英语语言学概论笔记
英语语言学笔记1-何兆熊
英语语⾔学笔记1-何兆熊第⼀章Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures1. languageWhy study language?为什么学习语⾔A tool for communication交流的⼯具An integral part of our life and humanity ⼈类⽣活和⼈性中不可或缺的⼀部分.If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语⾔的本质和结构,我们就会对⼈类的本质⼀⽆所知.What is language?什么是语⾔different senses of language 语⾔的不同意义1. what a person says( concrete act of speech)a person‘s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial languagean abstract system2. A webster‘s New Dictionrary offers a frequently used sense of the word ―language‖:a. human speech ⼈类的⾔语b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过⾔语来交流的能⼒c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed,used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; ⽤来表达或交流思想和感觉的⼀套声⾳及这些声⾳互相结合的系统d. the written representation of such a system 系统的⽂字表达3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语⾔是⾔语交流的⼀种⽅式.Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication canonly take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interactionincluding such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles.Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流⽅式是⼀种有⽬的的⾏为,所以语⾔是实⽤性的;因为语⾔是社会符号,语⾔的交流只能在所有参与者⼴泛理解了⼈类的那些⾮⾔语的暗⽰,动机,社会⽂化⾓⾊等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进⾏,因此语⾔⼜是社会的,约定俗成的.语⾔使⼈类区别于动物.definitionsLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiveror listener).A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather thanrandomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×) Why do we say language is arbitrary? Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. Thisexplains and is explained by the fact that different language have different words for thesame object, it is good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language . it is only our tacitagreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound upin the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the arbitrary of language is a famousquotation from shakepeare‘s play:‖ Romeo and Juliet: A rose by any other name wouldsmell as sweet.⼀朵玫瑰不管它叫什么名字,闻起来都是⼀样⾹的.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or voval forms to symbolize what they wishto refer to.Vocal-------- the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The factthat small children learn and can only learn to speak and listen before they write or readalso indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.―Language Acquisition Device‖(LAD)⼆.What characteristics of langauge do you think should be included in a good ,comprenhensive definition of language? Language is a rule-governed system; langauge is basically vocal; langauge is arbitrary ; langague is used for human communication.1.3 Design features of language 语⾔的结构特征Design features------ refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity/ productivity, displacement, clutural transmission and interchangeability.Design features----- are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.(指决定了⼈类语⾔性质的特征.例如任意性,⼆重性,创造性,移位性,⽂化转移性等.)The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.What is arbitrariness?任意性a. arbitrariness【'ɑ?b?tr?r?n?s】----arbitrariness(任意性): one design feature of humanlanguage,which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning.(⼈类语⾔的本质特征之⼀,指语⾔符号的形式与意义之间没有⾃然的联系.)It was discussed by Saussure first.The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. ―house‖ uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房⼦(Chinese)(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning语⾔的⾳和义之间的任意性a. By ―arbitrary‖, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 语⾔的意义和语⾳之间没有逻辑关系。
语言学概论 自学笔记 第五章 语义
第五章语义一、名词解释1.语义2.理性意义3.非理性意义4.词汇意义5.语法意义6.语境意义7.词义 8.词的理性意义 9.词的非理性意义 10.感情色彩 11.语体色彩 12.形象色彩13.词义的模糊性 14.词的通俗意义和科学意义 15.义项 16.义素 17.义素分析18.单义词 19.多义词 20.本义 21.基本义 22.派生义 23.同义词 24.等义词25.近义词 26.反义词 27.绝对反义词和相对反义词 28.语义场 29.上位词、下位词30.词汇意义 31.关系意义 32.语法关系意义 33.语义关系意义 34.语气意义35.述谓结构及四种类型 36.变元 38.语义指向 39.蕴含 40.预设41.歧义二、简答及论述1.在语义中,句义和词义具有突出的地位.2.词义的概括性.3.举例说明依靠语境的限定作用,表达概括意义的语言形式可以有具体的、个别的所指.4.简要说明语义的民族性。
（含义、表现）5.为什么说同语言形式的结合是语义的基本特征？6.语境意义和语言意义有什么不同,为什么要区分二者?7.语义模糊性的含义和特点.8.为什么说语义的模糊性是社会交际活动的需要.(作用）9.词的理性意义的产生.10.词义也可以反映精神世界的对象.11.词的理性意义在词义中的地位.12.关于义项：13、为什么义素是理论分析的结果，是一种不与语音形式相联系的抽象的语义单位？14.义素分析的基本方法和步骤.15.义素分析法的简明步骤16.义素分析的运用17.义素分析的目的和要求.18.义素分析的作用.19.义素分析存在的问题.20.词的语体色彩和词语使用的关系如何？21.形象色彩和词语构造有什么关系.22.为什么相同的语音形式和书写形式所表达的几个意思并不一定就是同一个词的几个义项？23.为什么说明或掌握一个词的意义和用法时,应该以义项为基本单位.24.语义学领域的义素分析法和语法学领域的语义特征分析法有什么联系和区别.25.本义和基本义可能一致,也可能不一致.26．派生义产生的途径是什么?27.一个词虽然有几个意义，但在使用中一般不会产生歧义，简述其原因。
英语语言学笔记
英语语言学笔记What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。
语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。
The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for “correct” behavior.Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high” written languageSynchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic studyThe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic studyIn modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:(1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution(2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing(3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languageLanguage and parole 语言与言语Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole refers to the realization of language in actual useCompetence and performance 能力与运用Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users’ knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationWhat is language? 什么是语言？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language: 语言的特性Language is a rule-governed systemLanguage is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary (the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature oflanguage is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”: “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”)Language is used for human communicationDesign features of language 语言的甄别特征American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:1) arbitrariness 武断性2) productivity 创造性3) duality 二重性4) displacement移位性5) cultural transmission 文化传递性二、音系学语言的声音媒介什么是语音学发音器官音标……宽式和严式标音法英语语音的分类音系学和语音学语音、音位、音位变体音位对立、互补分部、最小对立几条音系规则超切分特征Two major media of communication: speech and writingThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。
英语语言学笔记第四章
句法（syntax）这个单词，来自希腊语，由两个语素构成：﹛syn﹜和﹛tax﹜。
﹛syn﹜的意思是"一起、共同"，﹛tax﹜的意思是"安排、排列"，因此syntax本来是"排列在一起"或"组合"的意思。
在语言学上，它是指研究语言中词组合成句子的支配规则，或者简单地说，是研究句子的构造。
因为通常认为句子是语言中最大的语法单位，所以句法长期以来是语法研究的核心。
不同的语言学理论首先体现在对句子结构的不同处理上。
这一章我们将介绍一些有代表性的句法学派。
4.1 传统学派传统认为句子是词的序列。
因此句子构造的研究涉及了对词的大量研究，例如，词类是对词进行的分类，主语、谓语是对词功能的描写，等等。
这些词类和功能有时叫做范畴。
但是"范畴"这个术语，更专门用于表示像名词、动词这些单位的特性。
例如：常说名词有数、性、格的范畴，动词有时、体、态的范畴。
在这里，我们将简要地讨论以上一些范畴。
名词、动词、形容词等形式在有关范畴中的相互关系将在"一致关系和支配关系"中讨论。
4.1.1 数、性、格4.1.2 时和体4.1.3 一致关系和支配关系4.1.1 数、性、格数（number），主要是名词和代词的范畴，如：a book（一本书）；some books（一些书）；I（我），we（我们）；he（他），they（他们）。
英语动词也反映了数的范畴，如：He speaks English.（他说英语）；They speak English.（他们说英语）。
在法语等语言中，形容词和冠词也有数的变化，如：le cheval royal，les chevaux royaux。
数一般有两种：单数和复数。
但是在古希腊语、阿拉伯语等语言中，还有第三种数：双数，类似于英语中的both（双方，两者）。
斐济群岛语还有第四种数：三数。
英语语言学概论知识点总结
英语语言学概论知识点总结English linguistics is a fascinating field that delves into the structure, variation, and evolution of the English language. It encompasses phonetics, which studies the sounds of speech, and phonology, the system of sounds in a language.Morphology, the study of word formation, and syntax, which examines sentence structure, are crucial components of linguistics. They reveal how words are constructed and how they combine to form meaningful sentences.Semantics, the study of meaning in language, and pragmatics, which looks at language in use and the context in which it is spoken, help us understand how language conveys information and intention.Sociolinguistics explores the relationship between language and society, including how dialects and accents vary across different social groups and regions.Psycholinguistics, on the other hand, investigates the cognitive processes involved in language acquisition and use, shedding light on how we learn and understand language.Historical linguistics traces the development of the English language over time, from its roots in Old English through to the modern language we speak today.Finally, applied linguistics takes the theoretical knowledge from these areas and applies it to real-world problems, such as language teaching, translation, and language policy development.In summary, English linguistics offers a comprehensive view of the language, from its smallest units to its role in society, and from its past to its present and future forms.。
语言学概论读书笔记
语言学概论读书笔记篇一：语言学概论感悟英语语言学概论感悟Why do we study linguistics? When we study a particular language, we just study it and actually we are limited by this language. While linguistics can help us study languages in general. In other words, linguistics is a systematic subject for students who want to learn any kind of language better.Just as my teacher said, linguistics is not only useful but also helpful. After I learned the second language- French, I found between English and French, there had something in common. However, language learning is still more difficult than we get our mother tongue. It must because speech is earlier than writing, for example little children hear sound or human voice first, then they learn written language because words are just symbols. There are things, and then there are the names of things. Just as Shakespeare said a rose by any other name would sell as sweet. If we want to have a good command of other language, we should not only focus on one or two point such as grammar or vocabulary. We should keep in mind learn a language is to learn the whole thoughts. That’s why we should study linguistics.Students always have rare interests in language learning for they don’t find a effective way to study it. When we recite words and try to understand the complicated grammar, we may be bored and tired, that’s because we do not know language’s similarities and generalizations. If we study linguistics, we can have a systematic recognition. During a period of time of learning, I find that linguistics has a widely use in language learning. Just like we read a sentence, we should consider the logical meaning of it because we shall know a word by the company it keeps, or we will make mistakes. If we learn linguistic, we can benefit a lot in language learning and find the beauty of the language.篇二：现代汉语读书笔记现代汉语读书笔记第一章引论第一节汉语和现代汉语一、现代汉语的性质（一）什么是现代汉语1.语言的属性语言是人类社会特有的产物，劳动创造了语言。
英语语言学概论第八章笔记
Chapter 8 Socio-linguistics 社会语言学1.What is socio-linguistics? 什么是社会语言学？Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies language in social contexts.社会语言学是语言学的一个分支，它研究社会环境中的语言。
nguage variation 语言变异a)Speech community 言语社区In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are treated as members of social groups. The social group isolated for any given study is called speech community. A speech community thus defined as a group of people who form a community (which may have as few members as a family or as many member as a country), and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.社会语言学研究中，说话者被当作是社会群体的成员。
英语语言学笔记第四章
句法（syntax）这个单词，来自希腊语，由两个语素构成：﹛syn﹜和﹛tax﹜。
﹛syn﹜的意思是"一起、共同"，﹛tax﹜的意思是"安排、排列"，因此syntax本来是"排列在一起"或"组合"的意思。
在语言学上，它是指研究语言中词组合成句子的支配规则，或者简单地说，是研究句子的构造。
因为通常认为句子是语言中最大的语法单位，所以句法长期以来是语法研究的核心。
不同的语言学理论首先体现在对句子结构的不同处理上。
这一章我们将介绍一些有代表性的句法学派。
4.1 传统学派传统认为句子是词的序列。
因此句子构造的研究涉及了对词的大量研究，例如，词类是对词进行的分类，主语、谓语是对词功能的描写，等等。
这些词类和功能有时叫做范畴。
但是"范畴"这个术语，更专门用于表示像名词、动词这些单位的特性。
例如：常说名词有数、性、格的范畴，动词有时、体、态的范畴。
在这里，我们将简要地讨论以上一些范畴。
名词、动词、形容词等形式在有关范畴中的相互关系将在"一致关系和支配关系"中讨论。
4.1.1 数、性、格4.1.2 时和体4.1.3 一致关系和支配关系4.1.1 数、性、格数（number），主要是名词和代词的范畴，如：a book（一本书）；some books（一些书）；I（我），we（我们）；he（他），they（他们）。
英语动词也反映了数的范畴，如：He speaks English.（他说英语）；They speak English.（他们说英语）。
在法语等语言中，形容词和冠词也有数的变化，如：le cheval royal，les chevaux royaux。
数一般有两种：单数和复数。
但是在古希腊语、阿拉伯语等语言中，还有第三种数：双数，类似于英语中的both（双方，两者）。
斐济群岛语还有第四种数：三数。
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Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 历史语言学1.The purpose and significance of the historical study of language研究语言变化的目的和意义The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence.Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric development in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different languages.The historical study of language also enables us to determine how non-linguistic factors, such as social, cultural and psychological factors, interact over time to trigger linguistic change.研究语言变化对于理解人类语言和人类的语言能力极其重要。
历史语言学的研究成果揭示语言变化的史前发展和同一语言早期和后期变体自己的联系，为不同语言的亲缘关系提供线索。
历史语言学的研究还可以使我们对非语言的因素，如社会文化和心理因素等在语言变化过程中所起的作用有更深的认识。
2.The nature of language change语言变化的本质All living languages change with time. Unless a language is no longer spoken by the general public of a society, such as Latin, its change is inevitable. As a general rule, language change is universal, continuous and, to a considerable degree, regular and systematic. Language change is extensive, taking place in virtually all aspects of the grammar.Although language change is universal, inevitable, and in some cases, vigorous, it is never an overnight occurrence.Language development may be regarded as linguistic evolution from one stage to another.所有尚在使用的语言都随着时间的变化而变化。
语言的变化是不可避免的。
语言变化是普遍的、连续的，在一定程度上也是规则的和系统的。
语言变化涉及语法系统的各大组成部分。
在语言演变过程中，词汇和语法规则有的消亡了，有的诞生了，有的是外借的，有的则转化了其意义或功能。
尽管语言变化是普遍的，必然的，有时甚至是显著的，但语言的变化是一个缓慢的渐变过程，其变化是同代人所不易察觉的。
语言的发展可以看作是语言从一个阶段到另一个阶段的演化过程。
3.Major periods in the history of English英语历史发展的主要阶段a)Old English (450-1100) 古英语阶段b)Middle English (1100-1500) 中古英语阶段c)Modern English (1500-今) 现代英语阶段Most Modern English speakers find Middle English only partially comprehensible, and Old English simply unintelligible, just like a foreign language hardly recognizable as the native language they speak.大多数现代英语的使用者发现，对于他们来说，中古英语只能部分地被理解，古英语则如外语一般，简直不可理解。
Old English dates back to the mid-fifth century when Anglo-Saxons invaded the British Isles from northern Europe.Middle English began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England. Middle English had been deeply influenced by Norman French in vocabulary and grammar.Modern English is separated with Middle English with European renaissance movement.古英语源自欧洲大陆的盎格鲁撒克逊民族所操的语言。
中古英语深受诺曼底占领者所操的法语的影响。
词汇和语法等均受其影响。
现代英语是英语自身发展和欧洲文艺复兴运动渗透结合的产物，很多词汇是外来语。
As British influence reached other continen ts, the “British Empire” established English-speaking colonies in many parts of the world. English is now the native language in the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.英帝国的兴起及其移民化过程的成功使现代英语的使用遍布全球。
以现代英语为母语的国家包括英国、美国、加拿大、澳大利亚和新西兰等。
4.Linguistic change in English英语语言系统的变化Language change is essentially a matter of change in the grammar. We refer to the change in the grammar of a language as linguistic change. Linguistic change occurs in all components of the grammar, including changes in the sound, morphological, syntactic, lexical and semantic systems. 语言变化实质上是语法变化。
我们把一种语言的语法变化称为语言变化。
语言变化包括语音系统、形态系统、句法系统、词汇系统和语义系统等部分的变化。
a)sound change 语音变化●V owel sound change 元音变化The change occurred at the end of the Middle English period, approximately 1400-1600. These changes led to one of the major discrepancies between the phonemic representations of words and morphemes, that is, between the pronunciation and the spelling system of Modern English. Known as the Great Vowel Shift in the history of English, these changes involve seven long, or tense, vowels. Refer to P132 of the test book for examples.元音变化出现在中古英语后期，大约在1400到1600年之间。
这些变化使一些单词的音位表达和词素之间出现了很大的不一致。
这些变化在英语史上被称为元音大变位，涉及七个长元音，或紧元音。
实例见书本132页。
●Sound loss 语音消失Not only did types of vowel sounds change, but some sounds simply disappeared from the general pronunciation of English.不仅数种元音发生了变化，而且一些语音还从英语的整个发音体系中消失了。
实例：1》古英语中/x/ 在现代英语中已不存在。
如：古英语nicht (night) 读做/nixt/，而现代英语读做/nait/2》古英语和中古英语中有/kn/，都发音，在现代英语中/k/不发音了。
如：knight/knee 在古英语中字母k是发音的，而在现代英语中不发音3》古英语中有一类名词的复数形式不是在词尾加/s/音，而是加/i/这个音，现在没有了。
如：goose的复数形式在古英语中的发音是/go:si/4》现代英语中出现了位于词尾的元音音段的省略现象，称为词尾音脱落。
如：name/love在古英语中发音为/na:ma:/和/lufu/，在中古英语中发音为/na:mə/和/luvə/，而在现代英语中的发音为/neim/和/lΛv/5》词尾音脱落还影响了某些词的拼写。
如：古英语单词helpe随着词尾音的消失，在中古英语和现代英语中拼写成了help●Sound addition 语音增加While some sounds were lost in the course of the historical development of English, other sounds were added. Sound addition includes the gain or insertion of a sound. A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis. Refer to P134 of the text book for examples.英语在发展过程中消失了一些语音，但也增加了一些语音。