英语语言学第二章
英语语言学第一章、第二章
第一章：绪论1．什么是语言学1．1定义语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。
语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言。
为了揭示语言的本质，语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察，并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设，这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验，最终形成一条语言理论。
1．2语言学的研究范畴:语言学研究有不同的侧重。
对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。
语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。
音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。
形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。
句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则。
语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义，语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究。
语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。
从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。
语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容。
心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言。
它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的，人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。
把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。
狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。
除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。
1．3语言学研究中的几对基本概念1．3．1规定性和描述性语言学研究是描述性的，不是规定性的。
这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。
语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析，而不是对语言的使用作出规定。
传统语法是规定性的，它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上，旨在规定一系列的语法规则，并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。
英语语言学 第二章 Phonetics and Phonology
scope of phonetics
articulatory phonetics
auditory phonetics
acoustic phonetics
articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 From the speaker’s point of view： studying how a speaker uses his or her speech organ to articulate sounds （ 研究语音的产生）
当声带分离时，气流容易通过，由此产生的语 音叫清音（voiceless），如 [p, s, t]。 当声带贴近时，气流使其产生震动 （vibration），形成的声音成为浊音 （voicing），如[ b, z, d]。 当声带完全紧贴时，气流无法通过，不发出声 音。
pharyngeal cavity: Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.
2.1 the phonic medium of language
two media of language : speech and writing Sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language.
2.2.2 speech
organs (发音器官)
英语语言学概论第二章获得的感悟与收获
英语语言学概论第二章获得的感悟与收获
英语语言学概论第二章主要讨论了语言的结构和语言习得。
在这一章中，我获得了以下的感悟和收获:
1. 语言的结构包括语音、语法、词汇和语义四个方面。
理解语言的结构和组成部分，可以帮助我们更好地理解语言的本质和功能。
2. 语言习得是一个持续不断的过程，需要婴儿的语言学习和成长。
在这个过程中，婴儿通过不断地倾听、模仿和尝试，逐渐掌握语言。
这一章的讲解让我更好地理解了母语习得的过程，并对我的英语学习有了更深刻的认识。
3. 语言习得不仅与个体的语言背景和文化有关，还与语言环境有关。
语言的学习和掌握需要不断地练习和使用，只有在语言环境和不断的实践中，才能真正掌握语言。
4. 语言是一个系统，可以进行分类和比较。
通过比较不同语言之间的差异和相似之处，我们可以更好地理解语言的本质和特点，从而更好地进行语言学的研究。
总结起来，第二章让我更深入地了解了语言的本质和习得过程，以及语言的结构、组成部分和分类比较。
这些知识对我的英语学习和语言研究都有很大的帮助。
英语语言学第二章讲课ppt课件
allophone音位变体
and
A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.
认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才 能开始 对症下 药，然 后药到 病除。 近年来 国家对 扶贫工 作高度 重视， 已经展 开了“ 精准扶 贫”项 目
Broad transcription 宽式标音: the transcription with letter-symbols only.
Narrow transcription 严式标音: the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics 变音符. Diacritics are a set of symbols added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.
认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才 能开始 对症下 药，然 后药到 病除。 近年来 国家对 扶贫工 作高度 重视， 已经展 开了“ 精准扶 贫”项 目
Bilabial 双唇音 Labiodental 唇齿音 Dental 齿音 Alveolar 齿龈音 Palatal 腭音 Velar 软腭音 Glottal 喉音
of how speech sounds are produced. (2) Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学 studies how
英语语言学概论第二章phonology(共14张PPT)
2.3.1 Coarticulation (协同发音)
Map PK Lamb
[mæp]
[læm]
A nasal + a vowel
Soft palate: from the lowered position to the raised position
Proceeding influenced following (perseverative)
Broad and narrow transcriptions
Velarization rule (软腭化): A vowel + a nasal
the
string,
the
two
sound
combinations
are
phonemic contrast, complementary distribution
when simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved.
Broad and narrow transcriptions
[pi:k]
Peak
[pʰi:k]
Broad
Narrow
1. Broad transcription (宽式音标): The transcription of sounds with letter-symbols only. [ _ ]
said to form a minimal pair.
Pill/bill; pill/till; till/kill; kill/dill/; dill/gill
big/peg; peak/leap
Minimal pairs
Four requirements for identifying minimal pairs:
英语语言学自编教材第二章
Chapter 2 Phonetics1.The Phonic Medium of LanguageRelevant Language Use Observations and Questions to Ponder over1) List different media by which human beings use for dailycommunication.2) Based on your observations and experiences, of the two media,speech and writing, which one do you use more frequently in your daily communication and in what situations do you choose one medium over the other?1)Which of the media enjoys a longer history, speech or writing?2)Which of the media do you think is the major medium by which you acquireyour mother tongue, speech or writing?● Summaries to Make and Linguistic Viewpoints to LearnSpeech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Linguists believe that of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing mainly for the following three reasons:1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of anylanguage is the later invention of its users to record speech.2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of theamount of information conveyed. It is only in the situation where speech is not possible for communication that we use the medium of writing as something supplementary in our daily communication.3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mothertongue.●Definitions to ClarifyPhonic medium: It is a term used to refer to the speech sounds in human languages.2. Phonetics2.1 What is Phonetics?Relevant Language Use Observations and Questions to Ponder over1) When you communicate with others orally, a message is producedby our speech organs in the form of sounds, transmitted through acertain physical means and perceived by the hearer. What do you thinkare the basic contents involved in the study of speech sounds?2) Why should we study how humans produce speech sounds, how speech soundstravel in the air and how they are perceived by hearers?● Summaries to Make and Linguistic Viewpoints to LearnPhonetics studies speech sounds according to their production in the vocal organs (articulatory phonetics) from the speaker’s point of view, their physical properties (acoustic phonetics) from the way sounds travel and the physical means by which sounds are transmitted, or their effect on the ear (auditory phonetics) from the hearer’s point of view.Articulatory phonetics is general, descriptive and classificatory. It is general, because it studies all the speech sounds in all human languages. It is descriptive because it describes how speech sounds are produced. It is classificatory, because it involves the classification of speech sounds into different categories, such as consonants and vowels.Auditory phonetics focuses on the perception of sounds or the way in which sounds are heard and interpreted. We are in fact dealing with two distinct operations which, however, are closely interrelated and influence each other: on the one hand we can talk about audition proper, that is the perception of sounds by our auditory apparatus and the transforming of the information into a neural sign and its sending to the brain and, on the other hand, we can talk about the analysis of this information by the brain which eventually leads to the decoding of the message, the understanding of the verbal message.When discussing the auditory system we can consequently talk about its peripheral and its central part, respectively.Acoustic phonetics is a subfield of phonetics which deals with acoustic aspects of speech sounds. Acoustic phonetics investigates properties like the amplitude of a waveform, its duration, its fundamental frequency, or other properties of its frequency spectrum, and the relationship of these properties to other branches of phonetics (e.g. articulatory or auditory phonetics), and to abstract linguistic concepts like phones, phrases, or utterances.The study of acoustic phonetics was greatly enhanced in the late 19th century by the invention of the Edison phonograph. The phonograph allowed the speech signal to be recorded and then later processed and analyzed. By replaying the same speech signal from the phonograph several times, filtering it each time with a different band-pass filter, a spectrogram of the speech utterance could be built up.A thorough knowledge of how vowels and consonants are generated remains essential for successful assessment and remediation of articulatory and phonological disorders. Although contemporary phonological theories have provided new ways of viewing assessment and treatment of these disorders, knowledge of the speech sounds’ production features secures a firm basis for utilizing such procedures. Without this knowledge, phonological process analysis, for example, is impossible. A thorough knowledge of phonetics can help us understand how we perceive sounds so that we can efficiently interpret messages sent by others. Finally, the findings in the study of phonetics are widely used in person-machine communication, speech synthesis, speaker identification, voice prints analysis, voice identification and voice lineups, voice imitation and impersonation, speech recognition, speech production and perception disorders, correction of speech disorders, second language acquisition, etc..● Definitions to ClarifyPhonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it studies speech sounds: the way in which they are produced (uttered, articulated), the way in which they are perceived, and their physical characteristics.Articulatory phonetics:Articulatory phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, how they are categorized or classified.Auditory phonetics:Auditory phonetics focuses on the perception of sounds or the way in which sounds are heard and interpreted.Acoustic phonetics:It studies physical properties of speech sounds from the way sounds travel and the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted.2.2 Organs of SpeechRelevant Language Use Observations and Questions to Ponder over1) What are the major organs of speech in our mouth which areinvolved in the production of speech sounds? Can you name some ofthese speech organs?2) When we close our mouth, letting air-stream coming out of ournoses, what sounds can be produced? Give some examples.3) Put your finger on your larynx and feel the effect when you produce each pair of sounds t/d, p/b and s/z, what result have you found?● Summaries to Make and Linguistic Viewpoints to LearnOur speech organs (the articulatory apparatus) are contained in three important areas or cavities: the oral cavity (mouth), the nasal cavity (nose) and the pharyngeal cavity (throat).2.2.1 The Oral CavityThe oral cavity is the area from the back of the throat to the mouth. The major parts of the oral cavity that are used in speech production are the uvula, the velum, the tongue, the hard palate, the alveolar ridge, the teeth, and the lips. The uvula is that fleshy blob that hangs down in the back of the throat. The velum is the soft palate, and the alveolar ridge is a mass of hard cartilage behind the teeth.The picture on the left shows thepositions of these major parts of theoral cavity. The oral cavity is one ofthe most important parts of the vocaltract. Its size, shape and acoustics canbe varied by the movements of thepalate, the tongue, the lips, and theteeth. Especially the tongue is veryflexible, the tip and the edges can bemoved independently and the entiretongue can move forward, backward,up and down. The lips control thesize and shape of the mouth openingthrough which speech sound isradiated.2.2.2 The Nasal CavityThe nasal cavity and oral cavity are connected with each other. Nasalized sounds are produced when we close our mouths so that the air coming from our lungs can only exit through our noses. If we allow the air to exit only through our months by drawing back the soft part of the roof of the mouth, the velum, the sounds produced are not nasalized.2.2.3 Pharyngeal CavityPharyngeal cavity(throat) consists of the area above the larynx and below the uvula. In the pharyngeal cavity, there are such speech organs as vocal cords. When speaking, the air flow is forced through the glottis between the vocal cords and the larynx to the three main cavities. The V-shaped opening between the vocal cords, called the glottis, is the most important sound source in the vocal system. The vocal cords may act in several different ways during speech. The most important function is to modulate the air flow by rapidly opening and closing, causing vibration from which vowels and voiced consonants are produced. With stop consonants the vocal cords may act suddenly from a completely closed position in which they cut the air flow completely, to totally open position producing a light cough or a glottal stop. On theother hand, with unvoiced consonants, such as /s/ or /f/, they may be completely open. An intermediate position may also occur with for example phonemes like /h/.● Definitions to ClarifyVoicing: Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.Voiceless sounds: When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are voiceless , such as [t], [s], and [f] in English.Voiced sounds: The speech sounds produced with the vibration of the vocal cords are voiced sounds. All vowels and some consonants such as [b], [z], and [m] are voiced. 2.3 Classification of English Speech Sounds2.3.1 Classification of English ConsonantsRelevant Language Use Observations and Questions to Ponder over1) Observe how the air-stream is obstructed when thefollowing sounds are pronounced: Put your choice in the formof a tick in the following column:2) Work with your desk-mate to observe where the air-stream is obstructed when the following sounds are pronounced. Write your answers in the following table:● Summaries to Make and Linguistic Viewpoints to LearnEnglish consonants are usually classified by the manner of articulation and by the place of articulation. When we approach the classification of English consonants from the manner of articulation, we mainly look at how the air-stream is obstructed when we produce a consonant. When we group the consonants according to the place of articulation, we mainly look at where the air-stream is obstructed in the production of a consonant.According to the manner of articulation, English consonants are classified into plosives or stops: [p] [b] [t] [d]; fricatives: [f] [v] [s] [z] [ ; affricates: [t ] [d ]; nasals: [m] [n] [ ; liquids (laterals): [l] [r]; and semivowels (glides): [w] [j].By the place of articulation, English consonants can be classified into bilabials: [p] [b] [m] [w]; labiodentals: [f] [v]; dental: ; alveolars: [t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [l] [r]; palatals: [ [t ] [d ] [j]; velars: [k] [g] [ and glottal: [h].With these principles, we can describe the phonetic features of a consonant and see how a consonant is produced. For example:[t]: voiceless, alveolar, plosive[d]: voiced, alveolar, plosive[t voiceless, palatal, affricate[d voiced, palatal, affricateSome of the other consonants are described as follows:● Definitions to ClarifyConsonants: The consonants are the speech sounds in the production of which the air coming from the lungs is obstructed in one way or another.Plosives (stops): They are the consonants in the production of which the obstruction to the air-stream is complete and the suddenly released with an audible sound.Fricatives: They are the consonants in the production of which the obstruction to the air-stream is incomplete and the air-stream is forced to come out of a narrow passage with friction.Affricates: They are the consonants in the production of which the obstruction to the air-stream is complete and then it is slowly released with friction.Nasals: Thy are the consonants in the production of which the soft palate is lowered, allowing the air-stream to pass through the nasal passage.Liquids (laterals): They are the consonants in the production of which the air-stream is obstructed, but allowed to pass between the tip or the sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth.Semivowels (glides): They are the consonants in the production of which the obstruction is such that the air-stream comes out of a narrower passage between the lips or between the tongue and the hard palate.Bilabial: They are the consonants in the production of which the obstruction is formed by the upper and the lower lips.Labiodental: They are the consonants in the production of which the obstruction is created by the upper teeth and lower lip.Dental: the consonants in the production of which the obstruction is created by the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth.Alveolar: They are the consonants in the production of which the obstruction is made between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth-ridge.Palatal: They are the consonants in the production of which the obstruction is formed between the back of the tongue and the hard palate.Velar: They are the consonants in the production of which the obstruction is created between the back of the tongue and the soft palate.Glottal: They are the consonant in the production of which the obstruction is momentarily made by the bringing together of the vocal cords.2.3.2 Classification of English VowelsRelevant Language Use Observations and Questions to Ponder over1)Compare the following vowels in Column A with Vowelsin Column B to find their differences:2）Work with your desk-mate to observe the shape of the lips when you pronounce the following sounds and note down in the diagram which vowels are rounded and which ones are unrounded:3) Observe the openness of the mouth when you pronounce the following vowels.● Summaries to Make and Linguistic Viewpoints to LearnVowel sounds are classified according to the length of the vowels, and the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the position of the tongue which is raised the highest.According to the length of the vowels, English vowels are of the two groups: long vowels such as [i:] [ :] [ : ] [u:] [ɑ:]and short vowels[i] [e] [ ] [ ] [ ] [u], etc. According to the openness of the mouth, English vowels are divided into four subcategories:(1) close vowels: [i:] [i] [u:] and [u](2) semi-close vowels: [e] and [ :](3) semi-open vowels: [ ] and [ : ](4) open vowels: [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] and [ : ].According to the shape of the lips, English vowels are grouped into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels: All the back vowels in English are rounded except [ɑ:]. All the front vowels and central vowels in English are unrounded.According to the position of the tongue in the mouth that is raised the highest, English vowels are classified into front vowels, central vowels and back vowels: Front vowels are the ones in the production of which the front part of the tongue is raised the highest such as [i:] [i] [e] [ ] [ ]; When the central part of the tongue maintains its highest position, the vowels thus produced are central vowels suchas [ :] [ ] and [ ]; if the back of the tongue is held the highest, the vowels thus produced are back vowels such as [u:] [u] [[ :] [ ] and [ :].With these criteria, we can describe the phonetic features of English vowels, for example:[e]: short, front, semi-close, unrounded[i:]: long, front, close, unrounded[ ]: short, front, open, unrounded[● Definitions to ClarifyVowels: Vowels are the speech sounds in the pronunciation of which, the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth.Exercises1.Define the following terms:Phonic medium; articulatory phonetics; phonetics; vowels; consonants; voicing 2.How is articulatory phonetics different from acoustic phonetics and auditoryphonetics?3.How do we classify vowels?4.How do we classify consonants?5.Write out the phonetic features of the following consonants and vowels:/t//p//m//z//u//i//æ/[ ]6.Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:voiced bilabial stopvoiceless alveolar fricativevoiced velar stopvoiceless palatal affricateshort front open unroundedFurther ReadingsJackson, Howard. Analyzing English: an introduction to descriptive linguistics. New York: Pergamon Press Ltd. 1982.孟宪忠(编著).英语语音学（第三版）.上海:华东师范大学出版社.2006.张凤桐.英国英语语音学和音系学(第3版).成都:四川大学出版社.2002.罗奇（英）.英语语音学与音系学使用教程. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 2000.。
语言学第二章要点
Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1.The phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）. 2．What is phonetics?什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。
英语语言学教程Chapter_2_PPT
The three main areas of the study of sounds
Articulatory phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds Perceptual or auditory phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds
The international phonetic alphabet (P.28)
2.2 Consonants and vowels (p. 29-37)
Consonants are sounds made by a closure or narrowing in the vocal tract so that the airflow is either completely blocked, or so restricted that audible friction is produced. A vowel is produced without such “stricture” so that „air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth and nose.” (Crystal, 1997: 154)
Lateral （边音 / 舌边音） [l] ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้ncomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth
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Regressive assimilation （逆同化） and Progressive Regressive assimilation
e.g. Im+possible In+tolerant bilabial +bilabial sound alveolar +alveolar sound
Rounded vowels: /u:/, /u/, /ɔ:/, /ɔ/ Unrounded vowels: /i:/, /ɪ/, /e/
(/ɛ/), /æ/ (/ɑ/), /ɜː/, /ə/, /ʌ/, /ɑː/
The width of the Mouth
Open vowels: /æ/ (/ɑ/), /ɔ/, /ɑ:/ Close vowels: /i:/, /ɪ/, /u:/, /u/ Semi-open vowels: /e/ (/ɛ/), /ɜː/,
/w/
The place of articulation
Bilabials （双唇音）:
/p/, /b/, /m/, /w/
Labiodentals （唇齿音）:
/f/, /v/
Dentals （齿音）:
/θ /, /ð/
Alveolars （齿龈音）:
/t/, /d/, /n/, /s/, /z/, /r/, /l/
Broad transcription Narrow transcription
宽式音标 窄式（严式）音标
Classification of English speech sounds
Speech sounds of all languages are
broadly classified into vowels and consonants.
/ə/, /ʌ/
The length of the vowels:
Long vowels and short vowels [i] [ə] [ɔ] [u] [ʌ] [e] [æ]
[i:] [ɜː] [ɔ:] [u:] [ɑ:]
Monophthongs & Diphthongs
Monophthongs: simple vowels
Palatals （上颚音）:
/j/, /∫/, /ʒ/, /dʒ/, /t∫/
Velars （软腭音）: /k/, /g/, /ŋ/ Glottal （声门音，喉音）: /h/
English vowels
According to which part of the tongue is
Position of the vocal folds: glottal stop
Nasal cavity
/m/
/n/ standardized and internationally accepted
system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) 国际音标。
Tenth
Progressive assimilation
e.g. Cats Dogs
Phonology （音系学/音位学）
In particular when the second word
begins with a vowel.
e.g. My car is blue An egg
/kɑ: riz/
/ə’neg/
Variations of sounds
Elision （元音省略）, refers to the
The manner of articulation: it refers to the
The place of articulation: it refers to the
The manner of articulation
/k/, /g/
Plosives /stops (爆破音)—— /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, Fricatives （摩擦音）—— /f/, /v/, /s/, /z/,
Diphthongs: a sequence of two sounds
produced from one vowel position to another
/eɪ//əu/ /aɪ/ /au/ /ɔɪ/ /ɪə/ /eə/
/uə/
Variations of sounds
Liaison （连音）
Acoustic Phonetics (声学语音学) is the study of
the physical properties of speech sounds.
Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics （听觉语音学）
is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.
Consonants
English consonant can be classified according
to the manner of articulation and the place of articulation.
type of stricture involved in the production of a consonant (the particular way the airstream is obstructed). involvement of the articulators in the production of a particular consonant (where the airstream is most obstructed).
Assimilation （同化）：the way that sounds belonging to one
word or one syllable can cause changes in sounds belongs to neighboring words or syllables. assimilation （顺同化）
The initiator of the air stream
The producer of the voice the resonating cavities
Speech production
The three cavities
of the vocal tract (声道三腔):
Chapter 2
The Sounds of Language
The two major areas of studying speech sounds: 1) phonetics 2) phonology
Phonetics
The study of the speech sounds that
Pharynx /‘færɪŋks/
咽腔
Oral cavity
/‘kævɪtɪ/ 口腔
Nasal cavity 鼻腔
Speech organs
The organs inside the oral cavity
the upper part of the mouth: the upper lip
loss of a sound or sounds in speech under certain circumstances. It is typical of rapid, casual speech.
e.g. factory
/'fæktrɪ/
/'fækt(ə)rɪ/
Variations of sounds
occur in all human languages is called phonetics. The study of sounds can be divided into three main areas: Articulatory Phonetics; Acoustic Phonetics; Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics
/θ /, /ð/, /∫/, /ʒ/, /h/
Affricates (破擦音) —— /t∫/, /dʒ/ Liquids （流音）—— /l/, /r/ Nasals （鼻音）—— /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ Glides (median approximants) （滑音）—— /j/,
Vowels: there is no obstruction to the
flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips.
Consonants: we are making it difficult or
impossible for the air to pass through the mouth.
held highest.
Front vowels: /i:/, /ɪ/, /e/（/ɛ/）, /æ/
(/ɑ/)
Central vowels: /ɜː/ (ə:), /ə/, /ʌ/
Back vowels: /u:/, /u/, /ɔː/, /ɔ/,
/ ɑ ː/
The shape of the lips
Position of the vocal folds: voicing/voiced 浊音
When the vocal cords are drawn together, the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate.