语言学 (2)
语言学常识第二章
2.语言学的学科分类和研究取向。 语言是一种社会现象，也是一种自然现象。 （1）语言学的各个分支学科 从语言本身的各种现象来看： 语音学、语义学、语法学、词汇学、语用学 从与语言密切相关的现象来看： 文字学、方言学、获得（习得）语言学 从各种语言的联系和发展看： 历史语言学、对比语言学、语言类型学（形态、孤 立）
构》《句法理论要略》。
60年代“转换语法”
70年代“生成语法”
80年代“管辖与约束理论”
90年代“最简方案”
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（1）生成语言学研究的目标“普遍语法” 假设人的语法知识包括两个部分，一是各语言特有 的“个别语法”；另一部分是人类语言共有的“普 遍语法”。 （2）生成语言学的核心内容“句法自治” 在语言各要素中，只有句法形式才可以从人脑全部 认知系统中抽象出来作为一个独立系统，或者说只 有句法形式才是一个可以穷尽推导和通过有限手段 重复使用而实现的系统。 基础部分：我看书——我/看书； 转换部分：我看书——书我看
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从研究语言的不同观察角度： 生成语言学（从语言形式角度研究语言的结构生成机 制） 功能语言学（从交际功能的角度解释语言现象） 认知语言学（从心理认知的角度来探究人脑中的语言 表达和理解机制） 文化语言学（联系民族文化来研究语言文字并探求语 言文字中蕴含的文化因素） 从语言研究的应用领域看： 应用语言学、实验语音学、心理语言学、神经语言 学、病理语言学。 法律语言学、新闻语言学、广告语言学 写作学、修辞学、语文教育学 社会语言学、计算语言学 7
2、语言研究中的语文传统 全世界语言研究有四个传统： 古印度语言学传统、古希腊古罗马语言学传统、古代 中国语言学传统、古代阿拉伯语言学传统 （1）古印度语言学传统： 公元前10世纪，梵语《吠陀》 研究梵语的语音、语法、语义，公元前4世纪出版《梵 语语法》 （2）古希腊古罗马语言学传统： 公元前3世纪《希腊语法》 公元前2世纪《论句法》 古罗马《拉丁语》、《语法学》 12 文艺复兴时期《普遍唯理语法》
语言学第二章
• 二、征候及其与符号的异同 • 1.征候：事情发生的预兆或迹象。 • 2.符号与征候的相同之处：符号与征候都有 代替性，即符号或征候都可代替它们标志 的那个事物。 • 3.符号与征候的不同之处：征候是事物本身 的特征，与事物之间有自然、必然的联系。 而符号与所代表的事物之间则没有必然的 联系。
• 三、语言符号的性质 • 1、语言符号的形式：表达一定内容的声音， 即语音，也称语音形式 。 • 2、语言符号的内容：依靠一定的语音形式 表现出来的语义。 • 3、语言符号的性质：音义结合的统一体。
• 3、强制性：即语言符号一旦进入使用阶段， 它的声音和意义的关系，任何个人必须遵守， 不能随意改变。 4. 约定性：语言符号的音义结合是由社会约 定俗成的。 （约定） （反映）
音 义 符号 现实现象 代表
五、语言和说话（言语） （一）语言和说话（言语）的区别 说话（言语）是使用语言工具的行为 和结果，指的是说话的行为和说出来的 话。 语言则是从言语中提炼出来的可以分 析的结构系统，是从无限的句子里反复 使用的材料和规则抽象出来的工具系统。
任意性
区别特征 结构的 二层性 开放性
人类语言 两层结构：音位层和 符号层。
动物“语言” 不能分解成单位，没有结 构。
运用有限的语言手段， 一种封闭的系统，所传递 通过替换和组合，造 的信息固定，受刺激限定。 出无限的句子。 通过后天的学习和现 实的语言环境，掌握 一种语言。 其“语言”是一种本能， 与生俱来。
• 三、语言符号的系统性表现在： • 语言是由各种语言单位构成的一种 层级装置，这种装置靠组合和替换来 运转，各语言单位都处在组合关系和 聚合关系的体系之中。
第三节 语言系统是人类特有的
一、语言能力 1. 指掌握语言的先天潜能。 2. 指人们掌握、运用语言的能力。 二、语言能力是其他动物和人类之间无 法逾越的一条鸿沟
语言学概论(2)
（4）语法层面 ） 语法因素对语言信息的影响， 语法因素对语言信息的影响，就是语 言的语法层面。 言的语法层面。语法因素对语言信息的影 主要表现为以下两种情况： 响，主要表现为以下两种情况： 1、结构关系不同对语言信息的影响。如： 、结构关系不同对语言信息的影响。 我要烤红薯 烤红薯。 动宾） 我要烤红薯。 （动宾） 我要烤红薯 烤红薯。 偏正） 我要烤红薯。 （偏正） 2、结构层次不同对语言信息的影响。如： 、结构层次不同对语言信息的影响。 哥哥和姐姐的同学都走了 都走了。 哥哥和姐姐的同学都走了。 哥哥和姐姐的同学都走了 同学都走了。 哥哥和姐姐的同学都走了。
语言的上层是符号层。 语言的上层是符号层。属于上 层的语言单位既有语音形式， 层的语言单位既有语音形式，又有 语义容。 语义容。符号层包括三级基本的语 言单位：语素、词和句子。 言单位：语素、词和句子。语素是 最小的有意义的语言单位， 最小的有意义的语言单位，是构词 的材料。词是语素的上级单位， 的材料。词是语素的上级单位，是 造句的材料。 造句的材料。句子又是词的上级单 也是语言交际的最小单位。 位，也是语言交际的最小单位。语 素是最基本的符号， 素是最基本的符号，词一般是复合 符号，句子一般是若干符号的组合。 符号，句子一般是若干符号的组合
第二节 语言符号的系统性
(The Systematic of Linguistic Signs)
一、语言的层级及其特点 语言是一种分层装置， 语言是一种分层装置，这种装置靠 组合和替换来运转。 组合和替换来运转。根据语言单位性质 的不同， 的不同，语言系统首先可以分成两个大 的层次——下层和上层。下层和上层内 下层和上层。 的层次 下层和上层 部又可分为若干不同的级别。 部又可分为若干不同的级别。
语言学概论第二章-语音
三、语音的变化
（一）语流音变（共时变化）：指在连
续的语流中某些语音成分受到前后语 音环境的影响而发生变化的现象。
1、同化：两个不同或不相近的音位在语流中 一个影响另一个，使它变得跟自己相同或 相近。 （1）逆同化：被影响+影响 （2）顺同化：影响+被影响
2、异化：两个相同或相近的音位一个影响另 一个，使它变得跟自己不同或不相近。
2、元音的分类 元音(vowel) ：发音时气流通过咽腔、口 腔而不受阻碍而发出的音。（开放性音段） 元音的区别在于共鸣器即口腔形状的不同。
口腔开度——舌位的高低
舌头伸缩——舌位的前后 嘴唇变化——唇形的圆展
（1）舌面元音：发音时由舌面起作用的元音
舌面元音舌位图
1号 2号 3号 8号 7号 6号
（二）语音的生理性质 1、动力源——肺和气管
2、发音体——喉头和声带
喉头 声带
3、共鸣器——口腔、鼻腔、咽腔
1上下唇 2上下齿 3齿龈 4硬腭 5软腭 6小舌 7舌尖 8舌面 9舌根 10咽腔 11会厌软骨 12声带 13喉头 14气管 15食道 16口腔 17鼻腔
（三）语音的社会性质
1、语音传递意义的功能是社会赋予的。 2、不同民族的语言或方言有不同的语 音系统。 3、不同民族的人对同一个音的发音能 力和听辨音能力不同。
第二章 语音学
第一节 语音和语音学 一、语音的性质 语音：是由人的发音器官发出的表达一定 意义的声音，是语言的物质形式。 （一）声音的产生 “大凡物不得其静则鸣” 声波—鼓膜—听觉神经—声音
（二）语音的物理性质
1、音高
音高就是声音的高低。又叫音频 音高由发音体振动的频率决定，频率的单位是赫 兹(Hz)
《语言学概论》知识点复习(二)
00541《语言学概论》知识点复习（二）第二章语言的物质载体—语音第一节语音概说一、什么是语音1、语音是语言的物质载体，是人的发音器官发出的，用于人与人之间交际并表达一定意义的声音。
2、（1）语音是人的发音器官发出的声音。
（2）语音是代表一定意义的声音。
语音同语义紧密地联系在一起，须臾不可分离。
它有别于也是人的发音器官发出的无意义的声音，如：咳嗽、喷嚏、呼噜，等等。
（3）语音是一种社会现象，而语音之外的声音则是一种自然现象。
二、语音的属性语音和其他声音一样，是物体振动而产生的音波，因此具有物理属性；语音是由人的发音器官发出的，因此具有生理属性；更重要的是，“什么语音表达什么意义” 必须是使用该语言的全社会成员约定俗成的，因此语音又具有社会属性。
社会属性是语音的本质属性。
（一）语音的物理属性1、音高：声音的高低，它决定于音波的频率。
振动越快，频率越大，音高就越高。
汉语普通话语音中的声调指的便是音高。
2、音强：声音的强弱，它决定于音波的振幅。
振幅的大小同发音时用力的大小有关。
3、音长：声音的长短，它决定于发音持续时间的长短。
4、音质（音色）：声音的本质和特色，一种声音区别于其他声音的个性或特征。
是语音‚物理四要素‛中最重要的特征。
声音经过声腔使之放大并形成不同音质的语音。
由此得知造成元音音质差别的因素主要是共鸣器的形状不同。
（二）语音的生理属性1、动力部分——肺和气管2、发音体——喉头3、发音体——声带4、共鸣器（声腔）——口腔和鼻腔按照发声器官能否活动，可以将之分为‚主动发音器官‛和‚被动发音器官‛。
主动发音器官包括嘴唇、舌头、软腭、小舌、下颚等，被动发音器官包括牙齿、齿龈、硬腭等。
（三）语音的社会属性在一种语言或方言里，什么意义用什么声音来表达是任意的、约定俗成的，是社会因素决定的。
语音的社会属性还表现在语音的系统性上，不同语言有不同的语音系统，语音的社会属性是语音的本质属性，语音本质上是一种社会现象。
语言学第二章
第二章音系学1．语言的声音媒介语言的形式有声音和文字。
在这两种媒介中，声音是语言最基本的媒介，是第一性的。
这是因为在语言的发展过程中，声音媒介早于文字。
文字是对声音的记录。
在日常交际中，大量信息是通过口头交际来完成的，只有在无法进行口头交际的情况下人们才使用文字形式。
除此之外，人们是通过声音媒介来习得自己的母语的。
2. 语音学2．1什么是语音学语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。
语音学有三个分支：发声语音学、听觉语音学和声学语音学。
它们各有自己的侧重点但又互有联系。
发声语音学主要研究语言使用者是如何使用发音器官发出语音，并对所发出的音进行分类。
听觉语音学主要是从受话人的角度来研究语音，即语音是如何被受话人感知和理解的。
声学语音学主要研究语音的物理特性。
通过对语音声波的研究，声学语音学家得出了一些重要的结论。
最为重要的结论，所说出的这些通常被认为是同一个话语，如果从声音的物理特性上去分析，其实它们的声波并不相同，只是由于它们之间存在的差异太小，是人耳所不能辨别的。
如果它们的声波相同，这只是一种巧合。
因此，语音的等同只是一种理论上的理想。
2．2发音器官人类的发音器官存在于咽腔、口腔和鼻腔腔内。
咽腔内最重要的发音器官是位于喉头的声带，发音时声带在气流的冲击下发生颤动决定了声音的浊音化（voicing）。
浊音化是所有元音以及部分辅音，如[b],[g],[m]等所具有的特性。
声带不发生颤动所发出的音是清音，如[t],[k],[f]等。
声带颤动的频率决定了声音的高低。
口腔中发音器官最多，有舌头、小舌、软腭、硬腭、齿龈隆骨、牙齿和嘴唇。
其中舌头是最灵活、最重要的发音器官。
发音时，来自肺部的气流在口腔中受到不同的阻碍，从而发出不同的音。
鼻腔和口腔相通。
发音时软腭后移关闭鼻腔，气流只能从口腔通过，所发出的音没有鼻音化。
但当鼻腔通道打开，允许气流从鼻腔通过，所发出来的音便是鼻音。
2．3音标——宽式和严式标音法音标是在国际上被广为接受的一套对语音进行标音的标准符号体系。
Chapter 2语言学第二章
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced inspeech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the InternationalPhonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters aretaken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplaces to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of theair can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which theair passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstructionof the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air streamfrom the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English,[☐ ♌ ♦ ♎ ♑] are stops and [❍ ⏹ ☠]are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream fromthe lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the twoarticulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but notcloses enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English,[♐ ❆ ♦ ☞ ✞ ♒] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close toanother, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that aturbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes[♦ ❑ ].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partiallyblocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting itescape at one or both sides of the blockage. [●] is the only lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upperfront teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and theupper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and thealveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the backof the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curledback so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with theback of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and thehard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the softpalate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and theuvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end ofthe velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and thewalls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal foldspushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearingon the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally,three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-highand mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips –various degrees of lip rounding orspreading.4. The position of the soft palate –raised for oral vowels, and lowered forvowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actualvowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[♓], CV2[♏], CV3[☪], CV4[♋], CV5[ ], CV6[ ], CV7[☐],CV8[◆].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for agive position: CV9 – CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want toknow, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.V owel glides: V owels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[♓] high front tense unrounded vowel[◆] high back lax rounded vowel[☜] central lax unrounded vowel[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referredto as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these soundscapable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latterwas meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutestshades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. 2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie anddie are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/.By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which soundsubstitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference inmeaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. inEnglish, when the phoneme /☐/ occurs at the beginning of the word like peak/☐♓/, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when /☐/ occurs in theword like speak /♦☐♓/, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Boththe aspirated [☐♒] in peak and the unaspirated [☐=] in speak have the same phonemicfunction, i.e. they are both heard and identified as /☐/ and not as /♌/; they are bothallophones of the phoneme /☐/.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structuralchange in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned ortriggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a precedingsound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspectsto it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; aset of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies theenvironment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicatesthe position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformedinto the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/. It shouldn’t be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ or / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [ ] is used just before the syllable it relates to.。
英语语言学笔记（2）
⼆、⾳系学 语⾔的声⾳媒介 什么是语⾳学 发⾳器官 ⾳标……宽式和严式标⾳法 英语语⾳的分类 ⾳系学和语⾳学 语⾳、⾳位、⾳位变体 ⾳位对⽴、互补分部、最⼩对⽴ ⼏条⾳系规则 超切分特征 Two major media of communication: speech and writing The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. ⽤于⼈类语⾔交际的声⾳称为语⾳，这些数⽬有限的⼀组语⾳构成了语⾔的声⾳媒介。
Phonetics语⾳学: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's language. Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 发⾳语⾳学（most highly developed）, auditory phonetics 听觉语⾳学and acoustic phonetics 声学语⾳学 Organs of speech 发⾳器官 The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities: The pharyngeal cavity咽腔——the throat The oral cavity⼝腔——the mouth The nasal cavity ⿐腔——the nose Vibration of the vocal cords （声带） results in a quality of speech sounds called "voicing" 浊⾳，which is a feature of all vowels 元⾳ and some consonants 辅⾳。
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Review exercises of Chapter OneType1:Judge the following statements T(rue) or F(alse):T 1.Linguistics studies not any particular language , but language in general.F 2.A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.T 3.In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation.F 4.General linguistics studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models andmethods applicable in any linguistic study.T nguage is a simple entity with multiple layers and facets.F 6.Phonetics deals with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning.F 7.Morphology and syntax study the same aspect of language.T 8.The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.T nguage is a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.F 10.Sociolinguistics has nothing to do with language or society.T 11.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive , but sometimes prescriptive.T 12.Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar .Ｆ13.A synchronic study of language is a historical study.F 14.Traditional grammar regards the spoken language as primary , not the writtenlanguage.T 15.The writing system of any language is always a later invention, used to record the speech.Ｆ16.The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.F nguage is vocal because the primary medium is sounds for all languages.F nguage is entirely arbitrary.F19.Productivity is unique to animal language.Ｔnguage is culturally transmitted while animal call systems are genetically transmitted.F 21.Linguists must be able to speak several languages in order to study them.F 22.Linguists are judges, they know what is right and what is wrong about language.Ｔ23.When we say synchronic descriptions of a language are prior to diachronic descriptions, we mean in describing one state of the language , some knowledgeof its previous state is unnecessary.F 24.In linguistics study, linguists first work out a theory about language structure,then, test it with language facts.T nguage is arbitrary by nature but it is not entirely arbitrary.T26.Animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of callsF 27.peculiar to their species, while human beings haven’t this genetic basis.Ｆ28.No nonhuman communication system is arbitrary.T 29.A linguist should be as objective as possible in his description and analysis of language facts.Type2:Fill in the following blanks:⏹ 1.Human capacity for language has a （genetic）basis, but the details of languagehave to be taught and learned.⏹ 2.Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of （ｌａｎｇｕａｇｅ）.⏹ nguage is a system of （ａｒｂｉｔｒａｒｙ）（ｖｏｃａｌ）（ｓｙｍｂｏｌｓ）used for humancommunication.⏹ 4.In professional usage, the （ｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔ）is a scholar who studies languageobjectively.⏹ 5.If a linguistic study describes and analyses the language people actually use, it issaid to be（ｄｅｓｃｒｉｐｔｉｖｅ）. If it aims to lay down rules for correct behavior it is saidto be（ｐｒｅｓｃｒｉｐｔｉｖｅ）.⏹ 6.Charles Hockett specified （ｓｅｖｅｎ）design features of human language . themost important features are （ａｒｂｉｔｒａｒｉｎｅｓｓ），（ｄｕａｌｉｔｙ），（ｐｒｏｄｕｃｔｉｖｉｔｙ），（ｉｎｔｅｒｃｈａｎｇｅａｂｉｌｉｔｙ），（ｄｉｓｐｌａｎｃｅｍｅｎｔ），（ｓｐｅｃｉａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ），（ｃｕｌｔｕｒａｌｔｒａｎｓｍｉｓｓｉｏｎ）, etc.⏹nguage is a system which consists of two sets of structures, one of (form) andthe other of (meaning).⏹nguage can refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of thespeaker, that means language has the feature of (displacement).⏹9.“ A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”. This s entence means thatlanguage has the feature of (arbitrariness).⏹10.Writing is a secondary language form based upon (speaking).⏹11.The reason why an English speaker and a Chinese speaker are not mutuallyintelligible is because language is culturally (transmitted).⏹12.(Arbitrariness) means that language can be used to refer to things whichpresent or not present , real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or infar-away places.⏹nguage is a system consisting of two ______ structures, or two levels.⏹nguage is a system of (arbitrary) vocal symbols used for humancommunication.⏹15.Chomsky defines (competence) as the ideal speaker’s knowledge of the rules ofhis language.⏹16.(Pragmatics ? Performance) refers to the realization of langue in actual use. ⏹17.Modern linguistics gives priority to the (spoken) form of language.⏹18.The description of a language as it changes through time is a (diachronic) study.⏹19.(Psycholinguistics) relates the study of language to psychology.⏹20.Linguistics is generally defined as the（scientific or systematic）study oflanguage.Type3: Multiple Choice:⏹For example: The study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning incommunication is ___A ____.⏹ A. morphology B. general linguistics⏹ C. phonology D. semantics⏹ 1.A scientific study of language is conducted with references to some ___C__ oflanguage structure.⏹ A. data B. general theory C. facts D. hypotheses⏹ 2. ___A ___ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.⏹ A. Psycholinguistics B. Applied linguistics⏹ C. Socio-linguistics D. Anthro-linguistics3. The __D__ study of language studies the historical development of language over a periodof time , it is a historical study. A. synchronic B. descriptive⏹ C. prescriptive D. diachronic⏹ 4.Modern linguistics focuses on the present-day language , it will be possible todescribe language from __B___ point of view. A. sociological B. synchronic⏹ C. diachronic D. psychological⏹ 5. The distinction between competence and performance is similar to the distinctionbetween ___D__.⏹ A. prescriptive and descriptive B. synchronic and diachronic⏹ C.speech and writing D. langue and parole⏹ 6.“Language is a purely human and non-linguistic method of communicating ideas,emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols” is a definition oflanguage made by___D___.⏹Hall B. Chomsky C. Hockett D. Sapir⏹7. C. Hockett, who specified the design features of language , is a (n)__C___linguist.⏹ A. French B. Swiss C. American D. Canadian⏹8. A linguist is interested in __A___ primarily.⏹ A.speech sounds only B. all sounds⏹ C. written language D. general theory.⏹9.Chridren can speak before they can read or write shows that__A__.⏹ A. language is basically vocal B. language is arbitrary⏹ C. language is used for communication D. language is productive⏹10. Which of the following words is not entirely arbitrary? C⏹ A.crash B. typewriter C. bang D. fish⏹11.Neither “iolk” nor “ a he girl” is accepted to be well construc ted in English .Thisindicates that language is__A___.⏹ A. rule-governed B. not arbitrary C. not produced D. vocal⏹12.No one has ever said or heard “A black polar bear is playing in a small hotel with anAfrican gibbon”, but one can say it when necessa ry , and he can understand it in theright register . This shows the __B__ nature of language.⏹ A. arbitrary B. productive C. displaced D. culturally transmitted⏹13. When a dog is barking , you can decide it is a barking for something or at someonethat exists now and there . It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or a bone to be lost.This indicates the language nature of__D__.⏹ A. arbitrariness B. productivity C. duality D. displacement⏹14. Duality or _ D__ makes a person to talk about anything with his knowledge.⏹ A.lower level of language B. higher level of language⏹ C. basic level of language D. double articulation of language⏹15. “Three ”in English , “arbre” in French and “Baum” in German all refer to the samething . “a type of plant with a wooden trunk and branches”. This indicates that __B___.⏹ A. language is vocal B. language is arbitrary⏹ C. language is productive D. language is culturally transmitted⏹16. The study of language as a whole is often called___A___.⏹ A. general linguistics B. sociolinguistics⏹ C. psycholinguistics D. applied linguistics⏹17.The study of language meaning is called ___C___.⏹ A. syntax B. morphology C. semantics D. pragmatics⏹18. The description of a language at some point in time is a __B___study.⏹ A. diachronic B. synchronic C. descriptive D. prescriptive⏹19. ___D___ made the distinction between langue and parole.⏹ A. Chomsky B. Sapir C. Hall D. Saussure⏹20. Which of the following is NOT the design features of human language? B⏹ A. Arbitrariness B. Performance⏹ C. Duality D. Displacement⏹21.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of some practicalproblems, the study of such application is known as __C__ .⏹ A. anthropological linguistics B. computational linguistics⏹ C. applied linguistics D. mathematical linguistics⏹22. ___B___ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community.⏹ A. Parole B. Langue C. Speech D. Writing⏹23. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a goodillustration of the__A __ nature of language .⏹ A arbitrariness B. productivity C. duality D. cultural transmission⏹24. Which of the following is NOT a major branch of linguistics? D⏹ A. Phonology B. Syntax C. Pragmatics D. SpeechPart two: Speech sounds⏹ 1. If the two sounds are in complementary distribution, they are _B__ of the samephoneme.⏹ A. symbols B. allophone C. phones D. signs⏹ 2. When a speech sounds changes and becomes more like another sound whichfollows or proceeds it, it is said to be ___B__.⏹ A. nasalized B. assimilated C. aspirated D. voiced⏹ 3. A minimal pair can be illustrated by __C___.⏹ A. sip/sheep B. bread/breast C. same /shame D. breath/breathe⏹ 4. If two speech sounds are in constructive distribution, they__D__.⏹ A.represent two phonemes B. are allophones of the same phonetic features⏹ C.have exactly the same phonetic features D. do not appear in the same environment ⏹ 5. Minimal pair can be exemplified by__B___.⏹ A. moon/noon B. food/foot C. she/sheet D. sea /seePart I. Indicate the following statements true or false.T 1. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing.2. The unlimited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and ofinterest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language.T 3. Phonetics studies the phonic medium of a certain language.F 4. Only highly trained phoneticians can produce the same speech sounds.T 5. The vowel [e] can be described as front, semi-open and unrounded.F 6. The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are all lax vowels.T 7. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in all human languages form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.F 8. Phoneticians found that a dark [l] often occurs all the end of a word after avowel or before a consonant and a clear [l] often occurs after a consonant.T 9. In English , pill and bill are a minimal pair, and so are pill and till, pin andping.F10. The phoneme /p/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and theydistinguish meaning, therefore they’re in phonetic complementary distribution.F 11. The sequential rules in English can apply to all the other languages. Forexample, the velar nasal [ng] never occurs in initial position in English nor inChinese.F 12. Nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, that is, it does notdistinguish meaning.Part II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word.1. The natural or primary medium of human language is (spoken language) for some obvious reasons.2. (Speech) and (writing) are the two media by natural languages as vehicles for communication.3. Phonetics looks at sounds from (three) distinct, but related pointof view.4. Of the three branches of phonetics, the longest established anduntil recently the most highly developed is (phonetics).5. (Acoustic) phoneticians try to describe the physical properties ofthe stream of sounds which a speaker issues.6. (Speech) is made up of continuous bursts of sounds.7. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained inthree important cavities. They are(the pharyngeal cavity the throat) (the oral cavity the mouth) (the nasal cavity the nose).8. The first point where sound modification may occur is (larynx).9. Vowels may be distinguished as _____ _____ _______.10. If, in making a vowel sound, the organs of speech remain inone position without moving to another, the result is a _____. Ifthe organs of speech start in the position for one vowel and thenimmediately glide to the position of another , the result is a_________.11. All English sound except [m], [n], [ng] are made with the palate (lowered).12. IPA indicates (international) (phonetic) and (alphabet).13. An initial classification will divide the speech sounds into twobroad categories: (vowels) and (consonants).14. The basic unit in phonology is (phoneme).15. Conventionally, a phoneme is put in (slashes) while phones are put in __brackets______.16. An aspirated p ; an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are (phones) of the P (phoneme).17. The allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in (complementary) distribution.18. In English, there are two kinds of stress. They are (word stress) and (sentence stress).19. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentencerather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as (intonation).20. English has 4 basic types of intonations , they are (the falling tone), (the rising tone) , (thefall-rise tone) and (the rise-fall tone) .Part III. Decide which one would be the best answer to the questions or best complete the sentence.1.The principal sources of the modifications of the air stream is __A____.A. tongueB. palateC. teethD. velum2. The pharynx refers to the space of cavity between the larynx and the end of the ___D____.A. tongueB. hard palateC. soft palateD. vocal cords3. A sound produced when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration is said to be ___C_____.A. resonantB. voicelessC. voicedD. vowel4. The obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sound ___A____.A.[t] and [d]B. [k] and [g]C. [p] and [b]D. [θ] and [th]5. __D__ are sounds articulated by the back of the tongue against the soft palate.A. palatalsB. dentalsC. alveolarD. velars6. The sounds [sh], [j] are the results of raising the front of the tongue towards the __A____.A. hard palateB. soft palateC. uvulaD. velar7. When the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly with the friction resulting from partial obstruction , the sounds thus produced are ___A___A. affricatesB. fricativesC. liquidsD. alveolar8. In the case of vowel sounds, the ___A___ and the mouth cavities are changed by the shape and position of the tongue and lips.A. noseB. larynxC. pharynxD. uvular9. The phoneme is an abstract __B__ unit.A. phonicB. phonologicalC. phoneticD. grammatical10. The sound k and g are separate __ B____ .A. allophonesB. phonemesC. morphemesD. allomorphs.11. In linguistics, __B__ is focused on.A.acoustic phoneticsB. articulatory phoneticsC. auditory phoneticsD. non of the above12. Vowels are distinguished from consonants by__C___.A. absenceB. presenceC. modificationD. both A and B13. Consonants are described in term of __D___.A. place of articulationB. manner of articulationC.voicingD. all of the above14.Diphthongs are characterized by__A___A. glidingB. voicingC. aspiratingD. stress15. A phoneme is a __D___ unit . It is _______.phonetic , abstract B. phonological, concretephonetic, concrete D phonological abstract16. __D___ form a minimal pair.A. bet/beltB. beat/betC. beat/feetD. both B and C17.The feature that distinguishes “a greenhouse ” and “a green house” is ___B____.A. toneB. stressC. intonationD. aspiration18. Phonology is concerned with the sound system of language , it studies the D__ of the speech sounds. A. importance B. functioning C. necessity D. aspects19. A phoneme is an abstract , distinctive and __C___.A phonemic contrast B. phonetic distinctionC. complementary distributionD. minimal pair20. Stress, tone and intonation are called __D__ features.A. segmentalB. vocalC. speechD. supra-segmental21. __C___ deals with the production and classification of speech sounds.A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Auditory phoneticsC. Articulatory phoneticsD. Phonetics22. The initial sound in___C___ is a velar stop.A. tapB. capC. gapD. hap23. The IPA came into being towards the end of the __A___century.A.nineteenthB. eighteenthC. seventeenthD. sixteenth24.__A___ is a monophthong.A. [i]B.[au]C. [ei]D.[ai]25.___C___is a voiced alveolar stop.A. [b]B.[k]C.[d] D[g]26.__D___ is a voiced labiodental fricative.A.[f]B.[r]C. [l] D . [v]27.The __C___ is the most flexible , and is responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other organs of speech.A. lipsB. nasal cavityC. tongueD. oral cavity28. Liquids are classified in the light of __A____.A. manner of articulationB. place of articulationC. place of tongueD. none of the above29. In English , there is only one glottal. It is ___B____.A.[l]B.[h]C. [k]D. [f]30.The phonetic symbol for “voiced , labiodental, fricative” is ___A___.A.[v]B.[d]C. [f]D. [m]31.The difference between [u] and [u:] is caused by __C_____.A. the openness of the mouthB. the shape of the lipsC. the length of the vowelsD. none of the above32.What kind of tone is used when what is said is a straightforward matter-of-fact statements?BA. The rising toneB. The falling toneC. The fall-rise toneD. None of the above33. In a sentence, which of the following is usually NOT stressed ? CA. NounsB. Demonstrative pronounsC. Personal pronounsD. All of the above34.Which of the following is a typical tone language? BA. EnglishB. ChineseC. FrenchD. All of the above35. Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in __B___.A. phonemic contrastB. complimentary distributionC. minimal pairD. none of the above36.The sound [v] can be described as __A__.A. voiced, labio-dental , fricativeB. voiceless, labio-dental , affricateC. voiced , alveolar, fricativeD. none of the abovePart V. Answer the following questions in English.1. What is the difference between a monophthong and a diphthong?2. How can consonants be classified?3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?。