1980:30):We use metaphors to comprehend events, actions, activities, and states.Events and actions are conceptualised metaphorically as objects, activitiesas substances, states as containers. A race for example is an event, whichis viewed as a discrete entity. The race exists in space and time, and it haswell-defined boundaries. Hence we view it as a CONTAINER OBJECT,having in it participants (which are objects), events like the start andfinish (which are metaphorical objects) and an activity of running (whichis a metaphorical substance). Thus we can say of a race:Are you in the race on Sunday? (race as CONTAINER OBJECT)Are you going to the race? (race as OBJECT)Did you see the race? ( race as OBJECT)The finish of the race was really exciting (finish as EVENT OBJECTwithin CONTAINER OBJECT)There was a lot of good running in the race (running as a SUBSTANCE inCONTAINER)I couldn’t do much sprinting until the end (sprinting as SUBSTANCE)Halfway into the race, I ran out of energy (race as CONTAINEROBJECT)He’s out of the race now (race as a CONTAINER OBJECT)According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980:31) activities in general are perceived metaphorically as SUBSTANCES. Activities are perceived as entities that have a beginning and an end. The following are examples of activities that are conceptualised as contained objects:In washing the windows, I spilled water all over the floor.The windows, I spilled water all over the floor IN WASHINGTD: DESIGNATOR: ACTIVITY SD: CONTAINER {THREEDIMENSIONAL}TD: ACTIVITYHow did Jenny get out of washing the windows?How did Jenny GET OUT OF WASHINGTHE WINDOWSTD: DESIGNATOR: ACTIVITY SD: CONTAINER {THREE DIMENSIONAL}TD: ACTIVITYOutside of washing windows, what else did you do?What else did you do? OUTSIDE OF WASHING WINDOWSTD: DESIGNATOR: ACTIVITY SD: CONTAINER {THREE DIMENSIONAL}TD: ACTIVITYHow did you get into window washing as a profession?How did you as a profession? GET INTO WINDOW WASHINGTD: DESIGNATOR: ACTIVITY SD: CONTAINER {THREE DIMENSIONAL}TD: ACTIVITYHe’s immersed in washing the windows.He’s immersed ON WASHING THE WINDOWS.TD: DESIGNATOR: ACTIVITY SD: CONTAINER {THREE DIMENSIONAL}TD: ACTIVITYI put a lot of energy into washing the windowsI put a lot of energy INTO WASHING THE WINDOWSTD: DESIGNATOR: ACTIVITY SD: CONTAINER {THREE DIMENSIONAL}TD: ACTIVITYI get a lot of satisfaction out of washing windows.I get a lot of satisfaction OUT OF WASHING WINDOWSTD DESIGNATOR: ACTIVITY SD: CONTAINER {THREE DIMENSIONAL}TD: ACTIVITYThere is a lot of satisfaction in washing windows.There is a lot of satisfaction IN WASHING WINDOWSTD: DESIGNATOR: ACTIVITY SD: CONTAINER {THREE DIMENSIONAL}TD: ACTIVITYWashing is viewed as a container into which energy is put. Therefore, getting into the activity entails containment. Washing is perceived as a contained activity out of which something (satisfaction) could be taken. Washing is seen as an activity which has a beginning and an end. This beginning and end subsumes a one-dimensional span. The beginning and the end of the activity bound the region in between. Therefore, what happens during the activity is within the bounded region. This is construed as containment. In all these cases the preposition ‘in’ signals containment. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) maintain that activities are perceived as containers with regard to the energy and the materials required for them and for their by- products which may be perceived as in them or emerging from them.Lakoff and Johnson (1980) also explain that various kinds of states may be conceptualised as containers. Below are illustrations of the mapping of the ontology and epistemology of containment onto the ontology and epistemology of states. He’s in love.He’s in LOVE.TD: DESIGNATOR: STATE {LOVE RELATIONSHIP}SD: CONTAINER {THREE DIMENSIONAL} TD: STATE {LOVE RELATIONSHIP}。
英语作文新学习计划
英语作文新学习计划IntroductionAs a student, learning is a never-ending process. It is important to constantly strive for improvement and acquire new knowledge. With this in mind, I have developed a new learning plan that will help me to stay focused, organized, and motivated throughout my academic journey.GoalsThe first step in creating my new learning plan is to establish specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) goals. My main goal is to improve my overall academic performance and develop new skills that will benefit me in the future. To achieve this, I have set the following goals:1. Improve my GPA by at least one full point by the end of the school year.2. Enhance my time management skills by creating a study schedule and sticking to it.3. Develop better note-taking techniques to improve retention and understanding of the material.4. Learn a new language or skill to broaden my knowledge and expand my horizons. StrategiesTo reach my goals, I have devised a number of strategies that will help me stay on track and make the most of my learning experiences. These include:1. Creating a study schedule: I will allocate specific time slots for each subject and task, ensuring that I devote enough time to understand and absorb the material.2. Utilizing effective note-taking techniques: I will experiment with different methods of note-taking, such as mind mapping, Cornell notes, and the outline method, to find the most suitable approach for me.3. Seeking help when needed: I will not hesitate to seek help from teachers, tutors, or classmates if I am struggling with a particular subject or concept.4. Participating in extracurricular activities: I will join clubs or organizations that align with my interests, as this will provide me with a new learning experience and potentially improve my skills.5. Finding a language or skill to learn: I will dedicate time each week to learning a new language or skill, such as coding, painting, or playing a musical instrument.Action PlanIn order to ensure that I am making progress towards my goals, I have created an action plan that details the steps I will take to implement my new learning plan:1. Week 1-2: Establish a study schedule that includes designated time for each subject and task.2. Week 3-4: Experiment with different note-taking techniques to determine the most effective method for me.3. Week 5-6: Seek help from teachers or tutors for any subjects or concepts that I find challenging.4. Week 7-8: Research and choose a new language or skill to start learning.5. Week 9-10: Begin actively participating in clubs or organizations that interest me. Monitoring and EvaluationTo ensure that I am staying on track and making progress towards my goals, I will regularly monitor my performance and evaluate the effectiveness of my learning plan. This will involve:1. Checking my grades and academic performance on a weekly basis to identify areas for improvement.2. Reflecting on my study schedule and note-taking techniques to determine what is working well and what needs to be adjusted.3. Seeking feedback from teachers, tutors, and peers to gain different perspectives on my progress and areas for growth.4. Reviewing my language or skill learning progress to track my improvement over time. Challenges and SolutionsWhile I am committed to achieving my goals, I recognize that I may encounter challenges along the way. To overcome these challenges, I will:1. Stay motivated and focused on my goals by surrounding myself with positive influences and setting small milestones to celebrate achievements.2. Manage my time effectively and prioritize my tasks to ensure that I am making the most of my learning opportunities.3. Seek support from friends, family, and mentors when facing difficulties and ask for their advice and guidance.4. Be open to change and adapt my learning plan as needed, as I understand that flexibility is key to success.ConclusionBy implementing my new learning plan, I am confident that I will be able to improve my academic performance and develop new skills that will benefit me in the future. It is important to stay focused, organized, and motivated throughout my academic journey, and my new learning plan will help me to do just that. With clear goals, effective strategies, and a detailed action plan, I am ready to embark on this new chapter in my learning journey.。
适合你的学习计划英语翻译
适合你的学习计划英语翻译IntroductionStudying is an essential part of life and necessary for personal and professional growth. With a well-structured study plan, one can effectively manage their time and resources, leading to better academic performance and overall success. In this article, I will discuss my study plan, including my objectives, schedule, study techniques, and strategies for staying motivated and focused.ObjectivesBefore outlining my study plan, it's essential to establish my educational objectives. These objectives will guide my study plan and keep me motivated. My primary educational objectives include:1. Achieving high grades in all my courses, especially in subjects related to my major.2. Improving my critical thinking and analytical skills through independent study and research.3. Enhancing my understanding and knowledge of the subjects through active learning and concept mastery.4. Developing effective study habits and time management skills to be more efficient and productive.ScheduleMy study plan is organized around a weekly schedule that accommodates both my academic commitments and personal life. I have divided my study time into specific periods throughout the week, allowing me to allocate sufficient time to each subject and ensure comprehensive coverage of the course materials. My typical weekly study schedule is as follows:Monday:9:00 am - 11:00 am: Study session for Math12:00 pm - 2:00 pm: Study session for English3:00 pm - 5:00 pm: Study session for HistoryTuesday:9:00 am - 11:00 am: Study session for Science12:00 pm - 2:00 pm: Study session for Economics3:00 pm - 5:00 pm: Study session for PsychologyWednesday:9:00 am - 11:00 am: Review session for Math12:00 pm - 2:00 pm: Review session for English3:00 pm - 5:00 pm: Review session for HistoryThursday:9:00 am - 11:00 am: Review session for Science12:00 pm - 2:00 pm: Review session for Economics3:00 pm - 5:00 pm: Review session for PsychologyFriday:9:00 am - 11:00 am: Study session for Math12:00 pm - 2:00 pm: Study session for English3:00 pm - 5:00 pm: Study session for HistorySaturday:9:00 am - 11:00 am: Study session for Science12:00 pm - 2:00 pm: Study session for Economics3:00 pm - 5:00 pm: Study session for PsychologySunday:Rest dayStudy TechniquesTo make the most out of my study time, I employ various study techniques that cater to different subjects and learning styles. Some of the techniques I find most effective include:1. Active Reading: When studying, I actively engage with the text by asking questions, making connections, and summarizing key points. This helps me retain information better and understand the material more thoroughly.2. Note-Taking: I take detailed notes during lectures and while reading, which allows me to organize and condense the information for easier review.3. Practice Problems: For subjects like Math and Science, I solve practice problems to reinforce my understanding of the concepts and improve my problem-solving skills.4. Concept Mapping: I use concept maps to visually represent the connections between different ideas and topics, helping me see the bigger picture and understand the relationships between concepts.5. Group Study: Occasionally, I study with peers to discuss the material, share knowledge, and gain different perspectives on the subject matter.Study StrategiesIn addition to study techniques, I have developed several study strategies to help me stay motivated and focused on my academic goals. Some of these strategies include:1. Setting Achievable Goals: I set both short-term and long-term goals for each subject, such as completing a certain number of practice problems or mastering a specific concept. Achieving these goals gives me a sense of accomplishment and motivates me to continue studying.2. Time Management: I prioritize my tasks and allocate specific amounts of time to each subject, ensuring that I cover all the material while maintaining a healthy work-life balance.3. Taking Breaks: To avoid burnout, I take regular breaks during study sessions to refresh my mind and prevent mental fatigue.4. Seeking Help: When I encounter challenging topics, I seek help from my instructors, tutors, or classmates to gain a better understanding of the material.5. Staying Organized: I keep my study materials, notes, and resources well-organized, making it easier to access information and stay focused during study sessions.Staying MotivatedStaying motivated throughout the study process is crucial for achieving academic success. To keep myself motivated, I implement the following strategies:1. Positive Self-Talk: I maintain a positive attitude towards my studies by reminding myself of my goals and reassuring myself that I am capable of achieving academic success.2. Rewards System: I set up a rewards system for reaching certain study milestones, such as treating myself to something enjoyable after completing a challenging assignment or exam.3. Visualization: I visualize the benefits of achieving my educational objectives, such as getting good grades, gaining new knowledge, and prepa8979577695;ring for a successful future career.4. Peer Support: I seek support from friends and family, who provide encouragement and motivation during challenging times.ConclusionIn conclusion, my study plan is designed to help me achieve my educational objectives, manage my time effectively, and stay motivated throughout the learning process. By implementing a well-structured schedule, utilizing effective study techniques and strategies, and staying focused on my goals, I am confident that I will achieve academic success and continue to grow both academically and personally.。
英语学习认知理论
The History and Development of Cognitive Theory in English Learning
02
The core concepts of cognitive theory in English learning
CHAPTER
Language learning is a cognitive process that involves the manipulation and organization of language related information in the mind
Language learners build schemas, or mental presentations, of language patterns and structures through repeated exposure and practice
Scheme theory
The cognitive process of language learning
The Information Processing Mode of Language Learning
Metacognition
Language learners have knowledge about their own learning processes and can identify their strengths and weaknesses, set learning goals, and monitor their progress
Teach learners how to remember, organize, and process language information, such as classification, association, inference, etc.
最合适你的学习方法就是最好的英语作文
最合适你的学习方法就是最好的英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1The Quest for the Ideal Learning ApproachAs students, we're constantly bombarded with advice on the "best" ways to study, memorize information, and ace our exams. From flashcards to mnemonic devices, active recall to the Pomodoro technique, the options are endless, and the pressure to find the perfect method can be overwhelming. However, the truth is, there is no one-size-fits-all approach to learning. Each of us is unique, with our own strengths, weaknesses, preferences, and learning styles. The key to academic success lies in understanding ourselves and finding the techniques that resonate with our individual needs and tendencies.Personally, I've been on a journey to discover the learning methods that work best for me, and it's been a process of trial and error, self-reflection, and adaptation. In the early years of my education, I was a diligent note-taker, meticulously transcribing every word uttered by my teachers. I'd spend hours re-reading my notes, highlighting key points, and attempting to commit theinformation to memory through sheer repetition. While this approach yielded decent results, I often found myself struggling to retain the material over the long term, and the process felt tedious and draining.It wasn't until I encountered the concept of active learning that a paradigm shift occurred. Active learning emphasizes engaging with the material through activities such as discussion, problem-solving, and application, rather than passive absorption. For me, this meant supplementing my note-taking with frequent practice problems, teaching concepts to others, and relating the material to real-world scenarios. Suddenly, the information took on a deeper level of meaning, and my understanding became more robust and long-lasting.Another pivotal moment in my learning journey was the discovery of visual aids and multimedia resources. As a visual learner, I found that incorporating diagrams, charts, and videos into my study routine helped cement concepts in a way that text alone couldn't. Whether it was creating mind maps to organize information or watching educational videos to reinforce key ideas, these visual tools resonated with my learning style and made the material more accessible and engaging.Of course, no single approach is perfect, and I've learned to embrace a combination of techniques tailored to my needs. For subjects that require extensive memorization, such as anatomy or vocabulary lists, I've found that spaced repetition and active recall techniques like flashcards and quizzing apps work wonders. On the other hand, for more conceptual topics like philosophy or literary analysis, I thrive on discussion-based learning, exchanging ideas with peers, and exploring multiple perspectives.One aspect that has been crucial in my quest for effective learning is self-awareness and continuous reflection. I've learned to pay attention to the circumstances under which I retain information best – whether it's studying in the morning when my mind is fresh, or breaking up study sessions with frequent breaks to combat mental fatigue. I've also become attuned to my preferred learning environments, recognizing that some settings, such as quiet libraries or bustling coffee shops, can either enhance or hinder my concentration.Ultimately, the learning method that suits you best is the one that aligns with your unique cognitive processes, interests, and goals. It's a highly personal journey, and what works for one individual may not resonate with another. The key is to approachthe process with an open mind, a willingness to experiment, and a commitment to continuous self-evaluation and adaptation.In my experience, the most successful learners are those who embrace a growth mindset – the belief that intelligence and abilities can be developed through effort and strategic approaches. They're not afraid to step outside their comfort zones, try new techniques, and learn from their failures. They understand that learning is a lifelong process, and the methods that serve them today may evolve as they encounter new challenges and acquire new knowledge.So, to my fellow students, I encourage you to embark on your own quest for the ideal learning approach. Explore different strategies, listen to your intuition, and don't be afraid to deviate from the conventional wisdom. Embrace your unique strengths and preferences, and cultivate a toolkit of techniques that work for you. Remember, the learning method that suits you best is the one that empowers you to engage deeply with the material, retain information effectively, and ultimately, achieve your academic and personal goals.In the words of the ancient Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu, "A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step." Your journey towards becoming a more efficient and effective learnerstarts now, and the path you choose will be as unique and extraordinary as you are.篇2The Learning Method That Suits You Best is the Best MethodAs a student, I'm constantly on the lookout for ways to enhance my learning experience and make the most of my academic journey. Over the years, I've come to realize that there is no one-size-fits-all approach when it comes to learning. Each individual is unique, with their own learning style, preferences, and strengths. What works for one person may not necessarily work for another, and that's perfectly okay. The key to success lies in finding the learning method that suits you best, embracing your individuality, and tailoring your approach to maximize your potential.Firstly, it's essential to understand your learning style. Some people are visual learners, absorbing information best through charts, diagrams, and visual aids. Others are auditory learners, thriving in lecture-based environments and benefiting from discussions and verbal explanations. Kinesthetic learners, on the other hand, learn best through hands-on experiences, practical applications, and physical engagement. Identifying yourdominant learning style can provide valuable insights into the techniques and strategies that may work best for you.For instance, if you're a visual learner, incorporating techniques like mind mapping, color-coding your notes, and using visual aids can significantly enhance your understanding and retention of information. Auditory learners may benefit from recording lectures, participating in study groups, and discussing concepts with peers or instructors. Kinesthetic learners could explore hands-on activities, role-playing, or even creating physical models to solidify their understanding.However, it's important to note that very few people fall strictly into one category. Most individuals exhibit a blend of learning styles, and adaptability is key. Embracing amulti-sensory approach, where you incorporate elements from various learning styles, can be highly effective. Experiment with different techniques and find the combination that resonates best with you.Another crucial aspect of finding the right learning method is understanding your personal preferences and strengths. Are you someone who thrives in a structured environment with clear deadlines and schedules? Or do you prefer a more flexible approach, allowing for spontaneity and adjustments based onyour mood and energy levels? Do you work best in the morning or at night? Do you prefer studying alone or in a group setting?Answering these questions honestly can provide valuable insights into the learning environment and study habits that may suit you best. For those who prefer structure, creating a detailed study schedule and setting achievable goals can be beneficial. Those who thrive in a more flexible setting may find it helpful to divide their work into manageable chunks and take breaks as needed to maintain focus and productivity.It's also important to consider your preferred learning resources. Some students excel with traditional textbooks and printed materials, while others prefer digital resources, online courses, or multimedia content. Experiment with different formats and find what resonates best with you, whether it's audiobooks, interactive simulations, or video tutorials.Ultimately, the learning method that suits you best is the one that aligns with your learning style, personal preferences, and strengths. It's a journey of self-discovery and experimentation, and it may evolve as you progress through your academic career. Embrace the process, be open to trying new approaches, and don't be afraid to step outside your comfort zone occasionally.Seek guidance and support when needed. Consult with your instructors, academic advisors, or peers who have found success in their learning methods. Learn from their experiences and insights, but remember that what works for them may not necessarily work for you. Tailor their advice to your own unique needs and preferences.In addition to finding the right learning method, it's equally important to cultivate a growth mindset and a passion for learning. Approach challenges with resilience and a willingness to learn from mistakes. Celebrate your successes, no matter how small, and use setbacks as opportunities for growth and improvement.Lastly, remember that finding the right learning method is an ongoing process. As you progress through different stages of your academic journey, your needs, preferences, and strengths may shift. Remain open-minded and adaptable, continuously reevaluating your approach and making adjustments as necessary.In conclusion, the learning method that suits you best is the key to unlocking your full potential as a student. Embrace your individuality, experiment with different techniques, and tailor your approach to align with your learning style, personalpreferences, and strengths. Be patient, persistent, and open to trying new things. With the right mindset and a willingness to explore, you'll not only enhance your academic performance but also develop a lifelong love for learning.篇3The Best Learning Method for You is the Best MethodAs students, we're all too familiar with the constant pressure to excel academically. From the moment we step foot in a classroom, we're bombarded with advice on how to study more effectively, retain information better, and ultimately, achieve higher grades. But amidst this avalanche of tips and tricks, one fundamental truth often gets lost: the best learning method for you is the one that works best for you.Let's be real – we're all unique individuals with distinct learning styles, preferences, and strengths. What works like a charm for your best friend might leave you feeling utterly lost and confused. That's why it's crucial to embrace the fact that there's no one-size-fits-all approach to learning. Trying to force yourself into a mold that doesn't align with your natural inclinations is a recipe for frustration and burnout.Imagine trying to learn a new language solely through auditory means when you're a visual learner who thrives on seeing words written out. Or picture yourself attempting to grasp complex mathematical concepts by reading textbooks when you learn best through hands-on practice and experimentation. It's like trying to fit a square peg into a round hole – it just won't work, no matter how hard you try.The key to unlocking your full academic potential lies in understanding your unique learning style and tailoring your approach accordingly. Are you a kinesthetic learner who retains information best through physical activities and movement? Embrace that by incorporating techniques like role-playing, building models, or even pacing around while studying. If you're an auditory learner, consider recording yourself reading notes aloud or participating in study groups where you can discuss and debate concepts.For visual learners, tools like mind maps, diagrams, and color-coding can be game-changers. And if you're a combination of multiple learning styles, don't be afraid to mix and match techniques to create a personalized approach that caters to your diverse needs.But identifying your learning style is just the first step. Equally important is cultivating an environment that nurtures your productivity and focus. Some thrive in the hushed silence of a library, while others find solace in the ambient noise of a bustling cafe. Maybe you're someone who can only concentrate with music playing in the background, or perhaps you require complete stillness to fully immerse yourself in your studies.Experiment with different settings and conditions until you find the perfect combination that allows you to enter that coveted state of flow, where time seems to stand still, and learning becomes effortless.Embrace your quirks and idiosyncrasies, too. If you're a night owl who finds their brain firing on all cylinders after the sun goes down, don't force yourself to study during the early morning hours when you're barely functioning. Conversely, if you're a morning person, seize those precious hours of mental clarity and focus before the distractions of the day set in.Remember, the best learning method for you isn't about following a rigid set of rules or conforming to societal expectations. It's about discovering what works for you, what ignites your passion for learning, and what ultimately enablesyou to achieve your academic goals without sacrificing your well-being.Stepping outside the conventional boundaries of education can be daunting, but the rewards are immense. When you find your groove, studying becomes less of a chore and more of an exhilarating journey of self-discovery. You'll no longer dread the prospect of hitting the books because you'll be approaching the task in a way that resonates with your unique strengths and preferences.Embrace your individuality, trust your instincts, and have the courage to blaze your own trail. Because at the end of the day, the best learning method for you is the one that empowers you to reach your full potential while staying true to who you are.。
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Learning term to concept mapping:an ontologybased approachValentina Ceausu1and Sylvie Despr`e s1Paris5University,Paris,75006,France,ceausu@math-info.univ-paris5.frsd@math-info.univ-paris5.frAbstract.We propose in this paper an approach to learn term to con-cept mapping with the joint utilization of an existing ontology and verbrelations.This is a non-supervised solution that can be applied to anyfield for which an ontology modeling verbs as relations holding betweenthe concepts was already created.Conceptual graphs,representing a setof verb relations,are learned from a natural language corpus by usingpart-of-speech information and statistic beling strategiesare proposed to assign terms of the corpus to concepts of the ontologyby taking into account the structure of the ontology and the extractedconceptual graphs.This paper presents the approach proposed to learnthe conceptual graphs from the corpus and the labeling strategies.Afirstexperimentation in thefield of accidentology was done and its results arealso presented.Keywords:concept learning,ontology,verb relation.1IntroductionThe rapid evolution in the production of documents in natural language requires to define efficient automated approaches allowing tofind relevant information in those documents.This paper presents an approach that uses verb relations and a domain ontology to assign terms of a given corpus to concepts of thefield. Those assignations can be used thereafter for various exploitation scenarios, that is to say:indexing collection of documents,estimating similarities between documents,annotating documents etc.This approach is based on an entirely automatic and non-supervised process,unless the use of a domain ontology to support the process.The task to achieve could be described as fallows:let O be a domain ontology and C a collection of domain-specific texts.With this approach,our goal is to identify within C terms W representing linguistic expression of concepts of O ontology.Thus,we can label terms identified in the corpus by concepts of ontol-ogy.Three steps have been proposed to carry out this labelling process:(1)in afirst stage,verb relations are extracted from the corpus.Each verb relation representsIIa triple composed of a verb,be that a general one or afield specific one,and a pair of terms connected by this verb.(2)In a second phase,statistical processing is performed to structure those verb relations as conceptual graphs.As the verb is considered to be the key element of a verb relation,it is placed at the top of the conceptual graph.Terms occurring as arguments of the verb are connected to this verb through links representing theirs syntactic function,that could be subject or object.(3)The last phase is based on the assumption that thefield ontology models verbs of thefield as relations holding between the concepts.If this is the case,labelling strategies are using the ontology and extracted concep-tual graphs to assignfield specific terms tofield specific concepts.We shall approach that topic by answering a number of questions:which method should be used to extract verb relations from corpus?How to learn conceptual graphs from the extracted verb relations?Those questions are analyzed in sec-tions2and3.Given a domain ontology and a set on conceptual graphs,which strategies will be used to assign terms to concepts?The solution is discussed in section4.Afirst experimentation in thefield of accidentology is described and its results are presented in section5.Related approach are presented in section 6.Conclusions and perspectives of this work will end the paper.2Extracting verb relations from corpusTo extract verb relations from corpus,we adopted a pattern recognition ap-proach.This approach is using part-of-speech information and consists in seeking within the corpus particular associations of lexical categories.Such an associa-tion represents a lexical pattern.For example Noun,Noun,or Verb,Preposition, Noun are lexical patterns.A set of lexical patterns including,among other categories,a verb,is defined.A pattern recognition algorithm,described in[1],is using part-of-speech infor-mation to identify associations of words matching the patterns of this set.The algorithm takes as input the corpus tagged by TreeTagger(see[2])and a set of lexical patterns including verbs.It is applied at sentence level and it automati-cally generates a set of word regroupings matching those patterns,as we can see bellow:1Verb,Preposition:diriger vers(direct to);Verb,Preposition,Noun:diriger vers place(direct to square);Obtained word regroupings can be:a verb relation,highlighting relations of the field,such as:v´e hicule diriger vers bretelle(vehicle direct to slip road);an incomplete verb relation such as pi´e ton traverser(pedestrian crossing)or diriger vers l’op´e ra(direct to opera);or meaningless word regroupings,as we can see:c,v´e hicule(C,vehicle,);venir de i(come from i).1Examples of this paper are translated in English,although they are extracted froma French corpus experimentationIII3Learning conceptual graphsThe goal of this phase is to learn conceptual graphs from the results of pattern recognition algorithm.A conceptual graph represents a hierarchy having as a top a verb and,on a second layer,arguments connected to the verb by theirs grammatical function,subject or object.We use the term conceptual graph as it was introduced by [3].As many terms could be the subject or object of the same verb,a conceptual graph corresponds to a set of verb relations generated by the same verb.To learn conceptual graphs,a chain of treatments are performed that are based on lexical similarity measures presented bellow.3.1Lexical similaritiesA similarity measure associates a real number R to a pair of strings S 1,S 2.Important values of R indicate a significant similarity of strings S 1,S 2.Many approaches are proposed to calculate similarities between strings.A number of them are presented in [4].For this work,several similarity measures -Jaccard,Jaro,Jaro-Winkler,Monge and Elkan are -implemented.Jaccard coefficient considers a string composed of several sub-strings and calculates the similarity between two strings S and T as :Jaccard (S,T )=|S T ||S T |This measure is given by the number of sub-strings common to S and T com-pared to the number of all sub-strings of T and S .If we consider characters as sub-strings,the coefficient expresses the similarity by taking into account the number of common characters of S and T only.Jaro and Jaro-Winkler coefficients,introduced below,express the similarity by taking into account the number and the position of characters shared by S and T .Let a =a i ..a k and b =b 1..b l be two strings.A character a i ∈s is considered common to both strings if there is a b j ∈t such as:a i =b j andi −H ≤j ≤i +H ,where H =min (|S |,|T |)2.Let s 1=a 11..a 1k characters of scommon to t and t 1=b 11..b 1l characters of t common to s .We define a transpo-sition between s 1and b 1as an index i such as:a 1i =b 1i .If T s 1,t 1is the number oftranspositions from s 1to t 1the Jaro coefficient calculates the similarity between s and t as follows:Jaro (s,t )=13(|s 1||s |+|t 1||t |+|s 1|−T s 1,t 1|s 1|)[5]proposes a version of this coefficient by using P ,the length of the longer pre-fix common to both strings.Let P 1=max (P,4),then Jaro-Winkler is written:Jaro −W inckler (s,t )=Jaro (s,t )+P 110(1−Jaro (s,t ))Presented coefficients calculate similarity between strings iteratively and con-sider strings as blocks.There are also hybrid approaches calculating similaritiesIVrecursively,by analyzing sub-strings of initial strings.Thus,Monge-Elkan usestwo steps to calculate similarity between s1=a11..a1k and t1=b11..b1l:the twostrings are divided into sub-strings then the similarity is given by:sim(s,t)=1kki=1max L j=1(sim1(a j,b j))where values of sim1(a j,b j)are given by some similarity function,called basic function,for example one of those previously presented.Such a function is called a level2function.For this work,Monge-Elkan is implemented by using the co-efficients of Jaccard,Jaro and Jaro-Winkler as a basic function.Statistic measures will be used in different phases of our approach.3.2An iterative approach to learn conceptual graphsConceptual graphs are learned from the set of word regroupings extracted ac-cording to section2.An iterative solution is proposed,performing a number of steps,each of them adding a new layer to the graphs.(1)Thefirst step identifies verb classes,that represent the set of verb relations generated by the same verb(see Table1).Table1.Extracts from diriger(direct to)classdiriger vers(direct towards)diriger vers lieu(direct towards place)diriger vers parc(direct towards parc)v´e hicule diriger vers(vehicle direct towards)automobile diriger vers esplanade(car direct towards esplanade)For each verb class,instances of Verb and Verb,Preposition patterns are added to the set of roots.We argue that for verbs accepting prepositions,each verb,preposition structure is specific and for this reason we create conceptual graphs for any of those structures.This steps create a number of conceptual graphs having one level,which is to say the root(as the Figure1shows). (2)For each root,its arguments are identified:terms that are subjects and ob-jects.As each relation accepts many terms as subject or object,lists of arguments are obtained.This step is adding a second layer to each conceptual graph. (3)We observe that,for a given verb,arguments can have different levels of granularity,as we can see:Partie(side);partie gauche(left side)partie droite(right side)r´e troviseur(rear view mirror);r´e troviseur extrieur(external rear view mirror)V r´e troviseur int´e rieur(internal rear view mirror)Hence,a new layer can be added to each conceptual graph by clustering those arguments.A cluster is a group of similar terms,having a central term C called centroid and its k nearest neighbors.Based on the observation that the greater number of words in a word regrouping there are,the more specific his meaning is,an algorithm is proposed to cluster arguments of verb relations.The clustering al-gorithm is written as follows:(1)For each list of arguments,create the list L of centroids,composed of the single-word arguments;(2)For each centroid C,calculate the similarity with other terms of the list by using Monge-Elkan function.(3)Add to cluster C terms having a similarity value greater than a given thresh-old.At that stage,Monge-Elkan function is used because it carries out recursive comparisons between sub-strings.Consequently,it has the capacity to agglom-erate around a word terms derived from this word.We chose single words as centroids as they have the most general meaning,and,by consequence,will be able to attract into a cluster terms that are similar from a lexical point of view and that have more specific meanings.Figure(1)shows the iterative construc-tion of conceptual graphs.We can see one-level conceptual graphs learned from diriger(to direct)class and two-level conceptual graphs learned from circuler (to circulate)class.Fig.1.Iterative learning of conceptual graphsVI4Term to concept mapping using the ontologyAt this stage,arguments of verb relations can be assigned to concepts of thefield by using those conceptual graphs and a domain-ontology.We make the assump-tion that,for a given conceptual graph,the verb R representing its top node is already modelled by the ontology.If this is the case,let r be the corresponding relation and Range r,Domain r concepts of the ontology connected by r.Those concepts and theirs descendants will be used to label arguments of the verbs. As arguments are connected to the verb by links corresponding to the syntactic function,Domain r will be used to label subject arguments,while Range r will be used to label object arguments.Assignation of terms to concepts is performed by one of labelling strategies described bellow.Afirst strategy ignores the hierarchical organization of arguments.Thus,simi-larities between each argument and concepts of the ontology are calculated using one of presented similarity measures.The argument is assigned to the concept maximizing this similarity if the value of similarity is greater than a pre-defined threshold.If the similarities between the term and the concepts of ontology are below the threshold,the term will be labelled as unknown.This is a non-oriented strategy because all the arguments are considered at the same level.Further on,we present two strategies which take into account the hierarchical structure of arguments.Therefore,each argument cluster is considered as a hi-erarchy having on itsfirst level the centroid and on its second level terms that are specializations of centroid.The second strategy we propose is a top-down strategy.In thefirst phase,it identifies concepts of ontology which label the centroid of the cluster.If the centroid of a cluster is labeled as unknown,the same label is assigned to each term of the cluster.If the centroid of a cluster is labeled by a concept C of ontology,labels for other terms of the cluster are searched only in the set of sub-concepts of C.In this way,the top-down labelling strategy reduces the search space.A third strategy is based on a bottom-up approach.For each cluster,the simi-larities between its terms and the concepts of ontology are calculated by using one of presented coefficients.If values of similarities are higher than a threshold, the concept labels the term.If this is not the case,the term will be labeled as unknown.Based on the assignments of each term of cluster to ontology concepts, similarity between the centroid and a concept of ontology is given by:sim(Cen,C)=1kki=1sim(t i,C)where t i is a term of the cluster,C is a concept of ontology,sim(t i,C)is the similarity between t i and C and k is the number of terms la-beled by C.Those three labelling strategies are used in afirst experimentation in thefield of accidentology which is described in the next section.VII 5Experimentation in accidentology andfirst resultsAfirst experimentation of this approach was done in thefield of road accidents.A corpus composed of250accident reports of road accidents which occurred in and around the Lille region is used for this experimentation.We used an ontology of road accidents which was also created from accident reports.The ontology was created with Terminae(see[6]),and it is expressed in OWL(see[7]).This ontology is composed of about450concepts describing road accidents.Concepts are connected by roles.The ontology contains about 300roles expressed by verbs.Figure2shows the concept V´e hicule(vehicle)as it is implemented in this on-tology and relations connecting V´e hicule with other concepts of the ontology.Fig.2.Concept V´e hicule(vehicle)and its roles in the ontology of accidentology The analysis of the results is two-fold:for the same similarity coefficient,we compare the results provided by each labelling strategy;for the same labelling strategy,results provided by each coefficient are then compared.For instance,arguments that are objects of the circuler avec(circulate with) relation are labelled.Results of the not-directed labelling strategy,using the Jaro coefficient and having a value of0.85,as a threshold,are presented in Table2.The top-down approach assigns the following labels to centroids(see Table3):Table4presents the results in the second phase of the top-down strategy.We observe that v´e hicule blanc is labelled as inconnu(unknown).Conse-quently,the term can be ignored.The labelling of v´e hicule lourd is less appro-priate.This strategy is faster than the previous one,because the concepts which can label the terms are sub-concepts of concept assigned to centroid.VIIITable2.Non-oriented labelling,Jaro coefficient.Term Conceptcyclomoteur cyclomoteurv´e hicule blanc V´e hiculev´e hicule lourd v´e hicule lourdv´e hicule v´e hiculeTable3.Top-down labelling,labels assigned to centroidsCentroid Conceptv´e hicule V´e hicule L´e gercyclomoteur cyclomoteurcycle Cyclefeu InconnuThe bottom-up approach initially assigns labels to terms of the cluster;then it uses those labels to assign a concept of the ontology to the centroid of the cluster.Labels assigned to centroids are shown in Table5.This strategy allows us to eliminate the centroid feu(fire),which is labelled as inconnu(unknown).On the downside,clusters having a small number of terms are penalized with this strategy.Centroids of clusters containing a small number of terms are assigned to concepts of an ontology with a low coefficient,or are labelled as unknown. For Jaro-Winkler coefficient,results of the three strategies are similar to results obtained with Jaro coefficient.This similarity results from the fact that Jaro-Winkler represents just a variation of Jaro measure.For Jaccard coefficient,the bottom-up strategy shows a failure as it assigns the term v´e hicule to the concept v´e hicule de service.As Jaccard coefficient is a measure based on the number of common characters of the two strings only,it assigns an important number of the terms of v´e hicule cluster to the concept v´e hicule de service.As a result,the centroid is labelled by the same concept.Independent of the coefficient that in used,the top-down strategy performs faster.For the same couple term,concept,values of the Jaccard coefficient are slightly lower than values of Jaro and Jaro-Winkler.To assign labels by using the Jac-card coefficient,the selected threshold will therefore need to be lower than the thresholds used for Jaro and Jaro-Winkler coefficients.6Related workApproaches proposed in different applicationfields,such as ontology learning or word-sense disambiguation are at the origin of this work.Among them,[8]propose Asium,a machine learning system which acquires subcategorization frames of verbs based on syntactic input.Asium system hier-IX Table4.Top-down labelling,labels assigned to terms of clustersTerm Conceptcyclomoteur cyclomoteurv´e hicule blanc Inconnuv´e hicule lourd V´e hicule L´e gerTable5.Bottom-up approach,labels assigned to centroids of clustersCentroid Conceptcyclomoteur cyclomoteurv´e hicule V´e hicule L´e gerfeu InconnuCycle Cyclearchically clusters nouns based on the verbs that they are syntactically related with and vice versa.The work of[9]concerns the identification of significance of the unknown verbs using the context of occurrence of the verb.The system Camille uses WordNet, (see[10])as background knowledge and generates assumptions concerning the meaning of verbs.The assumptions are formulated according to linguistic crite-ria’s.[11]use a principle from information theory to model selectional preferences for verbs.Several classes may be appropriate for modeling selectional preferences.[12]propose RelExt,a system which is capable of automatically identifying highly relevant triples(pairs of concepts connected by a relation).RelExt ex-tracts relevant terms and verbs from a given text collection and it estimates relations between them through a combination of linguistic and statistical pro-cessing.Extracted triples can be integrated in an already existing ontology. [3]propose a system having a multi-layered architecture aiming to extract infor-mation from genetic interaction data.The system uses verb patterns modelled as conceptual sub-graphs to characterize unknown terms in sentences.The goal is to enrich an existing ontology by integrating discovered concepts.7Conclusion and future workWe have presented an approach allowing us to assign terms of a corpus to con-cepts of an ontology.This approach is using jointly verb relations and a domain ontology.Different measures which estimate similarity between strings have been implemented and used in the various phases of our approach.Afirst experimentation in thefield of road accidents shows that Jaro and Jaro-Winkler coefficients provide better similarities estimation than the Jaccard co-efficient.Among the labelling strategies,the top-down strategy performs faster and generates better assignments of the terms to concepts of ontology.ThoseXare only preliminaries conclusions and further case studies are needed.The evaluation of our approach is another important issue to address.An eval-uation strategy must be defined,and experimentations should be performed in order to see how the size of the corpus,different domain-specific text collections or different kinds of ontologies affect the outcome.As a further direction,a feedback could be added in order to enrich the domain ontology by integrating some of the arguments of verb relations. 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