语言学第一章整理
语言学概论(第一章)
比语言来得更好。言为心声，语言的表达效果离不开使用者、使 用环境等。
二、语言的思维功能
语言和思维的关系 1.什么是思维
形象思维---抽象思维 苹果的例子
2.其他学科对思维的研究
无论是传统的哲学、逻辑学对思维的研究，还是现代科学对思维 的探索，语言都始终是不可或缺的要素。
语言是思维活动的动因和载体，是思维成果的贮存所。语言和思 维密不可分，语言的思维功能是语言的基本属性。
汉语：红、橙、黄、绿、青、蓝、紫 英语：purple, blue, green, yellow, orange, red 汉语：伯父、叔父、姑父、姨夫；伯母、叔母、姑母、姨母 英语：uncle, aunt 汉语：一本书、三个人、两支笔 英语：one book, three p话语、实词句、成人句
3.儿童语言习得途径论
克拉申的输入假设、斯万的输出假设
4.儿童语言习得关键期论
支持关键期假说的研究、反对关键期假说的研究
二、语言的思维功能
关于聋哑人的语言和思维 1.聋哑人和常人一样，生活在人类社会中，有健全的大脑
和发音器官，他们的大脑也分左右两半球，各有各的分工。 2.大脑是人的一切活动的司令部，人的各种感觉器官由它统
语言学概论
An Introduction to Linguistics
第一章 语言的功能
第一章 语言的功能
每一语言里都包含着一种独特的世界观。 ---洪堡特
一、语言的社会功能
语言的信息传递功能 1.人类社会中语言信息传递的作用
维系社会成员之间的联系 分工协作 彼此分享经验感受 文化传承
2.人类社会信息传递的其他方式及其与语言的关联
2.儿童语言习得和思维发展的关系
语言学概论(第一章：语言的社会功能)
2、语言与思维的关系
（1）语言与思维“等同说”
“等同说”认为，语言与思维是合而为一、 不可分离的，即没有语言的思维和没有思 维的语言都是不存在的。
“等同说”最早可以追溯到柏拉图
（plato）。他认为，思维如同一种会话， 当心在思考的时候，它就是对自己说话，
判断就如讲出来的陈述，是无声的、只对
自己发出而已。
（2）语言与思维“分离说”
“分离说”认为语言和思维是分离的，思维可独 立于语言之外。
思想独立于语言的理论是以瑞士心理学家皮亚杰
（Piaget）为代表的日内瓦学派在20世纪60年代
确立了发生认识论以后提出的。皮亚杰认为，语
言在动作内化为表象和思维方面确实起着主要作
用，但它不是唯一的，起作用的还有图画、造型、
语言学实际研究语言行为中所潜藏的形式 系统，因此，语言学的对象是语言，而不 是言语。
索绪尔严格区分语言和言语的目的就是为
了纯化语言学的研究对象。他认为：语言
科学必须要在没有言语要素掺杂在里面的
情况下才能够建立起来。而区分语言和言
语，正可以把一切跟语言的组织、语言的
系统无关的东西排除出去，把一些“个人
碎了→杯子被我打碎了。
小猫撞翻了花盆→花盆撞翻了→小猫把花 盆撞翻了→花盆被小猫撞翻了。
中国人民打败了日本帝国主义→日本帝国 主义打败了→中国人民把日本帝国主义打 败了→日本帝国主义被中国人民打败了。 9
语言是人类最重要的交际工具
语言是说话和表达思想、交流思想的工具， 而说话是运用语言进行思想交流的行为， 说出来的话则是人们运用语言工具生产出 来的“产品”。
语言和言语活动不能混为一谈，语言只是言 语活动的一个确定的部分，而且当然是一个 主要的部分。它既是言语机能的社会产物， 又是社会集团为了使个人有可能行使这机能 所采用的一整套必不可少的规约。整个来看， 言语活动的研究就包含着两部分：语言、言 语。
英语语言学知识整理1
Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences →semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning→pragmatics（语用学）→ the context of language use Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure ——Course in General Linguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求现象变化的, 历时的) one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. And linguists’data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language（7个识别特征）①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能M.A.K. Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization andabstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （语音学）①the study of the phonic medium of language②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves →acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat② the oral cavity→the mouth③ the nasal cavity→the nose⒉The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocalcords⒊the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription（宽式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription（严式标音）→the transcription withletter-symbols together withthe diacriticsClassification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms ofmanner ofarticulationIn terms of place of articulation③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⑤Classification of English vowels⒈criteria :（monophthongs）单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back The openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-closevowels/semi-openvowels/open vowels The shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedThe length of the vowels: tense/lax⒉diphthongs 双元音/ ei // ai // au // əu // ɔi // iə //εə// uə /Phonology 音韵学，语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in allhuman languages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a languageform patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast（音位对立）Complementary distribution（音位变体的互补分布）Minimal pairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set（最小对立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l // r // w /②assimilation rule:同化规则③deletion rule：省略规则Suprasegmental features 超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）①stress（单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。
语言学概论第一章
第一章语言学的一个分野，日本语学。
1-1-1 现代言语学和索绪尔语言是以表现想法和感情，传达意志为机能的记号的体系。
言语学是一门把语言作为对象的学问。
现代上制作言语学的基础是瑞士的语言学家，索绪尔。
索绪尔的理论死后呗发行的^一般言语学讲义^而被世人所知。
这里概述了讲义中的最重要的三点。
1，言语记号的恣意性和社会性。
日本语中被称作《いぬ》的生物，在英语里称作《dog》。
中文称作《狗》。
这些叫法，本来的称呼方法和本来的概念没有必然的关系的词语来表示。
例如，现在《いぬ》这样的生物，叫做《ねこ》也没有关系。
就像这样，人类的语言记号，和名字之间没有必然的联系，一般上，言语记号是表现物体音声的侧面，和和只是对象，两者间完全没有必然的联系。
这样的理论就被称为索绪尔的恣意性。
但是可以保证各种语言的不同。
而且，也可以看到语言的的恣意性切断了外界的样子。
例如，在日语中，一个母亲生下的男孩们＜あに＞和《弟》被区别，（也就是说，これは私の兄｜弟です。
即使这样说，也不能说これは私の兄弟です。
）英语两者都叫做brother.（所以，this is my brother 这样的叫法是可以的。
）言语的恣意性是用语言第一次起名字时的性质。
一旦被取了名字，个人就不能改变了。
例如，讨厌《いぬ》这样的称呼虽然把称作《いぬ》这样的生物称作《ねこ》也不通，别人无法理解。
所以，语言记号一旦决定了称呼方法，个人是不能改变的，这就是语言的社会性。
2，ラングとパロール《かかと踵》发这样的音的时候，<kakato>的ka1是呼出气息的ka2却是几乎不发出气息的。
同样的音在title里面的两个音也可以这样说。
这样的情况，两个k音，t音物理上不一样，以日语为母语的人和以英语为母语的人却把这两个音认识为同一种音。
像这样的，母语话的人对于语言有着抽象的认识，各种各样包含变异的实际的音声，按照那种知识来认识。
索绪尔把这种抽象的知识（上面举得例子，无视k,t在物理上性质的不同，称作音素。
语言学概论 第一章
二、其他观点
• • • • •
2．资源论： 认为语言是一种资源。 《现代汉语词典》 《现代汉语规范词典》 对外汉语 英语 3．问题论： 把语言看成是一种问题 出发点就是要解决问题，这个国家有语言问题，就要解决语 言问题。在此基础上就有语言规划或计划问题。这出来后就被民 族主义者与政治家利用了。 • 4．权利论： 即天赋人权，天赋语1．载体论： • 认为语言是文化的载体、信息的载体 • （1）文化是人类社会知识的总和，是人类理解和叙述事物的模 式。 • 从外延上看，文化可以分为物质文化、智能文化、制度文化和 精神文化四种类型。 • （2）语言是文化的载体 • A 语言是文化的一部分。 • B 语言反映文化，或者说语言具有文化镜像功能。 • a 语言对文化的反映首先表现在言语作品的内容上。 • b 语言系统本身也记录和反映人类文化的面貌。 • c 通过语言还可以揭示没有被语言作品记录下来的文化。 • C 语言传承文化。
三、语言是一种特殊的社会现象
• 1．语言是一种社会现象 • （1）语言是社会的产物。 • （2）语言不是自然现象，它与自然现象有根本的区别。一方面， 语言的产生、发展等都要受到社会的制约。另一方面，语言的音 义联系是由社会约定俗成的，。 • （3）语言不是个人现象，与个人现象有区别。 • 2 ．语言是一种特殊的社会现象 • 语言不是经济基础，也不是上层建筑。 • 经济基础是社会生产关系的总和，是社会发展一定阶段上的社会 经济制度。 • 上层建筑是社会上政治、法律、哲学等观点和相应的制度设施， 同一定历史时期的社会经济基础相适应，同人的生产行为没有直 接联系。
第一章 语言的社会功能
• • • • •
• • • • • • •
一、工具论 工具论认为,语言是人类最重要的交际工具 1．语言是人类的交际工具 2．语言是最重要的交际工具 3．语言是全民的交际工具。
语言学笔记第一章
I. INTRODUCTION1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1DefinitionLinguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.1.1.2 The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics: This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.Branches of linguistics:phonetics phonology morphology syntax semantics pragmatics Linguisticspsycholinguistics sociolinguistics applied linguistics1.1.3 Some important distinction in linguistics1) Prescriptive and descriptiveThey are two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “ correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.2) Synchronic and diachronicLanguage exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.In modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one.3) Speech and writingThey are the two major media of linguistic communication. Speech is prior to writingfor the following reasons:From the point of view of linguistic evolution, writing system os any language is always "invented" by its users to record speech when the need arises.Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedSpeech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.4) Langue and paroleThe distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of he conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.5) Competence and performanceThe distinction between competence and performance was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.6) Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsThe beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F. de Saussure's book "Course in General Linguistics" in the early 20th century.a) Linguistics is descriptive, while traditional grammar is prescriptive.A linguistist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of "correctness".b) Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammar tended to emphasize the importance of the written word.c) Modern linguistics does not force language into a Latin-based framework. However, for a long time traditional grammar assumed that Latin provides a universal framework into which all languages fit.1.2 What is language1.2.1 Definition of language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. First, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term "human" in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific, i.e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, such as bird songs and bee dances.2.2 Design featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. The framework was proposed by an American linguist, Charles Hockett.1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary because there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. However, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entire arbitrary; certain words are motivated.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is the way they can produce and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in our native languages, including sentences that we have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.4) DisplacementHuman language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5) Cultural transmissionThe details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. Though the capacity for language in human beings has a genetic basis, the particular language a human being learns is a cultural fact, not a genetic one.1.2.3 Functions of language1. Language is used for communication2. Three main functionsA)Descriptive function(cognitive, referential, or propositional function)--- it is assumed to be the primary function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.B)Expressive function(emotive or attitudinal function) --- supplies information about the user's feelings, preferences, prejudices and values.C)Social function, also referred to as interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relation between people.3.Function models by structural linguist Roman JakobsonHe identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function.Addresser--- EmotiveThe addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication. Addressee--- ConativeThe addresser aims to influence the addressee's course of action or ways of thinking. Context --- ReferentialThe addresser conveys a message or information.Message --- PoeticThe addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself.Contact --- Phatic communicationThe addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationship with the addressee.Code --- MetalinguisticThe addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.4.Three macrofunctions by M. A. K. HallidayIn the early 1970s the British linguist Halliday found that child language performed seven basic functions and there is close correspondence language between form and function. But as a child grew into an adult the seven functions are gradually replaced by a more abstract, but also simpler system of functions. This system contains three macrofunctions.Ideational function is to organize the speaker or writer's experience of the real or imaginary world. It corresponds closely to the descriptive function discussed above, but it is broader because it also includes the expression of the speaker's attitude, evalution, his feelings and emotions.The interpersonal function is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationships between people. It expresses the speaker's role in the speech situation, his personal commitment and assessment of the social relationship between the addressee and himself.The textual function is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.。
语言学教程第一章总结
1115101044 李素萍Chapter1 Invitation to Linguistics1.1 Why Study Language?Language is such an integral part of our life and humanity that too much about it has been taken for granted.Language plays a central role in our lives as individuals and social beings.1.2 What Is Language?Language is the systematic, conventional use of sounds, signs or written symbols in a human society for communication and self-expression.(David Crystal, 1992)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(Ronald Wardhaugh)To give the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication. In short, language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.1.3 Design Features of LanguageArbitrarinessArbitrariness means that the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their sound and meaning. The dog barks wow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning. Arbitrariness at the syntactic level. language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization:Primary units …words‟ (meaningful) consist of secondary units …sounds‟ (meaningless).CreativityLanguage is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before. Information imparted by animals is severely limited and confined to a small set of messages, as birds, bees.Because of duality the human speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.Language is creative in another sense,that is, its potential to create endless sentences.DisplacementHuman languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Thus, we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole.In a word, intellectual benefits of displacement to us is that it makes possible for us to talk and think in abstract terms.1.4 Origin of LanguageThe”bow-wow”, the” po oh-pooh” and the” yo-he-yo” theory1.5 Functions of LanguageLinguists talk about the functions of language in an abstract sense, that is, not in terms of using language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet, praise and condemn people, etc.For Jakobson, language is above all for communication.While for many people, the purpose of communication is referential, for him (and the Prague school structuralists), reference is not the only, not even the primary goal of communication.In conjunction with speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contact, Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely:referential (to convey message and information), poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake), emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions), conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests), phatic (to establish communion with others)，metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.Informative function(ideational function)信息功能Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud.Language serves for the expression of content and give helps to determine our way of looking at things.Interpersonal Function人际功能By far the most important sociological use of language, and by which people establish and maintain their status in a society， e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant.It is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation.Performative Function施维功能Language canbe used to do things, to perform action.It is primarily to change the social status of persons and is usually quite formal and even ritualized. For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an. Emotive Function感情功能It is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.It is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress, e.g. God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Oh.It is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others.Phatic Communion寒暄功能It refers to the social interaction of language.We all use small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content. Ritual exchanges about health or weather such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day often state the obvious.Recreational Function娱乐功能The recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems so restrictive in purpose and supposedly so limited in usefulnessThe use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting.Metalingual Function元语言功能Our language can be used to talk about itself, for example, I can use the word book to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “book” itself.1.6 What Is Linguistics?Linguistics is usually defined as the scientific study of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language. Linguistics is a rich and exciting field.Linguistics has firmly established its place as a major branch of humanities and social sciences as well.1.7 Main Branches of LinguisticsPhonetics语音学Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.Phonology音系学Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.Morphology形态学Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning — morphemes and word-formation processes. Syntax 句法学Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences. Semantics语义学Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.Pragmatics语用学Pragmatics is the study of meaning in particular context. In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is internally structured.1.8 MacrolinguisticsOther disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, the science of law and artificial intelligence etc. are also preoccupied with language. Psycholinguistics心理语言学Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, for example, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition. Sociolinguistics社会语言学Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community. Anthropological Linguistics人类语言学Anthropological linguists are interested primarily in the history and structureof formerly unwritten languages.Computational Linguistics计算语言学Computational linguistics centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language(also known as “natural language”, to distinguish it from computer languages).To this field, linguistics contributes an understanding of the special properties of language data, and provides theories and descriptions of language structure and use.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing)is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes throughtime is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, andit may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time whereinTHE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis,namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existedlong long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or thatthe speech sounds : individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, giveslanguage new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carriedthrough space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carriedthrough time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby,so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly,oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional(causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encouragerepeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech,different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for??“correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptivebecause many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammarswere based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should bedescribed in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy.These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. de Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualizedlanguage, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to thespeaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always anaturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a massof confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguistought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole,i. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make thanthe subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance? According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user‟s knowledgeof the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of thisknowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand anindefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker‟s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker‟s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of hisnative language.Chomsky‟s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as , thoughsimilar to , F. de Saussure‟s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product,and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a propertyof the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociologicalor sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issuespsychologically or psycholinguistically.。
语言学概论第一章
第一章:语言和语言学§1语言的客观存在形式1口语:语言的客观存在形式首先是有声的口头语言。
2书面语:文字出现以后,语的第二种客观存在形式。
3言语交际是一个编码和解码素:生活经历、社会环境、当前处理的问题、社会问化问题、哲学问题、逻辑问题。
人要接受语言所素:组织与分析的能力、心理、生理问题;发音、听音的器官和神经网络及机制和能力;复杂的生理和物理问题。
总之一句话,言语交际是通过许多因素对语言进行编码和解码的过程,言者编码,听者解码。
“码”即所谓的言语4书面语和口语的主要差别。
是那些口语所特有的面部表情、手势和体态,还有口气和语调用书面的文字语言来描述出来的成分,也就是书面语补上的某些省略以后影响理解的成分。
用二者的分析可以用公式理解:口语的基本语言成分=书面语的基本语言成分+用书面描写的口语非语言成分。
5书面语的产生具有重大的社会历史意义。
书面语克服了人和人之间进行交际、和交流思想感情在空间和时间方面的限制,极大地加快了人类社会经验和知识积累的速度和传播的范围,从而大大加快了社会发展的步伐。
6语言和种族的关系。
二者有必然的联系,根本原因是:语言能力和生理因素素有关,但是语言是一种社会现象,完全是在一定的语言环境中后天获得的,所以语言和种族没有必然联系。
7语言与各个领域的社会活动都有着密切的联系,在这种情况下,语言学必须明确自己的研究对象,才能成为一门现代化的,可以从各个不同的角度,根据不同的需要,去研究客观存在的语言的各个不同的方面。
门现代意义上的科学首先要有明确的研究对象,然后才有可能形成自己完整的理论体系和方法论体系,那样才能成为一门现代意义上的科果研究对象长期不确定确,或者研究对象太杂,范围太宽,研究就不可能深入,就不可能形成自己的理论体系和方法论体系。
8什么是语言的客观存在形式。
首先表现为人类社会中人与人之间的口头交际行们每个人从出生那一天起就始终生活在一定的社会群体中。
人类为了繁衍生息,为了共同进行劳动生产,为了保护个人和整个群体,就要相互合作,相互协调,这就需要互相传递信息,互相交流思想感情。
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Chapter one1.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. System means it is rule-governed; arbitrary means there is no logical relationship between language elements and their meaning; vocal means speech is primary; symbols related to arbitrariness, it means language elements are only the symbols for the meaning they express. Human, it means language is uniquely human; communication is the primary function of language.2.What are the design features of language, give their definitions and examples. Arbitrary: arbitrary is the core feature of language, which means that there is no logical relation between meanings and sounds. Arbitrary is a matter of degree, language is not entirely arbitrary, first, the onomatopoeia are words that sound like the sound they describe, to some extent, they have natural basis. Second, some compounds are not entirely arbitrary either, “snow” and“storm” are arbitrary words, but the compound word “snowstorm”is less so. Thirdly, some surnames, such as Longfellow, Johnson.Examples: a rose by other name would smell as sweetDuality: is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization .we call sounds secondary units as opposed to primary units as words, since the secondary are meaningless and the primary unit have distinct and identifiable meaning.Creativity: language users can understand and produce new sentences to express new meanings. By creativity, we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness. By duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never produced or heard before. Language is creativity in another sense, that is, itspotential to create endless sentences. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis of this possibility.Example: He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who……Displacement: means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present at the moment of communication.Examples : we can refer to Confucius and Bush at the moment of communication , but the former lived thousands of years ago and the latter live far away from us .3.Functions of the language and their examples⑴informative function: when language is used to express human experience and knowledge about the world. It is predominantly the major role of language.⑵interpersonal function is the most important sociological use of language by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. Language marks our identity, physically in terms of age, sex, and voiceprints; psychologically in terms of language, personality, and intelligence; geographically in terms of accents and dialects; ethnically and socially in terms of social stratification, class, status, role, solidarity, and distance.(3) Performative function: is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.(4) Emotive function: changes the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.(5) Phatic communion: occurs when language is used for pure interpersonal purposes, e.g. greetings, farewell, etc.(6) Recreational function: when language is used for the pure joy of using it, such as baby’s babbling and chanter’s chanting.(7) Metalingual function: when language is used to discuss itself. For example, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought.4. What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language.4.Main branches of the linguistics1)Phonetics: studies speech sounds, it is the description, classification, andtranscription of speech sounds. It includes articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and auditory phonetics.2)Phonology: the study of speech sounds as a system: the relations betweenspeech sounds, the way in which speech sounds are related to meaning, the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds. 3)Morphology: the internal structures of words. It studies the minimal units ofmeaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.4)Syntax: studies the internal structure of sentences5)Semantics: the study of meaning as encoded in language6)Pragmatics: the study of language use, meaning in context5. Macrolinguistics1) Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition. The psycholinguistics constraints on the form of grammar are studied. It also studies language development in the child, biological foundations of languages, and the relationship between language and cognition.2) Social linguistics: is an umbrella term, which covers a variety of different interest in language and society, including the social functions of language and the social characteristics of its users.3) Anthropological linguistics: anthropology and linguistics combined: the relationship between language and culture.4) Computational linguistics: the use of computers to process or produce human language: machine-translation, information retrieval, expert systems.6. Important distinction in linguistics1) Descriptive VS PrescriptiveThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. Describing language as it is used by its native speakers is descriptive; trying to lay down language rules for correct uses of language is prescriptive. To say linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them rules, or norms, of correctness.2) Synchronic VS diachronicStudying language as it is used at a particular point in time is synchronic study; studying language as it changes over time is a diachronic study.3) Langue Vs paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is the language system, which is social, essential, and stable while parole is the actual use of the language system, which is individual, accidental, and unstable.4) Competence VS performanceA language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence, and performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situation. (Chomsky)5) Syntagmatic VS paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic relations are relations between units present in the same sequence or construction, syntagmatically related elements form structures.Paradigmatic relations are relations between a unit and other units that can replace it in a given sequence. Paradigmatically related units form systems.how he can get to his destination. Then you tell him all that you know about the course, including which bus or subway he should take. This is the very process in which you use your experience and knowledge to help him. If you have no idea about his destination, you would say “Sorry, I can’t help you”. At this moment, he may buy a map of the city. This is the reason why map came into being. Map provides the detailed information including not only the complicated and crossing roads, but also the course of bus and subway. Map is an instrument by that peopleuse language to show their experience and knowledge. By analogy, there are also many other instruments for people to express content, such as books, papers, magazines and dictionaries and so on. These forms are utilized by human to record the facts of social development; conversely, the recorded facts is a prerequisite of social development. Having talked so much, I believe there are two important points to be captured. 一是，人这个主体通过使用语言将内容传递出去；另一个是语言通过报纸、杂志、书、字典等的外在形式把知识和经验传递出去。