The directory of highly toxic chemicals (2002)剧毒化学品目录(2002)
The directory of highly toxic ch
年版)
剧毒化学品目录说明
一、剧毒化学品的判定界限
1.剧毒化学品的定义
剧毒化学品是指具有非常剧烈毒性危害的化学品，包括人工合成的化学品及其混合物（含农药）
2.剧毒化学品毒性判定界限
大鼠试验，经口LD50≤50mg/kg，经皮LD50≤200mg/kg，吸入LC50≤500ppm（气体）或2.0mg/L（蒸气）或0.5mg/L（尘、雾
二、本目录为2002年版，共收录音335种剧毒化学品。
本目录将随着我国对化学品危险性鉴别水
三、本目录各栏目含义：
1.“序号”是指本目录录入剧毒化学品的顺序。
2.“中文名称”和“英文名称”是指剧毒化学品的中文和英文名称。
其中：“化学名”是按照化
“*”表示该剧毒化学品含量来源于国家标准《危险货物品名表》（GB12268-90）。
“※”表示该剧毒化学品含量来源于中国疾病预防控制中心职业卫生与中毒控制所检验报告
3.“分子式”是指该剧毒化学品的元素组成。
4.“CAS号”是指美国化学文摘社为一种化学物质指定的唯一索引编号。
5.“UN号”是指联合国危险货物运输专家委员会在《关于危险货物运输的建议书》（桔皮书）中
6.“受限范围”是指该剧毒化学品受到中国政府的限制范围。
“Ⅰ”表示国家明令禁止使用的剧毒化学品；
“Ⅱ”表示国家明令禁止使用的农药；
“Ⅲ”表示在蔬菜、果树、茶叶和中草药材上不得使用的农药。
四、本目录是以化学品毒性指标作为判定界限而收录，不改变现行有关危险化学品的分类。
运输
xic chemicals (2002)
农药）和天然毒素。
）或2.0mg/L（蒸气）或0.5mg/L（尘、雾），经皮LD50的试验数据，可参考兔试验数据。
鉴别水平和毒性认识的提高，不定期进行修订和公布新的目录。
按照化学品命名方法给予的名称；“别名”是指除“化学品”以外的习惯称谓或俗名
书）中对危险货物指定的编号。
在目录中标注2个UN号是指该剧毒化学品2种不同形态。
运输部门可从管理实际出发，按现行国家标准《危险货物分类和品名编号》（GB6944）分类，制定实施相应的监管措施。
评价化工工艺流程的指标
评价化工工艺流程的指标英文回答：Evaluation of indicators for chemical process flowsheets is crucial for assessing the efficiency, safety, and sustainability of the processes. There are several key indicators that can be used to evaluate chemical process flowsheets:1. Yield: Yield is a measure of the efficiency of a process in converting raw materials into desired products. It is calculated as the ratio of the amount of desired product obtained to the amount of raw material used. For example, in the production of ethanol from corn, the yield can be calculated as the amount of ethanol produced perunit of corn used.2. Selectivity: Selectivity measures the extent to which a process produces the desired product instead of undesired by-products. It is calculated as the ratio of theamount of desired product obtained to the total amount of products obtained. For instance, in the synthesis of a pharmaceutical compound, selectivity can be calculated as the amount of the desired compound produced divided by the total amount of all compounds produced.3. Energy efficiency: Energy efficiency is a measure of how effectively a process utilizes energy resources. It is calculated as the ratio of the useful output of the process to the energy input. A higher energy efficiency indicates a more sustainable and cost-effective process. For example,in a distillation process, energy efficiency can be calculated as the ratio of the energy content of the separated products to the energy input required for the separation.4. Safety: Safety is of utmost importance in chemical processes. Indicators such as the presence of hazardous materials, risk of chemical reactions, and potential for accidents are evaluated to ensure the safety of the process and the workers. For instance, the presence of highly toxic or flammable substances in a process may indicate a highersafety risk.5. Environmental impact: The environmental impact of a process is evaluated based on indicators such as greenhouse gas emissions, waste generation, and water consumption. Processes with lower environmental impact are considered more sustainable. For example, a process that minimizes waste generation and uses renewable energy sources would have a lower environmental impact.中文回答：化工工艺流程的评价指标对于评估流程的效率、安全性和可持续性至关重要。
10天100句背完高考英语新课标3000词课件-2025届高三英语一轮复习词汇专项
8. The fireworks display brought joy to the crowd as they watched the colorful explosions light up the night sky. 烟花表演让人群欢欣鼓舞，他们观看着五彩缤纷的爆炸点 亮夜空。
9. The young botanist's dedication and devotion to botanical studies led her to identify a new species of weed previously unknown in the area. 年轻的植物学家对植物学研究的热爱和奉献导致她在该地区发现 了一种以前未知的新野草物种。 dedication n. 奉献；献身 devotion n. 奉献；热爱
主语
谓语
balance of the ecosystem.
目的状语
森林砍伐的速度令人惊恐，迫切需要采取措施来保护生态系
统的脆弱平衡。
urgent adj. 迫切的；紧急的 delicate adj. 脆弱的；精美的
4. The hotel room was beautifully furnished, providing comfortable and luxurious stay for the guests. 酒店房间布置精美，为客人提供了舒适豪华的住宿。 furnished adj. 配备家具的 furnitunovation to the organization.
状语 公司选举新的管理团队的决定为该组织带来领导和创新的崭
新方面。
3. The rate of deforestation is alarming, and
基因毒性杂质限度指南(转载中英文)汇总
20060628 EMEA/CHMP/QWP/251344/2006 基因毒性杂质限度指南（转载中英文）London, 28 June 2006CPMP/SWP/5199/02EMEA/CHMP/QWP/251344/2006 COMMITTEE FOR MEDICINAL PRODUCTS FOR HUMAN USE人用药品委员会(CHMP)GUIDLINE ON THE LIMITS OF GENOTOXIC IMPURITIES基因毒性杂质限度指南June 2002-October 2002 DESCUSSION IN THE SAFETY WORKINGPARTY安全工作组之内的讨论TRANSMISSION TO CPMPDecember 2002CPMP传递December 2002RELEASE FOR CONSULTATION专家讨论DEADLINE FOR COMMENTSMarch 2003建议收集最后期限DISCUSSION IN THE SAFETY WORKING June 2003-February 2004PARTY AND QUALITY WORKING PARTY安全工作组和质量工作组之间的讨论TRANSMISSION TO CPMP转移给CPMPMarch 2004RE-RELEASE FOR CONSULTATION再次放行给顾问团June 2004DEADLINE FOR COMMENTS收集意见的最后期限December 2004DISCUSSION IN THE SAFETY WORKINGPARTY AND QUALITY WORKING PARTY安全工作组和质量工作组之间的讨论February 2005-May 2006ADOPTION BY CHMP被CHMP采用28 June 2006DATE FOR COMING INTO EFFECT生效日期01January 2007KEYWORDS 关键词Impurities; Genotoxicity; Threshold of toxicological concern (TTC); Structure activity relationship (SAR)GUIDLINE ON THE LIMITS OF GENOTOXIC IMPURITIES基因毒性杂质限度指南TABLE OF CONTENTS 目录EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 内容摘要 (3)1. INTRODUCTION 介绍 (3)2. SCOPE 范围 (3)3. LEGAL BASIS法律依据 (3)4. TOXICOLOGICAL BACKGROUND 毒理学背景 (4)5. RECOMMENDATIONS 建议 (4)5.1 Genotoxic Compounds With Sufficient Evidence for a Threshold-Related Mechanism具有充分证据证明其阈值相关机理的基因毒性化合物 (4)5.2 Genotoxic Compounds Without Sufficient Evidence for a Threshold-Related Mechanism不具备充分证据支持其阈值相关机理的基因毒性化合物 (5)5.2.1 Pharmaceutical Assessment 药学评价 (5)5.2.2 Toxicological Assessment 毒理学评价 (5)5.2.3 Application of a Threshold of Toxicological Concern 毒理学担忧阈值应用 (5)5.3 Decision Tree for Assessment of Acceptability of Genotoxic Impurities基因毒性杂质可接受性评价决策树 (7)REFERENCES. 参考文献 (8)EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 内容摘要The toxicological assessment of genotoxic impurities and the determination of acceptable limits for such impurities in active substances is a difficult issue and not addressed in sufficientdetail in the existing ICH Q3X guidances. The data set usually available for genotoxic impurities is quite variable and is the main factor that dictates the process used for the assessment of acceptable limits. In the absence of data usually needed for the application of one of the established risk assessment methods, i.e. data from carcinogenicity long-term studies or data providing evidence for a threshold mechanism of genotoxicity, implementation of a generally applicable approach as defined by the Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) is proposed. A TTC value of 1.5 μg/day intake of a genotoxic impurity is considered to be associated with an acceptable risk (excess cancer risk of <1 in 100,000 over a lifetime) for most pharmaceuticals. From this threshold value, a permitted level in the active substance can be calculated based on the expected daily dose. Higher limits may be justified under certain conditions such as short-term exposure periods.基因毒性杂质的毒理学评估和这些杂质在活性药物中的可接受标准的测定是一件困难的事情，并且在现有的ICH Q3X指南中也没有详细的规定。
Applicability of the “Threshold of Toxicological Concern” Concept to Residue Limits for CV
Applicability of the “Threshold of Toxicological Concern” Concept to Residue Limits for Cleaning ValidationASEPTICDestin A. LeBlanc Cleaning Validation TechnologiesIntroductionLimits for residues following cleaning of pharmaceutical process equipment are usually established for validation of thecleaning process. Limits have generally been established based on a formula originally proposed by scientists at Eli Lilly in 1993 [1]. Those calculations, or some variation of them, have been referred to in a variety of regulatory documents [2,3], and have been adopted widely by pharmaceutical manufacturers [4]. For finished drug manufacturing,those limit calculations are based on establishing no more than 0.001 of the dose of an active of the cleaned product in a maximum dose of the next manufactured drug product.Recently, several articles have appeared suggesting that it may be possible in certain circumstances to set limits for cleaning validation based on the principles of the "Threshold of Toxicological Concern" (TTC) [5,6]. The basic principle behind the TTC concept is that for chemicals with limited safety data, it may be possible to determine an Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) value based on known data from chemicals where there is an established database of information on ADI values [7,8].This paper will discuss the application of TTC principles to cleaning validation, first by reviewing the TTC concept, then covering how limits have traditionally been calculated for actives in cleaning validation protocols, and finally discussing issues in the application of TTC to cleaning validation limits.TTC BackgroundThe TTC concept was originally developed for the food industry. One issue addressed by the FDA was how to deal with the variety of indirect food additives that might bepresent in foods due migration from packaging components. Essentially using arisk-based approach, the FDA established a limit of 1.5 μg per day as a maximum daily intake; if the food additive was present at a level to give a maximum daily intake of no more than 1.5 μg per day in a typical diet(1.5 kg of solid food and 1.5 kg of liquid for a 60 kg person), then there were no testing or submission requirements for that food additive [8]. This was based on an analysis of known carcinogens, in terms of what was a de minimis risk of increased cancer cases. If 1.5 μg per day of a known carcinogen was acceptable, then that same 1.5 μg per day should be acceptable for a new chemical which may or may not be a carcinogen. In the original FDA presentation, this was called the "Threshold of Regulation", meaning that above that threshold value, data was required for regulatory approval.The concept has been expanded to address other chemicals not thought to be carcinogens, with the ADI values being somewhat higher [8]. Part of this evaluation has been to been based on risk-based approaches, so that development and testing dollars are spent on the chemicals with the greatest risk. A second concern has been the issue of reducing animal testing [7].There are several things important to point out about the use of the TTC concept for food. First, most of the data and corresponding analysis has been for oral administration, which should be obvious where food is the major issue. Second, the basic principle was to apply the TTC concept to chemicals where there was limited safety data. With extensive safety data, it was expected that an ADI value could be calculated by well established practices. There were certain classes of compounds where TTC principles were not applicable. These included alfatoxin-like compounds, azoxy-compounds, nitroso-compounds, 2,3,7,8-bibenzo-p-dioxin and its analogs, and steroids. Also excluded were heavy metals because of accumulation in the body. Athird excluded category was proteins [8]. Afurther concept is that these residues should be reasonably avoided, either not used or limited to "as low as reasonably practical" (ALARP) [9].The TTC concept has been further refined by adding various decision trees to address certain issues. The International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) has published a majormonograph on TTC applied to food [8]. Recently the concept has been applied to pharmaceutical actives, and specifically to cleaning validation [5]. That concept involved a proposed staged classification system for chemicals with limited or no toxicity data. That scheme involved three ADI values:1 μg per day for suspect carcinogens10 μg per day for actives that are not carcinogens, but which are potent or highly toxic 100 μg per day for actives which were not potent and not highly toxicThis scheme was discussed in light of OEL values for pharmaceutical workers and for residues from cleaning processes.This concept was not critiqued, but was utilized in another publication in comparing limits based on a visual limit, an adulteration limit (10 ppm in the next product), and a health-based limit (based on the TTC concept using 100 μg per day) [6]. This was done for a pilot plant application, where there is a reasonable expectation of limited toxicity information. For this application it was determined that a value of 4 μg cm2 was generally a worst case (along with the expectation that the equipment be visually clean). It should be noted that the standard dose-based calculation of 0.001 of a dose was not evaluated in this analysis.A further application of the TTC concept for pharmaceutical applications (although not explicitly for cleaning validation purposes) has been the EMEA "Guideline on the Limits of Genotoxic Impurities" in pharmaceutical active substances [9]. This EMEA document establishes a limit of 1.5 μg per day for genotoxic residues in pharmaceutical products based on TTC principles. Other documents that discuss impurities in pharmaceutical applications do not explicitly base their limits on TTC principles. These include ICH documents on chemical impurities in API's [11] and drug products [12], as well as the ICH document on limits for residual solvents in API's [13].Traditional Methods for LimitsBefore discussing the issues and concerns in applying the TTC concept to cleaning residues, it is appropriate to review the methods of setting residue limits in pharmaceutical cleaning validation. While there are some exceptions (such as limits for TOC as a measure of the active in bulk biotechnology manufacture) [14], most companies will set limits for actives based on that dose-based calculation originally developed by scientists at Lilly [1]. The calculation can be eventually used to calculate the limit in an analytical sample for a validation protocol sample, but for purposes of this discussion it is adequate to limit the calculation to the limit in the active in the next product. In addition, for simplicity, the calculation for finished drug manufacture will be considered, although the basic idea also applies (with minor modification of the equation) to cleaning validation for API manufacture. The basic concept is that no more than one one-thousandth (0.001) of the minimum daily dose of the active of the cleaned finished drug product should appear in a maximum daily dose of the next drug product. Mathematically, this can be expressed as:Variations of this equation have been suggested by utilizing different safety factors, depending on the route of administration or depending on the whether the product wasa clinical trial material [15]. However, the factor of 0.001 is most commonly used[16].Here is an example of such a calculation for a drug product containing the active simvastatin, assuming the drug product containing simvastatin was being cleaned. The minimum daily dose of simvastatin is 5 mg (of active) per day [17]. Assuming the next finished drug product made on the same equipment was dosed once daily and the tablets of that next product were 0.35 gram, then the limit of simvastatin in the next drug product, using Equation I, would be as follows:If the limit of simvastatin in the next product was 14 μg/g, then by introducing data such as the next batch size, the total shared equipment surface, and the sampling parameters, one could calculate the total allowable carryover, the limit per surface area, the limit per swab, the limit in a desorbed swab sample, and the limit in a rinse sample.The discussion in this section so far has been about limits for actives of the cleaned product. The traditional calculation is slightly different for cleaning agents or for other chemical species (such as degradants or intermediates) where there is no dose.In that situation, the limit is calculated by estimating an Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) value. Usually this ADI value is estimated from short term toxicity data, such asLD50 data. These types of calculations are based onanalysis of data (typically from pesticides) on the relationship between ADI and LD50 values [18, 19, 20]. Sometimes this as presented as using one factor to convert theLD50 value to a No Observable Effect Level (NOEL), and using a second factor to convert the NOEL to an ADI. Other times the conversion is made directly from theLD50 to an ADI using the product of the two factors [21]. The end result (using the one factor equation) is as follows:Here is an example of such a calculation for a drug product cleaned with a detergent having an oral LD50 of 1,000 mg/kg of body weight. Assuming as a worst case a conversion factor of 10-6, and assuming the next manufactured product is dosed daily at 0.35 gram per tablet, and assuming a 60 kg adult, then using Equation II and Equation III the limit of the cleaning agent would be calculated as follows:Note that in both these cases, the limit in the next product was considerably above a "default" limit of 10 ppm in the next product. This is not surprising for cleaning agents or for cases where the next product is a smaller tablet (as is the case for many newer drug products). If the next product were a lager tablet or could be dosed more than once daily, then the limits would be lower. However, for purpose of discussing limits using the TTC concept in comparison to traditional methods, those factors are not material.Applying TTC to Cleaning Validation LimitsThe first issue to consider here is which TTC limit to apply. Assuming the previously discussed proposals of Dolan et al [5] are appropriate, how would this change limitsetting for cleaning validation? Note that the TTC values proposed are essentially ADI values. Therefore use of Equation III would be the most appropriate direct comparison between traditional dose-based calculations and the TTCbased calculation (since 0.001 of a minimum dose is essentially considered a safe level, and can be used in place of an ADI value). If the TTC concept were applied to the cleaning of tablets containing simvastatin (using the information from the previous example), what would the limit be in the next product? Here is an example where the TTC value of simvastatin is assumed to be 100 μg (or 0.10 mg) per day (assuming simvastatin is not potent and not highly toxic). Using Equation III, the resulting limit is:This result is higher than the dosebased limit previously calculated by a factor of about 20. This may suggest that traditional methods of calculating limits are too conservative, and that application of the TTC concept is fully justified based on an appropriate risk analysis and well-investigated scientific methodology. Whether the use of the TTC concept is appropriate as a substitute for the traditional dose-based calculation where a dose is known is a judgment which requires more discussion and analysis among cleaning validation professionals and toxicologists.Analysis of drug active residue limits using an "LD50 to ADI" calculation may help in that analysis. Continuing with the example of simvastatin, a limit can be calculated not using the dose-based calculation and not using the TTC concept, but using the "toxicity" (LD50) calculation. The oral LD50 of simvastatin is 3,800 mg/kg [22]. Using Equation II and Equation III with a conversion factor of 10-6 and a maximum dose of the next product of 0.35 gram (the same as in previous calculations) results in the following limit:Since this result is higher than the TTC-based L1 value of 228 μg/g, it in one sense substantiates that the TTC value is more conservative than a toxicity-based calculation, which is generally how it should be. However, again one is faced with thesituation in Table 1 where the L1 limits are calculated by three different methods that result in three different values. Again, one is forced to ask which is more appropriate, and whether the traditional method based on one one-thousandth of a dose is overly conservative.In evaluating these methods, one must also consider the use of the default 10 ppm value usually used for cleaning validation for finished drug manufacture. This default value (the limit in the next product) is used if the value based on the dose calculation is above the default value [ 23]. In the examples given, all three methods of calculation (dose-based, TTC-based, and toxicity-based) result in values above 10 ppm, so in all cases one would default to this value. In other cases of more potent drugs, or cases where the next product has a greater total maximum drug product dose, this probably would not be the case for the dose-based calculation. However, for the TTC-based calculation and the toxicity-based calculation, it very well might be the case that even for those conditions, the 10 ppm default is still thelower limit.There are additional considerations in evaluating the TTC concept. One is that the concept was originally developed for food, and accordingly would seem to have a reasonable transference to drug products administered orally. However, should the TTC values be lower for parenteral administration. The EMEA requirement for limits for genontoxic impurities is set at 1.5 μg/day independent of the route of administration [9]. At least one investigator who discusses TTC values for pharmaceuticals suggests that "there is no reason why it [the TTC concept] cannot be extended to ... chemicals that cause adverse effects via other exposure route (e.g.,parenteral routes)" [5]. However, this probably requires more discussion and analysis to determine how it is extended.Another concern is that TTC data is based on risk of exposure for healthy individuals. For pharmaceutical patients who may be compromised in some way, perhaps additional safety factors should be considered.A further consideration is that at least some publications which discuss TTC exclude proteins from inclusion in the TTC concept [8]. In one sense that might exclude the protein actives for biotechnology products. This is mitigated to a large extent by the fact that in cleaning with hot, aqueous alkaline cleaning agents, such proteins are generally degraded, with the result that residues left after cleaning are degraded fragments, not the intact native protein [14].A further issue is just the practical one. It is true that the FDA states in their cleaning validation guidance document that limits should be "practical, achievable, and verifiable" [2]. It is a possible to argue that the industry has lived (with certain exceptions) with the dose-based calculations for the last 15 years, and that such limits are therefore "achievable". Furthermore, it should be noted that most regulatory documents just give the dose-based calculation as an example, not as a requirement.A further consideration is whether such TTC limits are applicable to cleaning residues. The use of TTC concept for gentoxoic impurities deals with impurities that are inherent in the manufacturing process. On the other hand, residues from the cleaning process are in one sense extrinsic to the manufacturing process of the subsequent product. A similar issue is faced when one tries to apply the limits for residual solvents established in ICH QC3 [13] to cleaning validationresidues. If one applied the traditional toxicity-based calculation to residues of solvents, the limits would be significantly lower. The argument that could be used to counter that is why is the source of the residue (manufacturing process versus previous cleaning process) significant for setting limits for a solvent?A last issue is that for many cases of non-potent and non-toxic drug actives, it is likely that a visually clean standard (where applicable due to viewing conditions of distance,lighting, and angle) would be the more stringent, regardless of whether a dose-based calculation or TTC-based calculation was used [6, 24, 25].ConclusionThe TTC concept is widely used, including use by the FDA (admittedly fornon-pharmaceutical applications) for setting limits in oral applications for chemicals with limited or no toxicity data. Because the TTC values are based on worst cases, they are generally more conservative (that is, lower) than values based on toxicity estimates. While actives in pharmaceutical manufacturing generally have known doses, the application of the TTC concept for setting cleaningvalidation limits offers a way of simplifying calculations for orally dosed drug products (note, however, that it is still required to consider batch sizes, shared surface area, and sampling conditions to ultimately utilize the TTC values in the calculations).It should be recognized that the purpose of this paper is not to advocate for one method or another. The purposed is to point out differences which require considered reflection if methods of calculating residue limits for actives are to be revised to reflect TTC values. This is not a simple decision which can be made lightly.References1. Fourman, G. L. and M. V. Mullen. 1993. "Determining cleaning validation acceptance limits for pharmaceutical manufacturing operations". Pharmaceutical Technology. 17: 54-60.2. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 1993. Guide to inspections of validation of cleaning processes. July 1993. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Accessed 21 Janaury 2008 at /ora/inspect_ref/igs/valid.html.3. Pharmaceutical Inspection Convention Pharmaceutical Inspection Co-Operation Scheme (PIC/S). 2007. Recommendations on cleaning validation. Document PI 006-3. September 25, 2007. Geneva, Switzerland: PIC/S.4. LeBlanc, D. A. "Establishing Scientifically Justified Acceptance Criteria for Cleaning Validation of Finished Drug Products". Pharmaceutical Technology 19:5, 136-148 (October 1998).5. Dolan, D. G. et al. "Application Of The Threshold Of Toxicological Concern Concept to Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Operations", Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 43, 1-9 (2005).6. Forsyth, R. J, A. Leblanc, and M. Voaden. "A Single Adulteration Limit for Cleaning Validation in a Pharmaceutical Pilot-Plant Environment", Pharmaceutical Technology Vol. 31, No. 1, pp 74-83 (January 2007).7. Kroes, R., J. Kleiner, and A. Renwick. "The Threshold of Toxicological Concern Concept in Risk Assessment", Toxicological Sciences 86 (2), 226-230 (2005).8. Barlow, S. "Threshold Of Toxicological Concern (TTC): A Tool For Assessing Substances of Unknown Toxicity Present At Low Levels In The Diet". ILSI Europe Concise Monograph Series. ILSI, Brussels, Belgium (2005).9. EMEA. "Guideline on the Limits of Genotoxic Impurities".EMEA/CHMP/QWP/251344/2006. London (28 June 2006).10. LeBlanc, D. A. "Revisiting Medically Safe Limits", in Cleaning Memos Volume 7. Cleaning Validation Technologies, Kodak, TN (May 2007).11. ICH Q3A (R2). Impurities in New Drug Substances. International Conference of Harmonization. Geneva, Switzerland (25 October 2006).12. ICH Q3B (R2). Impurities in New Drug Products. International Conference of Harmonization. Geneva, Switzerland (2 June 2006).13. ICH Q3C (R3). Impurities: Guidelines for Residual Solvents. InternationalConference of Harmonization. Geneva, Switzerland (November 2005).14. LeBlanc, D.A. "What's Really Different About Biotech?", Chapter 7 in Cleaning validation: practical compliance solutions for pharmaceutical manufacturing, PDA, Bethesda, Maryland, 2006, pp. 33-37.15. PDA Technical Report No. 29: "Points to Consider for Cleaning Validation". PDA Journal of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology. 1998 Supplement, Vol. 52, No. 6.16. LeBlanc, D.A. "The Use of Safety Factors in Limit Calculations", Chapter 11 in Cleaning validation: practical compliance solutions for pharmaceutical manufacturing, PDA, Bethesda, Maryland, 2006, pp. 53-56.17. Zocor Information. Accessed 21 January 2008 at /zocor.18. Conine, D. L., B.D. Naumann and L.H. Hecker. "Setting Health-Based Residue Limits for Contaminants in Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices. Quality Assurance 1, pp. 171-180 (1992).19. Kramer, H. J., W. A. van den Ham, W. Slob, and M. N. Pieters. "Conversion factors estimating indicative chronic no-observed-adverseeffect levels fromshort-term toxicity data". Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 23: 249-255 (1996).20. Layton, D. B., B. J. Mallon, D. H. Rosenblatt, and M. J. Small. 1987. "Deriving allowable daily intakes for systemic toxicants lacking chronic toxicity data". Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 7: 96-112 (1987).21. LeBlanc, D.A. "Issues in Limits for Formulated Cleaning Agents", in Cleaning Memos: Volume 5, Cleaning Validation Technologies, Kodak, TN (August 2005). 22. Vytorin Data Sheet. Accessed January 22, 2008 at/profs/datasheet/v/Vytorintab.htm.23. LeBlanc, D.A. "The Use of Default Limits", Chapter 12 in Cleaning validation: practical compliance solutions for pharmaceutical manufacturing, PDA, Bethesda, Maryland, 2006, pp. 57-60.24. Forsyth, R. J., V. Van Nostrand, and G. P. Martin, 2004. 'Visibleresidue limit for cleaning validation and its potential application in a pharmaceutical research facility". Pharmaceutical Technology vol. 28, no 10, pp. 58-72 (October 2005).25 Forsyth, R. J. and V. Van Nostrand, 2005. Using visible residue limits forintroducing new compounds into a pharmaceutical research facility. Pharmaceutical Technology vol. 29, no 4, pp. 134-140 (April 2005).。
钢铁企业铊污染的研究及防治对策
钢铁企业铊污染的研究及防治对策熊果;沈毅【摘要】Thallium is a one kind of highly toxic heavy metal elements and with the development of environmental protection research ,the harm of thallium pollution gradually reveals and is paid attention to .This paper introduces the sources ,the ef-fects of thallium pollution on the human body and the analytical methods ,based on the detecting of thallium in steel wastewater , raw materials and products ,conducts analysis on the present situation and the transformation of thallium pollution in iron and steel enterprises and puts forward some countermeasures for prevention and treatment of thallium pollution in iron and steel enterprises .%铊是一种剧毒重金属元素 ,随着环保研究的深入 ,铊污染的危害逐渐显露和受重视起来.本文就铊污染来源、对人体的危害、分析测定方法进行了介绍 ,并通过检测钢厂废水、原料和产物中的铊含量 ,分析研究了钢铁企业铊污染现状及转化方式 ,并提出了钢铁企业防治铊污染的对策.【期刊名称】《工业安全与环保》【年(卷),期】2015(041)006【总页数】3页(P30-32)【关键词】铊污染;钢铁企业;防治对策【作者】熊果;沈毅【作者单位】湘潭钢铁集团有限公司湖南湘潭 411101;湘潭钢铁集团有限公司湖南湘潭 411101【正文语种】中文铊是一种金属元素，属高毒类，具有蓄积性，为强烈的神经毒物。
管控类化学品 英语
管控类化学品英语The Importance of Controlled Chemicals Management in EnglishThe management of controlled chemicals is crucial in ensuring the safety of individuals, communities, and the environment. In the English context, the term "controlled chemicals" refers to substances that are subject to strict regulations and monitoring due to their potential hazards, such as toxicity, flammability, or reactivity. These chemicals are widely used in various industries, including healthcare, manufacturing, and research, but their improper handling can lead to serious consequences.The proper management of controlled chemicals begins with the establishment of strict safety measures and protocols. This involves the identification and classification of hazardous substances, the establishment of safe storage and handling procedures, and the provision of training and education to personnel who handle these chemicals. It is essential that these measures are strictly adhered to, as any deviation can lead to accidents or spills that can pose a threat to human health and the environment.In addition to safety measures, the effective management of controlled chemicals also requires the implementation of strict regulatory frameworks. These frameworks ensure that the production, distribution, and use of these chemicals are subject to strict control and monitoring. They also promote transparency and accountability by requiring companies and individuals to report their activities and ensure compliance with regulations.The importance of controlled chemicals management is further underscored by the potential impact of these substances on public health and the environment. Accidents or spills can result in exposure to harmful chemicals, leading to illness, injury, and even death. Long-term exposure to certain chemicals can also have adverse effects on human health, such as cancer, birth defects, and reproductive issues. Similarly, the improper disposal of these chemicals can contaminate soil, water, and air,affecting the ecosystem and the sustainability of natural resources.In conclusion, the management of controlled chemicals is crucial for ensuring the safety of individuals, communities, and the environment. It requires the establishment of strict safety measures and protocols, as well as the implementation of regulatory frameworks that promote transparency and accountability. By adhering to these measures, we can minimize the risks associated with these substances and protect the health and well-being of future generations.。
化学农药的危害英语作文
化学农药的危害英语作文The Detrimental Impacts of Chemical PesticidesThe widespread use of chemical pesticides in modern agriculture has become a topic of growing concern and debate. These synthetic compounds, designed to eradicate pests and protect crops, have undoubtedly played a significant role in enhancing agricultural productivity and ensuring food security for a rapidly expanding global population. However, the long-term consequences of their extensive application have become increasingly apparent, posing serious threats to both human health and the delicate balance of the natural environment.One of the primary concerns surrounding chemical pesticides is their potential to cause adverse health effects in humans. Many of these compounds have been linked to various health issues, ranging from acute poisoning to chronic diseases. Exposure to pesticides, whether through direct contact, consumption of contaminated food and water, or even inhalation, can lead to a range of symptoms, including headaches, nausea, dizziness, and respiratory problems. In more severe cases, pesticide exposure has been associated with an increased risk of certain types of cancer, reproductive disorders, andneurological impairments.Moreover, the indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides has had a profound impact on the delicate balance of ecosystems. These synthetic chemicals do not discriminate between their intended targets and other living organisms, leading to the widespread contamination of soil, water, and air. This disruption of the natural environment can have far-reaching consequences, including the decimation of beneficial insect populations, such as pollinators, and the accumulation of toxic residues in the food chain, ultimately affecting the health and well-being of both wildlife and human communities.One of the most alarming consequences of chemical pesticide use is the development of pesticide resistance in target pests. Over time, as pests are repeatedly exposed to the same or similar pesticides, they can develop genetic adaptations that render the chemicals less effective. This phenomenon, known as pesticide resistance, has become a growing problem, leading to the need for increasingly potent and harmful pesticides to be developed and applied, creating a vicious cycle of escalating environmental damage.Furthermore, the reliance on chemical pesticides has had significant economic implications, both for farmers and for society as a whole. The costs associated with the purchase and application of thesecompounds, as well as the potential health and environmental consequences, can place a significant financial burden on agricultural producers. Additionally, the long-term degradation of soil quality and ecosystem health can lead to decreased agricultural productivity, ultimately affecting food security and the livelihoods of farming communities.In recent years, there has been a growing movement towards more sustainable and environmentally-friendly agricultural practices, often referred to as organic or regenerative agriculture. These approaches emphasize the use of natural, non-synthetic methods of pest control, such as crop rotation, the introduction of beneficial insects, and the application of organic fertilizers. By adopting these practices, farmers can reduce their reliance on chemical pesticides, mitigate the negative impacts on the environment, and potentially improve the overall quality and nutritional value of their agricultural products.In conclusion, the extensive use of chemical pesticides in modern agriculture has had far-reaching and detrimental impacts on both human health and the natural environment. While these synthetic compounds have played a role in enhancing agricultural productivity, the long-term consequences of their use have become increasingly apparent. As we strive to address the challenges of global food security and environmental sustainability, it is imperative that we explore and adopt more sustainable agricultural practices thatprioritize the health of our ecosystems and the well-being of both producers and consumers. By working towards a more holistic and environmentally-conscious approach to agriculture, we can secure a future that is both prosperous and ecologically responsible.。
mcga-shs_capt_guide_chap2
NoteMore detailed information on the treatment of the effects of specific chemicals is given in the International Maritime Organization’s Medical First Aid Guide for use in Accidents involving Dangerous Goods (MFAG) 1994 which your ship may be carrying.Toxic hazardsShips carry a number of substances other than cargo which are potentially toxic. For instance, medicines are not generally poisonous but can become so if taken in a manner not prescribed , such as in an overdose . Then there are substances like cleaners, degreasers and disinfectants which can give rise to toxic hazards on their own or through misuse, e.g. emptying a bucket of bleaching solution into a lavatory bowl containing a proprietary caustic cleaner may result in the release of poisonous gas in a confined space. Notes on various specific toxic substances are given at the end of this section. Manufacturer’s data sheets also contain specific medical advice.Toxic substances can harm the body in three ways.1. They may cause local burns or irritation if they come intocontact with skin or eyes.2. They may be absorbed into the body and cause internaldamage or systemic poisoning.3. They may cause an allergic reaction which could be lifethreatening.Toxic substances can enter the body throughs The lungs e.g. fumes or toxic gases.s The mouth e.g. by swallowings The skin and eyes.The commonest route for a toxin to enter the body onboard a ship is by breathing it in. The toxin may be in the form of a vapour, gas, mist, spray, dust or fume.Poisons are less commonly swallowed, usually by accident during routine duties, but sometimes deliberately.The effects of toxins are often sudden and dramatic, but may be subtle, gradual and cumulative. The latter is especially true of inhaled toxins or those absorbed through the skin.Suspect that every chemical is toxic until you know otherwise. Remember that toxins are poisonous to the rescuer as well as the patient. TAKE ALL POSSIBLE PRECAUTIONS TO PROTECT YOURSELF.Prompt, safety conscious treatment can avoid many of the complications of poisoning.Inhaled Poisons(See Chapter 1 for rescue from an enclosed space.)Many chemicals produce fumes which can irritate the lungs and cause difficulty in breathing e.g. chlorine. This will alertyou to their presence.46THE SHIP CAPTAIN’S MEDICAL GUIDEOther gases have no odour . This group includes carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and some refrigerant gases.Gases such as carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide may also be poisonous, particularly in a confined space, because they replace oxygen in the air and therefore in the blood.The main symptoms of exposure are :s difficulty in breathing;s nausea, headache, dizziness;s confusion or even unconsciousness in severe cases.Remember that precautions against fire and explosion may be necessary for some gases.Treatments Remove the casualty at once into the fresh air. Loosen tight clothing and ensure a clear airway. Give oxygen if available.s Start artificial respiration by the mouth to nose or mouth method if breathing is absent.The use of a Laerdal Pocket Mask (mouth to mask) is recommended for resuscitation in thecase of poisoning by solvents, hydrogen cyanide (prussic acid) or petroleum products toavoid poisoning the rescuer. Use oxygen if available.s Start chest compressions if the heart has stopped.s In cases of hydrogen cyanide poisoning where breathing and pulse are present, break an ampoule of amyl nitrite into a clean handkerchief or cloth and hold under the patient’snose so that he inhales the vapour.s SEEK RADIO MEDICAL ADVICE as specific treatment may be required.s Keep the patient at rest in bed for at least 24 hours or until he has recovered.Complications of inhaled poisonss Severe difficulty in breathing with frothy sputum (pulmonary oedema).s Pneumonia and bronchitis.DO NOT GIVE MORPHINE TO A CASUALTY WHO HAS BEEN GASSED,as this will affect theirability to breathe.Swallowed PoisonsAstringentsMany substances will cause chemical burns to the mouth, gullet and stomach if swallowed.These include bleaches and other cleaners and disinfectants, acids and alkalis and corrosives aswell as petrochemicals.The main symptoms are blistering of the mouth, lips and tongue and pain in the chest and stomach. The patients breath often smells of the astringent.DO NOT MAKE THE CASUALTY VOMIT.If the patient is conscious and in pain then he may respond to a glass of milk. Do not give painkillers by mouth. Use suppositories or a painkillinginjection if you have any.Other substances can cause acute abdominal pain and vomiting. These include arsenic, lead, fungi, berries and partly decomposed food. Treat the patient by making them as comfortable aspossible, but do not make them vomit.Drugs and AlcoholDrugs may cause harmful effects if taken for recreational purposes or as an overdose. An overdosemay be taken accidentally or as an attempt at deliberate self harm. Common overdoses include Sleeping Tablets. These include Diazepam (valium), Temazepam and Nitrazepam. They cause drowsiness and unconsciousness if taken in excess. This may last for 24 hours. The breathingmay slow down and become shallow. In severe cases it may stop. A similar picture may be seenwith some antidepressants, such as Amitriptyline, or with alcohol.Chapter 2TOXIC HAZARDS OF CHEMICALS INCLUDING POISONING47 Simple painkillers such as paracetamol and aspirin are often taken as overdoses.Paracetamol may cause abdominal pain and vomiting initially. Larger overdoses can causesevere liver damage several days later. (Liver damage is rare below 20 tablets)Aspirin causes vomiting, abdominal pain, ringing in the ears, rapid breathing and semi-consciousness in high doses.TreatmentTry to discover exactly what was taken (ask the patient, look for empty packets/bottles etc.) butdo not waste time doing so in an emergency.If the casualty is conscious, give one sachet (50g) of oral activated charcoal in 250 mls of fluid,if available. Encourage fluids in conscious cases of aspirin overdose.SEEK RADIO MEDICALADVICE.If the patient is unconscious, then put him in the recovery (unconscious) position ands Give artificial respiration if breathing has stopped.s Perform chest compressions if the heart has stopped.s DO NOT give anything by mouth.s SEEK URGENT RADIO MEDICAL ADVICE.Skin ContactToxic substances can affect the skin in two ways:1.direct contact may cause redness and irritation. In severe cases, burns to the skin can occur.2.Absorption through the intact skin producing general symptoms such as nausea, vomiting,drowsiness, weakness and rarely unconsciousness.Treatments The contaminated clothing and shoes should be removed immediately.s Wash off the chemical with copious amounts of water for at least 10 minutes. Continue fora further 10 minutes if there is any evidence of chemicals still on the skin.s If a burn has occurred, see management of burns.Eye ContactMany substances, in particular many chemical liquids or fumes of chemicals, will produceredness and irritation if the eyes are accidentally splashed or exposed to the fumes. Treatmentshould be immediate.Wash the substance out of the eye with copious amounts of cold fresh water as quickly aspossible, keeping the eyelids wide open. This must be done thoroughly for ten minutes. If thereis any doubt whether the chemical has been completely removed, repeat the eye wash for afurther 10 minutes. If severe pain is experienced, physical restraint to the patient may benecessary in order to be certain of effective treatment. Read about identifying and treatingdamage to the eye.For pain, give two paracetamol tablets by mouth every four hours until the pain subsides. Ifthere is very severe pain use Morphine.General notesIf you are dealing with a suicide attempt, it is your duty to do everything you can to save his lifeand to guard against further attempts. The patient should not be left without an attendant.You should save any remains of poison that you may find in a glass, cup, bottle or package.Also collect in a bowl anything that is vomited and seal in a bottle. These may help in identifyingthe toxic substance and deciding further treatment after the patient has been seen by a doctoror taken ashore.48THE SHIP CAPTAIN’S MEDICAL GUIDENotes on specific toxic substancesFor treatment see under inhaled poisons, swallowed poisons etc. above.Disinfectant poisoningMany types of disinfectants such as carbolic acid, cresol and bleaching solutions are toxic.Carbolic acid (phenol) and cresols cause a severe rash on contact with the skin in dilute solutions. Strong concentrated solutions will result in painless white burns of the skin. If theyare swallowed, burns of the mouth will occur, and the casualty may have severe vomiting,followed by collapse and unconsciousness. Convulsions can occur (see Epileptic fits).Bleaching solutions (e.g. lavatory cleaners, etc.) are usually solutions of sodium hypochlorite in water. These cause irritation of the skin and are poisonous if swallowed. The patient maycomplain of burning in the mouth and stomach and feel generally unwell.On contact with acids, these substances release fumes which are irritating to the lungs causing a cough, a feeling of breathlessness and burning in the mouth. However, thesesubstances are not severely toxic and the symptoms usually subside rapidly.Solvents, petroleum products and fuel oilsThese substances usually cause symptoms after the fumes have been accidentally inhaled. Thesymptoms are drowsiness, dizziness, nausea and occasionally vomiting. If severe exposureoccurs, the patient may become unconscious. If they are swallowed, they usually produce thesame symptoms, but nausea and vomiting are worse.CyanideHydrogen cyanide (prussic acid) gas is used in fumigating ships. Both the solid cyanide and thegas are extremely poisonous, and symptoms and signs may develop very rapidly. They arecorrosive either in contact with the skin or after being swallowed, causing external burns, burnsin the mouth and intense pain in the abdomen. There will be shortness of breath, anxiety andrapid loss of consciousness. Convulsions can occur. Death may result within a few minutes.Carbon dioxide (carbonic acid gas)Suffocation by this odourless gas may occur while dealing with a fire in a hold. The gas is alsoproduced if grain in the hold ferments, and it may be generated by refrigerated cargoes ofcertain foods; it is also used as a refrigerant. The gas is heavier than air and collects in the lowerparts of holds and compartments. When exposed to it, a man has giddiness, difficulty inbreathing and headache. Later he may fall down and lose consciousness.Carbon monoxideThis odourless gas is also produced in hold fires, as a product of an explosion, in the waste gasesof petrol and oil driven engines, and when refrigerated meat cargoes decompose. It is lighterthan air and very poisonous. In heavy concentration it is inflammable. A patient suffering fromthe effects of this gas feels giddy, often with muscular weakness. Difficulty in breathing rapidlydevelops and unconsciousness may come on quickly. In severe cases the lips may be bright red,and the skin of the face and body has a pink colour. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy may be helpful– SEEK ADVICE – consider urgent evacuation.Refrigerant gasesAmmonia vapour.Breathing ammonia vapour will cause intense irritation, varying from acatching of the breath with smarting and watering of the eyes in low concentrations, up tointense irritation and corrosion of the whole air passages, gasping for breath, collapse anddeath in the case of highly concentrated vapour.Carbon dioxide is also present in addition to ammonia. If a person becomes faint or loses consciousness in a refrigerating plant where there is no evidence of escaping ammonia, he isprobably suffering from the effects of this gas.Methyl chloride is a colourless gas, smelling like ether. It may cause drowsiness, mental confusion, coma, nausea, vomiting, convulsions and death. It is also dangerous in lowChapter 2TOXIC HAZARDS OF CHEMICALS INCLUDING POISONING49 concentration owing to its explosive nature. On no account, should any naked light be exposedin the presence of the vapour; electric motors should be stopped to avoid risk of sparking. Aheavy duty electric torch, switched on before approaching the escape, is the only safe light touse.Trichlorethylene– usually called trilene or ‘trike’ – is a volatile anaesthetic gas which causesdrowsiness, mental confusion, nausea, vomiting and coma. It can also result in death. It is usedmedically as an anaesthetic because it acts quickly. In the impure form it is used as a dry cleaningagent. Some people are addicted to ‘sniffing’ it. Exposure may cause palpitations, especially onexcitation. Those exposed to it should be kept in a calm environment for at least 6 hours.Freon is an odourless and harmless gas except in a concentration high enough to deprive aman of sufficient oxygen. The signs of oxygen deficiency are mental confusion, faintness,staggering gait, collapse and unconsciousness.Poisonous gases from refrigerated cargoesCertain refrigerated cargoes including fruit, vegetables and cheese, generate carbon dioxideduring normal storage. With any failure of refrigerating plant, food cargoes (especially meat)may generate poisonous and inflammable gases. This can be particularly dangerous if the cargospace is flooded. Carbon monoxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulphide and hydrogen may begenerated in addition to carbon dioxide. In any great concentration these gases are extremelypoisonous and some are explosive. All precautions against fire and explosion must be taken inaddition to those against suffocation and poisoning.。
何凯文的作文范文通用6篇
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文档下载后可定制修改，请根据实际需要进行调整和使用，谢谢!并且，本店铺为大家提供各种类型的经典范文，如工作总结、工作计划、合同协议、条据文书、策划方案、句子大全、作文大全、诗词歌赋、教案资料、其他范文等等，想了解不同范文格式和写法，敬请关注!Download tips: This document is carefully compiled by this editor. I hope that after you download it, it can help you solve practical problems. The document can be customized and modified after downloading, please adjust and use it according to actual needs, thank you!Moreover, our store provides various types of classic sample essays for everyone, such as work summaries, work plans, contract agreements, doctrinal documents, planning plans, complete sentences, complete compositions, poems, songs, teaching materials, and other sample essays. If you want to learn about different sample formats and writing methods, please stay tuned!何凯文的作文范文通用6篇何凯文的作文范文第一篇In recent years， more and more people are becoming more and more popular in their daily life， because some people ask this question.Most of them talk about the situation of many problems.There are advantages and disadvantages.Why can three factors eXplain this? As far as I can understand the second point， I agree.中文翻译：近几年来，越来越多的人在日常生活中越来越普遍，越来越受欢迎，因为有人问到这个问题，大多数人说的是很多问题的情况，有利有弊为什么三个因素可以解释这一点，就我所能理解的第二点来说，我同意。
水处理专业英语阅读1WaterPollutionandPollutants
⽔处理专业英语阅读1WaterPollutionandPollutants1 Water Pollution and PollutantsThe relationship between polluted water and disease was firmly established with the cholera epidemic of 1854 in London, England. Protection of public health, the original purpose of pollution control, continues to be the primary objective in many areas. However, preservation of water resources, protection of fishing areas, and maintenance of recreational waters are additional concerns today. Water pollution problems intensified following World War II when dramatic increases in urban density and industrialization occurred. Concern over water pollution reached a peak in the mid-seventies.Water pollution is an imprecise term that reveals nothing about either the type of polluting material or its source. The way we deal with the waste problem depends upon whether the contaminants are oxygen demanding, algae promoting, infectious, toxic, or simply unsightly. Pollution of our water resources can occur directly from sewer outfalls or industrial discharges (point sources) or indirectly from air pollution or agricultural or urban runoff (nonpoint sources).Chemically pure water is a collection of H2O molecules—nothing else. Such a substance is not found in nature—not in wild streams or lakes, not in clouds or rain, not in falling snow, nor in the polar ice caps. V ery pure water can be prepared in the laboratory but only with considerable difficulty. Water accepts and holds foreign matter.Municipal wastewater, also called sewage, is a complex mixture containing water (usually over 99 percent) together with organic and inorganic contaminants, both suspended and dissolved. The concentration of these contaminants is normally very low and is expressed in mg/L, that is, milligrams of contaminant per liter of the mixture. This is a weight-to-volume ratio used to indicate concentrations of constituents in water, wastewater, industrial wastes, and otherdilute solutions.Microorganisms.Wherever there is suitable food, sufficient moisture, and an appropriate temperature, microorganisms will thrive. Sewage provides an ideal environment for a vast array of microbes, primarily bacteria, plus some viruses and protozoa. Most of these microorganisms in wastewater are harmless and can be employed in biological processes to convert organic matter to stable end products. However, sewage may also contain pathogens from the excreta of people with infectious diseases that can be transmitted by contaminated water. Waterborne bacterial diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and tuberculosis, viral diseases such as infectious hepatitis, and the protozoan-caused dysentery, while seldom a problem now in developed countries, are still a threat where properly treated water is not available for public use. Tests for the few pathogens that might be present are difficult and time consuming, and standard practice is to test for other more plentiful organiama that are always present (in the billions) in the intestines of warm-blooded animals, including humans.Solids. The total solids (organic plus inorganic) in wastewater are, by definition, the residues after the liquid portion has been evaporated and the remainder dried to a constant weight at 103℃. Differentiation between dissolved solids and undissolved, that is, suspended, solids are accomplished by evaporating filtered and unfiltered wastewater samples. The difference in weight between the two dried samples indicates the suspended solids content. To further categorize the residues, they are held at 550℃for 15 minutes. The ash remaining is considered to represent inorganic solids and the loss of volatile matter to be a measure of the organic content Suspended solids (SS) and volatile suspended solids (VSS) are the most useful. SS and BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) are used as measures of wastewater strength and process performance. VSS can be an indicator of the organic content of raw wastes and can also providea measure of the active microbial population in biological processes.Inorganic constituents. The common inorganic constituents of wastewater include:1. Chlorides and sulphates. Normally present in water and in wastes from humans.2. Nitrogen and phosphorous . In their various forms (organic and inorganic) in wastes from humans, with additional phosphorous from detergents.3. Carbonates and bicarbonates. Normally present in water and wastes as calcium and magnesium salts.4. Toxic substances. Arsenic, cyanide, and heavy metals such as Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ph, and Zn are toxic inorganics which may be found in industrial wastes.In addition to these chemical constituents, the concentration of dissolved gases, especially oxygen, and the hydrogen ion concentration expressed as pH are other parameters of interest in wastewater.Organic matter.Proteins and carbohydrate constitute 90 percent of the organic matter in domestic sewage. The sources of these biodegradable contaminants include excreta and urine from humans; food wastes from sinks; soil and dirt from bathing;washing, and laundering; plus various soaps, detergents, and other cleaning products.V arious parameters are used as a measure of the organic strength of wastewater. One method is based on the amount of organic carbon (total organic carbon, or TOC) present in the waste. TOC is determined by measuring the amount of CO2 produced when the organic carbon in the sample is oxidized by a strong oxidizer and comparing it with the amount in a standard of known TOC.Most of the other common methods are based on the amount of oxygen required to convert the oxidizable material to stable end products. Since the oxygen used is proportional to theoxidizable material present, it serves as a relative measure of wastewater strength. The two methods used most frequently to determine the oxygen requirements of wastewater are the COD and BOD tests. The COD. or chemical oxygen demand, of the wastewater is the measured amount of oxygen needed to chemically oxidize the organics present; the BOD. or biochemical oxygen demand, is the measured amount of oxygen required by acclimated microorganisms to biologically degrade the organic matter in the wastewater.BOD is the most important parameter in water pollution control. It is used as a measure of organic pollution, as a basis for estimating the oxygen needed for biological processes, and as an indicator of process performance.The amount of organic matter in water or wastewater can be measured directly (as TOC, for example), hut this doesn’ t tell us whether the organic s are biodegradable or not. To measure the amount of biodegradable organics, we use an indirect method in which we measure the amount of oxygen used by a growing microbial population to convert (oxidize) organic matter to CO2 and H2O in a closed system. The oxygen consumed. or biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). is proportional to the organic matter converted, and therefore BOD is a relative measure of the biologically degradable organic matter present in the system. Because biological oxidation continues indefinitely, the test for ultimate BOD has been arbitrarily limited to 20 days, when perhaps 95 percent or more of the oxygen requirement has been met. Even this period, however, is too long to make measurement of BOD useful, so a five-day test, BOD5, carried out at 20℃, has become standard. The rate of the BOD reaction depends on the type of waste present and the temperature and is assumed to vary directly with the amount of organic matter (organic carbon) present.单词表。