英语语言学Linguistics 第一章Chapter1 导论Introduction
英语语言学chapter1languageandlinguistics
Chapter 1 langugae & linguistics
Langue (语言)vs. parole （言语）
Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community (linguistic competence of the speaker implanted by his society)某一语言社区共享的语言规则 Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. (the actual language data)这一语言社区的某一 个人具体根据共享的语言规则所说的具体话语，就好 像是你平时说的话
1. language
Chapter 1 language & linguistics
Focus of today: 2. Linguistics
2.1 The Defintion of Linguistics 2.2 The Major Distinctions of Linguistics 2.3 The Branches of Linguistics
2. Linguistics
Chapter 1 langugae & linguistics
Synchronic(共时)vs. Diachronic(历时)
Synchronic linguistics takes a fixed
instant /period (usually, but not necessarily,
The science
语言学 Linguistics笔记
---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------语言学Linguistics笔记Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学 Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言 language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness 任意性 Productivity 多产性 Duality 双重性Displacement 移位性Cultural transmission 文化传递⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacemen t Language can be used1/ 38to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语言能力 Competence Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用 performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
语言学导论课件 语言学LINGUISTICS
duality二重性: language as a system with 2
subsystems/structures/levels---meaningless sounds and units of meaning grouped and regrouped with sounds
creativity (productivity)创造性: provides opportunities for sending
4.The functions of Language
6 functions(by Jacobson): referential,poitic,emotive,conative,phatic,
metalingual function(所指、诗学、感情、意动、
元语言功能)
3 functions(by Halliday):
COMMENT: Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's distinction are very similar. They differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of language is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
communication system. Human language is ‘unique’,or,language is human specific.
语言学导论 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
The
End
Descriptive（描写式）vs. Prescriptive（规定式） ♦ Descriptive:a lingustics study that aims to describe and analyze the language ople actually use.
♦ Prescriptive:a linguistics study that aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard" behavior in using language.i.e.,to tell people what they should say or what they should not say.
Example
▪ Jack said I love you to Rose in the street.
The relationship between langue and parole ● The parole must depend on langue, and without parole, there would not be any existing significance for langue. Langue and parole are interdependent. They together constitute language.
C ha pte r 1 Invita tions to Linguistics
1.9 Im porta nt D istinctions in Linguistics
jijijiijif
contents
• Descriptive vs. Prescriptive • Synchronic vs. Diachronic • Langue vs. Parole • Competence vs. Performance
英语语言学导论
Chapter 1 Introduction: Language and Linguistics●What is language?As is agreed by linguists in broad terms, language can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication●Features of human language⏹Creativity◆Language provides opportunities for sending messages that have neverbeen sent before and for understanding novel messages.◆The grammatical rules and the words of a language are finite, but thesentences are infinite. Every speaker uses language creatively.⏹Duality◆Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other ofmeanings.◆Certain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certain meanings.◆Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds or sequences ofspeech sounds.⏹Arbitrariness◆The relationship between the two subsystems of language is arbitrary.◆There is no logical connection between sound and meaning.⏹Displacement◆There is no limit in time or space for language.◆Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present orfuture.⏹Cultural transmission◆Culture cannot be genetically transmitted. Instead, it must be learned.◆Language is a way of transmitting culture.⏹Interchangeability◆All members of a speech community can send and receive messages.⏹Reflexivity◆Human languages can be used to describe themselves.◆The language used to talk about language is called meta-language.●Functions of language – three meta-functions⏹The ideational function◆To identify things, to think, or to record information.⏹The interpersonal function◆To get along in a community.⏹The textual function◆To form a text.●What is linguistics?⏹Linguistics may be defined as the scientific study of language.⏹Branches of linguistics◆Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions●Phonetics●Phonology●Morphology●Syntax●Semantics◆External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions●Pragmatics●Psycholinguistics●Sociolinguistics●Applied linguistics●Computational linguistics●Neurolinguistics⏹Modern linguistics began in the early 20th century. It founder is the Swissscholar, Ferdinand de Saussure.(索绪尔)Chapter 2 Phonetics●What is phonetics?Phonetics is termed as the study of speech sounds. (It studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.)●Description of speech sounds⏹Description of English consonants◆General feature: obstruction◆Criteria of consonant description●Places of articulation●Manners of articulation●V oicing of articulation◆Places of articulation●This refers to each point at which the air stream can be modified toproduce a sound.⏹Bilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w]⏹Labiodental: [f] [v]⏹Interdental: [ ] [❆]⏹Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r]⏹Palatal: [☞] [✞] [t☞] [d✞] [j]⏹Velar: [k] [g] [☠]⏹Glottal: [h]◆Manners of articulation●This refers to how the air stream is modified, whether it iscompletely blocked or partially obstructed.⏹Stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]⏹Fricatives: [s] [z] [☞] [✞] [f] [v] [ ] [❆] [h]⏹Affricates: [t☞] [d✞]⏹Liquids: [l] [r]⏹Glides: [w] [j]⏹Nasals: [m] [n] [☠]◆V oicing of articulation●This refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds areproduced.⏹V oiced sounds⏹V oiceless soundsChapter 3 Phonology●What is phonology?Phonology is the study of sound patterns and sound systems of language.●Discovering phonemes⏹Contrastive distribution – phonemes◆If sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be incontrastive distribution.◆Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs andminimal sets.● A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one soundin the same position.●Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by onesegment in the same position.◆The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels represented bythe English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution.◆Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English.However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features.Therefore, they are separate phonemes.⏹Complementary distribution – allophones◆Sounds that are not found in the same position are said to be incomplementary distribution.◆If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number offeatures, they are allophones of the same phoneme.●Syllable structure⏹ A syllable is a phonological unit that is composed of one or more phonemes.⏹Every syllable has a nucleus, which is usually a vowel.⏹The nucleus may be preceded by one or more consonants called the onset andfollowed by one or more consonants called the coda.Chapter 4 Morphology●What is morphology?Morphology is defined as t he study of the internal structure and the formation of words.●Morphemes and allomorphs⏹The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.⏹The different morphs of the same morpheme are called allomorphs.●Conclusion: classification of morphemes⏹Morphemes◆Free morphemes: can be used independently as a word◆Bound morphemes: are the morphemes which cannot be used as a word,they must be attached to the other morphemes.●Formation of new words⏹Derivation◆Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.◆Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create aderived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes tothe word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness,unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a freemorpheme is termed complex derivation.◆Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category.Generally speaking, affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a differentlanguage origin.◆Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.◆Some English suffixes also change the word stress.⏹Compounding◆Compounding is another common way to form words. It is thecombination of free morphemes.◆The majority of English compounds are the combination of words fromthe three classes – nouns, verbs and adjectives – and fall into the threeclasses.◆In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech ofthe word.◆The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of thecomponents.⏹Conversion◆Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class intoanother class.◆Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.⏹Clipping◆Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one ormore syllables.◆Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informaloccasions.◆Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even informal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian),gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator)and fax (facsimile)are rarelyused in their complete form.⏹Blending◆Blending is a process that creates new words by putting togethernon-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog(smoke +frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfastand lunch), motel(motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word inthe textbook for junior middle school students –“plike” (a kind ofmachine that is like both a plane and a bike).⏹Back-formation◆Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a realor supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed fromtelevision. Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefixtele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix–sion in English indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in theword television as that suffix and drop it to form the verb televise.⏹Acronyms and abbreviations◆Acronyms and abbreviations are formed by putting together the initialletters of all words in a phrase or title.◆Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer thanabbreviations, which are read letter by letter.◆This type of word formation is common in names of organizations andscientific terminology.⏹Eponyms◆Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals orplaces. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originatingfrom the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slicesof bread so that he could eat while gambling.⏹Coinage◆Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existingmorphemes.◆This way of word formation is especially common in cases whereindustry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak andCoca-cola.Chapter 5 Syntax●What is syntax?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of sentence formation.⏹Immediate constituent (IC) analysis◆Structural grammar is characterized by a top-down process of analysis.◆ A sentence is seen as a constituent structure. All the components of thesentences are its constituents. A sentence can be cut into sections. Eachsection is its immediate constituent. Then each section can be further cutinto constituents. This on-going cutting is termed immediate constituentanalysis.◆Examples:●Old men and women: old | men and women, old || men | and women●The ||| little || girl | speaks || French.◆In this way, sentence structure is analyzed not only horizontally but alsovertically. In other words, IC analysis can account for the linearity andthe hierarchy of sentence structure.●I will suggest | that this || in itself reflects ||| a particular ideology|||| about gender ||||| that deserves to be re-examined.◆Two advantages of IC analysis:●It can analyze some ambiguities.●It shows linearity and hierarchy of one sentence.●Transformational-generative (TG) grammar⏹Background and the goal of TG grammar◆Chomsky (1957) – grammar is the knowledge of native speakers.⏹Syntactic categories◆Noun Phrase (NP)◆Verb Phrase (VP)◆Sentence (S)◆Determiner (Det)◆Adjective (Adj)◆Pronoun (Pro)◆Verb (V)◆Auxiliary Verb (Aux)◆Prepositional Phrase (PP)◆Adverb (Adv)⏹Phrase structure (PS) rules◆S →NP VP(Det) (Adj) N◆NP →{Pro◆VP →(Aux) V (NP) (PP)◆PP →P NPChapter 6 Semantics●What is semantics?Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.●Lexical sense relations⏹Synonymy◆Synonyms are words which have different forms but similar meanings.●Dialectal synonyms –lift/elevator, flat/apartment●Synonyms of different styles –gentleman/guy●Synonyms of different registers –salt/sodium chloride●Synonyms differing in affective meaning –attract/seduce●Synonyms differing in collocation –beautiful/handsome,able/capable◆Synonyms are frequently used in speaking and writing as a cohesivedevice. In order to avoid repetition the writer/speaker needs to use asynonym to replace a word in the previous co-text when he/she wants tocontinue to address that idea. The synonyms together function to createcohesion of the text.⏹Antonymy◆Antonyms are words which are opposite in meaning.●Gradable antonyms – pairs of words opposite to each other, but thepositive of one word does not necessarily imply the negative of theother. For example, the words hot and cold are a pair of antonyms,but not hot does not necessarily mean cold, maybe warm, mild orcool. Therefore, this pair of antonyms is a pair of gradableantonyms.●Complementary antonyms –words opposite to each other and thepositive of one implies the negative of the other: alive/dead●Reversal (relational) antonyms – words that denote the same relationor process from one or the other direction: push/pull, up/down,teacher/student◆Antonymy is frequently utilized as a rhetorical resource in language use.Oxymoron and antithesis based on antonymy. Gradable antonyms maygive rise to fuzziness.⏹Homonymy◆Homonyms are words which have the same form, but differentmeanings.●Homographs – words which are identical in spelling, but different inmeaning and pronunciation: tear [♦☪☜] (v.)/tear [♦♓☜] (n.)●Homophones –words which are identical in pronunciation, butdifferent in spelling and meaning: see/sea●Full homonyms –words which are identical in spelling andpronunciation, but different in meaning: bear (v. to give birth to ababy/to stand)/bear (n. a kind of animal)◆Rhetorically, homonyms are often used as puns.⏹Polysemy◆ A polyseme is a word which has several related senses.◆Polysemy is based on the intuition of native speakers as well as theetymology or history of words.⏹Hyponymy◆Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion.◆Tiger, lion, elephant and dog are hyponyms of the word animal. Wordslike animal are called superordinates.◆This kind of vertical semantic relation links words in a hierarchicalwork.●Sentencial sense relations – semantic relations of sentences⏹Sentences may be related in sense. I will illustrate sense relations within andbetween sentences.◆Tautology: The bachelor is unmarried.◆Contradiction: The bachelor is married.◆Inconsistency: John is single./John is married.◆Synonymousness: John broke the glass./The glass was broken by John.◆Entailment: The meeting was chaired by a spinster./The meeting waschaired by a woman.◆Presupposition: Sam has returned the book./Sam borrowed the book.⏹These semantic relations are found within or between meaningful sentences.There are sentences which sound grammatical but meaningless. Thesesentences are said to be semantically anomalous. For example:◆Colourless green ideas sleep furiously.◆The pregnant bachelor killed some phonemes.Chapter 7 Pragmatics●What is pragmatics?Pragmatics can be defined as the analysis of meaning in context.●Speech acts⏹In linguistic communication, people do not merely exchange information.They actually do something through talking or writing in variouscircumstances. Actions performed via speaking are called speech acts.⏹Types of speech acts◆Locutionary speech act – the action of making the sentence◆Illocutionary speech act – the intentions◆Perlocutionary speech act – the effects◆Of these dimensions, the most important is the illocutionary act.●Cooperation and implicature⏹Conversational Implicature◆In our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation aregenerally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people aretalking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly andsuccessfully. In accepting speakers’ pres uppositions, listeners have toassume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. This sense ofcooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are notnormally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevantinformation from one another.◆However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often notthe literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied inthe words is called conversational implicature. For example:[1]A: Can you tell me the time?B: Well, the milkman has come.◆In this little conversation, A is asking B about the time, but B is notanswering directly. That indicates that B may also not no the accuratetime, but through saying “the milkman has come”, he is in fact giving arough time. The answer B gives is related to the literal meaning of thewords, but is not merely that. That is often the case in communication.The theory of conversational implicature is for the purpose of explaininghow listeners infer the speakers’ intention through the words.◆The study of conversational implicature starts from Grice (1967), theAmerican philosopher. He thinks, in daily communication, people areobserving a set of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as tocommunicate effectively through conversation. He calls this set of rulesthe cooperative principle (CP) elaborated in four sub-principles(maxims), that is the cooperative principle.⏹The Cooperative Principle◆Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage atwhich it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talkexchange in which you are engaged. The maxims are:●Quantity⏹Make your contribution as informative as is required (for thecurrent purposes of the exchange).⏹Do not make your contribution more informative than isrequired.●Quality – Try to make your contribution one that is true.⏹Do not say what you believe to be false.⏹Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.●Relation – Be relevant.●Manner – Be perspicuous.⏹Avoid obscurity of expression.⏹Avoid ambiguity.⏹Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).⏹Be orderly.◆We assume that people are normally going to provide an appropriateamount of information, i.e. they are telling the relevant truth clearly. Thecooperative principle given by Grice is an idealized case ofcommunication.Chapter 11 Second Language Acquisition (SLA)●What is SLA?The term language acquisition refers to t he natural process of children’s language development.To summarize, second language acquisition(SLA) may be defined as the process by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural setting or ina classroom.◆Contrastive analysis●Compare the target language with the mother tongue.◆Error analysis●Describing errors⏹Omission-He came into _ classroom with a book in _ hand.⏹Addition/wordy-My child goes to his school.⏹Selection-I hope/wish…⏹Disordering-I yesterday went to … (I, yesterday, went to …/I went to …yesterday)Chapter 12 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching (FLT)⏹Syllabus design and material development。
新编简明英语语言学 第一章
What is linguistics?
---It is a scientific study because it is based on the systemetic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.
> Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians tended to emphasize the importance of the written word.
---Hall, 1968
语言是“人类利用约定俗成的任意性视听符号借以相互交流和影响的习惯体 系”。
---霍尔 ， 1968
What is language?
From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.
synchronic and diachronic
>The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.
对历史上某一时间点的语言状况 所作的研究是共时研究
>The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论(现代语言学).
Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论1. What is linguistics? 什么是语言学?1.1 definition 定义Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.语言学是对语言进行科学研究的学科。
Languages in general 针对所有语言而言A scientific study of language is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.语言进行科学地研究最根本的是要对语言材料进行系统的调查研究,并在语言结构的一般理论指导下进行。
The linguist has to do first is to study language facts, i.e. to see how language is actually used; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure.语言学家首先必须研究语言材料,即要观察一般情况下语言的使用方法,继而对语言的结构具体地提出一些假设。
A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.一套语言学理论是说明语言的本质内容以及这些语言是如何发挥作用的。
1.2 The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.把语言学作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
新编简明英语语言学教程笔记
Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
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•
Functions of Language
• 社会功能
信息传递 人际互动
• 思维功能
思维的形式、过程、生理机制和语言密切相关。 概念 判断、推理 大脑 “赤裸裸”的思维不存在 语言助人达成对外界的认知，储存认知成果，发展认知能力
语言符号的意义在指称心理现实的同时，也反映 人所观察到的客观世界。
the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication (P. 8)
Design Features of Language
• • • • • Arbitrariness Productivity/Creativity Duality Displacement Cultural transmission
“侬今葬花人笑痴 他年葬侬知是谁”
Why we communicate?
Communication交际
不仅指人与人的思想交流，也包括感情交流等，包括交际 者通过语言相互影响
思想交流？感情交流？一定是在相互影响
!
Design Features
Design features of language语言识别特征
Productivity/Creativity创造性
Unique to human languages, it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (P. 9) language users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before. 语言使用者可建构并理解无限多的句子，这些句子之前可 能闻所未闻。 e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world.
Bee Dance
Cultural Transmission文化传递
We are born with the ability to aquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but have to be taught and learned. (P. 10) 正常人生来有习得语言的能力，此由基因遗传，但并不等 于人生来能用语言，包括母语体系的任何语言必须通过学 习才能习得。
Duality双重性
A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (we make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language.(P. 9) 低层次或基础层次上数量有限的语言可以各种方式在高层 次上组成无限多的意义单位。 3 v.s. 3³ 1&0
gene & culture
?
Functions
Functions of Language
• Descriptive/ cognitive/ referential/ propositional function: conveying factual information. • Expressive/ emotive/ attitudinal function: supplying information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. Social/ interpersonal function: establishing and maintaining social relations between people.
பைடு நூலகம்
语言系统分为音系和语法两层面，两层面上都有最小单 位和最小单位组成大单位的多层组织结构，即语言系统 两层性。
有意义 语法/符号层： 语素（几千）→词（百十万） →词组/短语→短句/小句→句子 （无数） ↑
↑
↑
无意义 音系/语音形式：音位（几十）→音节（数量？）→音步…语调段
语言间差异的原点? 表意翻番增量的节点？
Why infinite sentences with finite words with limited sounds?
Duality双层性
Language is a system consisting of two sets of structures/levels. Lower level — sounds (meaningless) 音系层 Higher level — meaning (larger units of meaning) 语法层
“观音”曾叫“观世音”
Vocal有声
the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form (P. 8) 本质上是个有声体系
Human-specific"人类的"
基础 认知 感觉器官↓ ↑认知水平提高 反映 脑神经↓ ↑ 心理现实 编码 离散化分类概括 ↓ ↑表达对象 指称 义（概念范畴） 语言符号 ↓（社会）约定 一般性 音（语音形式） ↑
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客观现实
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音响（物质材料 ）特殊性
In the beginning was the word. —John 1:1
Arbitrariness任意性
According to Saussure, there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (P. 8) 意义与表示意义的语音间不存在逻辑关系 “水”和“窝头” /ris/ to /rais/
different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries (P. 8) 语言是人类的特有属性 正如伯兰特·罗素（Bertrand Russell）曾经说过的那样： “不管一只狗可以多么流利地吠叫，它无法告诉你它的父 母贫穷但又诚实。”
Why "language" without "a"
studies not any particular language but languages in general (P. 1) 揭示和研究所有人类语言的共同特征和规律
How "Scientific"
based on the systematic investigation of linguistic date, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. (P. 1) • observe and collect language facts收集语料 • fomulates some hypotheses提出假设 • check repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity用更多语料 检验
?
Similar brains, Different languages
What is Linguistics? • Definition • Scope • Development • Important Disctinctions
?
What is Linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of language. (P. 1) A person who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.
Why "pen" or "笔" then?
Symbolic符号/象征
words are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention（P. 8), 符号意义约定俗称 “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet” — Shakespeare
Displacement移位性/不受时空限制
Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from immedite situation. (P. 9) 用语言谈论超越说话人所处语境的任何人或物或事，语言 使用不受时空限制。