托福阅读精选阅读真题长难句50句
托福长难句总结-TOEFL-reading
1.Wind velocity also increases with altitude and may cause serious stress for trees, as ismade evident by the deformed shapes at high altitudes.2.For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essentialto their well-being and abandoned them; nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness.3.if the pores are large, the water in them will exist as drops too heavy forsurface tension to hold, and it will drain away; but if the pores are small enough, the water in them will exist as thin films, too light to overcome the force of surface tension holding them in place; then the water will be firmly held.4.The extreme seriousness of desertification results from the vast areas ofland and the tremendous numbers of people affected, as well as from the great difficulty of reversing or even slowing the process.5.The structure of the backbone shows, however, that Ambulocetus swam likemodern whales by moving the rear portion of its body up and down, even thougha fluke was missing.6.He refused to develop projection technology, reasoning that if he made andsold projectors, then exhibitors would purchase only one machine-a projector-from him instead of several.7.In order for the structure to achieve the size and strength necessary tomeet its purpose, architecture employs methods of support that, because they are based on physical laws, have changed little since people first discovered them-even while building materials have changed dramatically.8.Estimates indicate that the aquifer contains enough water to fill Lake Huron,but unfortunately, under the semiarid climatic conditions that presently exist in the region, rates of addition to the aquifer are minimal, amounting to about half a centimeter a year.9.Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not alwaysassociated with maximum diversity.10.In addition to finding an increase of suitable browse, like huckleberry andvine maple, Arthur Einarsen, longtime game biologist in the Pacific Northwest, found quality of browse in the open areas to be substantially more nutritive.11.Perhaps, like many contemporary peoples, Upper Paleolithic men and womenbelieved that the drawing of a human image could cause death or injury, and if that were indeed their belief, it might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave art.12.Continued sedimentation—the process of deposits' settling on the seabottom—buries the organic matter and subjects it to higher temperatures and pressures, which convert the organic matter to oil and gas.13.This scenario begins with the planting of hyper accumulating species in thetarget area such as an abandoned mine or an irrigation pond contaminated by runoff.14.Contrary to the arguments of some that much of the Pacific was settled byPolynesians accidentally marooned after being lost and adrift, it seems reasonable that this feat was accomplished by deliberate colonization expeditions that set out fully stocked with food and domesticated plants and animals15.At one time, the animals present in these fossil beds were assigned to variousmodern animal groups, but most paleontologists now agree that all Tommotian fossils represent unique body forms that arose in the early Cambrian period and disappeared before the end of the period, leaving no descendants in modern animal groups.16.Only the last of these was suited at all to the continuous operating ofmachines, and although waterpower abounded in Lancashire and Scotland and ran grain mills as well as textile mills, it had one great disadvantage: streams flowed where nature intended them to, and water-driven factories had to be located on their banks, whether or not the location was desirablefor other reasons.17.But as more and more accumulations of strata were cataloged in more and moreplaces, it became clear that the sequences of rocks sometimes differed from region to region and that no rock type was ever going to become a reliable time marker throughout the world.18.Physiological immaturity may be part of why infants and toddlers do not formextremely enduring memories, even when they hear stories that promote such remembering in preschoolers.19.As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting, the Strait of Gibraltar,where the Mediterranean now connects to the Atlantic, opened, and water cascaded spectacularly back into the Mediterranean.20.Like the stones of a Roman wall which were held together both by theregularity of the design and by that peculiarly powerful Roman cement, so the various parts of the Roman realm were bonded into a massive, monolithic entity by physical, organizational, and psychological controls.21.Unlike in the Americas, where metallurgy was a very late and limiteddevelopment, Africans had iron from a relatively early date, developing ingenious furnaces to produce the high heat needed for production and to control the amount of air that reached the carbon and iron ore necessary for making iron.22.Many plants and animals disappear abruptly from the fossil record as onemoves from layers of rock documenting the end of the Cretaceous up into rocks representing the beginning of the Cenozoic (the era after the Mesozoic).23.But detractors maintain that the terraces could also have been created bygeological activity, perhaps related to the geologic forces that depressed the Northern Hemisphere far below the level of the south, in which case they have nothing whatever to do with Martian water.24.Fladmark’s hypothesis received additional support for m from the fact thatthe greatest diversity in native American languages occurs along the west coast of the Americas, suggesting that this region has been settled thelongest.25.There appear to be many unexplored matters about the motivation to reflect– for example, the value of externally motivated reflection as opposed to that of teachers who might reflect by habit.26.It is significant that the earliest living thing that built communities onthese islands are examples of symbiosis, a phenomenon that depends upon the close cooperation of two or more forms of life and a principle that is very important in island communities.27.The tradition of religious sculpture extends over most historical periodsbut is less clearly delineated than that of stonewares or porcelains, for it embraces the old custom of earthenware burial ceramics with later religious images and architectural ornament.28.Over long periods of time, substances whose physical and chemical propertieschange with the ambient climate at the time can be deposited in a systematic way to provide a continuous record of changes in those properties overtime, sometimes for hundreds or thousands of years.29.He then set up experiments with caged starlings and found that theirorientation was. in fact, in the proper migratory direction except when the sky was overcast, at which times there was no clear direction to their restless movements.30.Most engravings, for example, are best lit from the left, as befits the workof right-handed artists, who generally prefer to have the light source on the left so that the shadow of their hand does not fall on the tip of the engraving tool or brush.31.Though it may be difficult to imagine from a later perspective, a strainof critical opinion in the 1920 s predicted that sound film would be a technical novelty that would soon fade from sight, just as had many previous attempts, dating well back before the First World War, to link images with recorded sound.32.Certainly, rational appeals in advertising aimed at children are limited,as most advertisements use emotional and indirect appeals to psychological states or associations.33.The explanation is that the Maya excavated depressions, or modified naturaldepressions, and then plugged up leaks in the karst by plastering the bottoms of the depressions in order to create reservoirs, which collected rain from large plastered catchment basins and stored it for use in the dry season.34.Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies, but theyseem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities, and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of men, including, often, their military skills.35.Glaciers move slowly across the land with tremendous energy, carving intoeven the hardest rock formations and thereby reshaping the landscape as they engulf, push, drag, and finally deposit rock debris in places far from its original location.36.In a countercurrent exchange system, the blood vessels carrying cooled bloodfrom the flippers run close enough to the blood vessels carrying warm blood from the body to pick up some heat from the warmer blood vessels; thus, the heat is transferred from the outgoing to the ingoing vessels before it reaches the flipper itself.37.As among tribespeople, personal relationships and a careful weighing ofcharacter have always been crucial in a mercantile economy with little regulation, where one's word is one's bond and where informal ties of trust cement together an international trade network.38.Ramsay then studied a gas that was present in natural gas deposits anddiscovered that it was helium, an element whose presence in the Sun had been noted earlier in the spectrum of sunlight but that had not previously been known on Earth.39.The sheer scale of the investment it took to begin commercial expansion atsea reflects the immensity of the profits that such East-West trade could create.40.In the green-to-yellow lighting conditions of the lowest levels of the forest,yellow and green would be the brightest colors, but when an animal is signaling, these colors would not be very visible if the animal was sitting in an area with a yellowish or greenish background.41.The key factor in the success of these countries (along with high literacy,which contributed to it) was their ability to adapt to the international division of labor determined by the early industrializers and to stake out areas of specialization in international markets for which they were especially well suited.42.According to conventional theory, yawning takes place when people are boredor sleepy and serves the function of increasing alertness by reversing, through deeper breathing, the drop in blood oxygen levels that are caused by the shallow breathing that accompanies lack of sleep or boredom.43.In the wake of the Roman Empire's conquest of Britain in the first centuryA.D., a large number of troops stayed in the new province, and these troopshad a considerable impact on Britain with their camps, fortifications, and participation in the local economy.44.With "climax," "biome," "super organism," and various other technical termsfor the association of animals and plants at a given locality being criticized, the term "ecosystem" was more and more widely adopted for the whole system of associated organisms together with the physical factors of their environment.45.Meanwhile, the deadliest strains of the virus perished with their hosts asnatural selection favored strains that could infect hosts but not kill them.46.In the second case, pollinators obtain food from the flowering plant, andthe plant has its pollen distributed and seeds dispersed much more efficiently than they would be if they were carried by the wind only. 47.The sheer scale of the investment it took to begin commercial expansion atsea reflects the immensity of the profits that such East-West trade could create.48.The temperature increased dramatically in a short period of time (yearsrather than centuries), allowing for a growth of the hunting-gathering population due to the abundance of resources.49.Higher temperatures lead to the existence of increased to resources, thusenabling the hunting and gathering population to grow.50.Because the medium was so prolific, in the sense that it was possible toproduce a multitude of images very cheaply, it was soon treated as the poor relation of fine art, rather than its destined successor.51.When broken open, Allende stones are revealed to contain an assortment ofsmall, distinctive objects, spherical or irregular in shape and embedded in a dark gray matrix(binding material), which were once constituents of the solar nebula-the interstellar cloud of gas and dust out of which our solar system was formed.。
托福阅读长难句分析精选篇
托福阅读长难句分析精选篇为了让大家更好的预备托福考试，我给大家整理托福阅读长难句，下面我就和大家共享，来观赏一下吧。
托福阅读长难句1Successin colonization depends to a great extent on there being a site available for colonization ---- a safe site where disturbance by fire or by cutting down of trees has either removed competing species or reduced levels of competition and other negative interactions to a level at whichthe invading species can become established. (TPO32, 54)大家自己先读，不回读，看一遍是否能理解Success in colonization depends to a great extent on there being asite available for colonization ---- (a safe site) (where disturbance by fireor by cutting down of trees has either removed competing species or reduced levels of competition and other negative interactions to a level) (at which the invading species can become established.)(TPO32, 54)托福阅读长难句分析：这个句子的主干就是：Success in colonization depends (to a great extent) on there being a site (available for colonization)留意depend on被短语to a great extent(很大程度)隔开了，断句不要消失问题，后面还有一个放在后面的形容词短语(available for colonization)修饰a site修饰一：(a safe site) ，同位语，解说说明前面的a site中文：一个平安的地点修饰二：(where disturbance by fire or bycutting down of trees has either removed competing species or reduced levels of competition and other negative interactions to a level) ，从句这个从句有点简单：where disturbance (by fire or by cutting down of trees) has either removed competing species or reduced levels of competition and other negative interactions to a level(by fire or by cutting down oftrees)，介词修饰放在后面disturbance留意这里有一个并列结构，either oreither removed competing speciesor reduced levels of competition and other negative interactions to a level中文：在那里由于焚烧或伐木要么移除了竞争物种，要么减低了竞争水平和其它负面的物种间相互影响的水平修饰三：(at which the invading species can become established.) ，从句中文：入侵物种能够定居下来。
托福阅读长难句精选篇
托福阅读长难句精选篇为了让大家更好的预备托福考试，我给大家整理托福阅读长难句，下面我就和大家共享，来观赏一下吧。
托福阅读长难句1今日我们来看这样一个句子：这个句子看似不长，但有点抽象，看看大家能不能一遍或两遍就能看懂。
One of the most difficult aspects of deciding whether current climatic events reveal evidence of the impact of human activities is that it is hard to get a measureof what constitutes the natural variability of the climate. (TPO10, 38)我是分界线，大家先自己速读哦。
One of the most difficult aspects (of deciding)(whether current climatic events reveal evidence of the impact of human activities) is thatit is hard to get a measure of (what constitutes the natural variability ofthe climate).(TPO10, 38)老邪分析：这个句子的主干就是：One of the most difficult aspects is that修饰一：(of deciding) ，介词短语，修饰aspects中文：确定修饰二：(whether current climatic events reveal evidence of theimpact of human activities) ，宾语从句，中文：现在气候大事是否揭露了是人类活动影响的证据修饰三：(what constitutes the natural variability of the climate) ，宾语从句中文：什么组成了气候的自然可变性参考翻译：确定现在气候大事是否揭露了是人类活动影响的证据，其中最大困难之一在于很难去测量是什么组成了气候的自然可变性。
托福阅读长难句分析精选
托福阅读长难句分析精选托福阅读长难句1This abundance is notable in Roman settlements (especially urban sites) where the labor that archaeologists have to put into the washing and sorting of potsherds(fragments of pottery) constitutes a high proportion of the total work during the initial phases of excavation. (TPO29, 42)大家自己先读，不回读，看一遍是否能理解This abundance is notable in Roman settlements (especially urban sites) (where the labor (that archaeologists have to put into the washing and sorting of potsherds (fragments of pottery)) constitutes a high proportion of the total work during the initial phases ofexcavation).(TPO29, 42)托福阅读长难句100句分析：这个句子主干就是：This abundance is notable in Roman settlements这个句子理解的难点在于，where从句里中间有一个定语从句，把the labor 和constitute隔开了，大家注意这样一个问题。
这个问题只要能够理解，速读就不是问题了。
修饰一：(where the labor constitutes a high proportion of the total work during the initial phases of excavation)，从句中文：在这些地方劳动占了挖掘初期总工作量的很高的比例修饰二：(that archaeologists have to put into the washing and sorting of potsherds (fragments of pottery)) ，从句，修饰labor，难点就在于这个从句的理解，其实就是put the labor into the washing and storing of pots herds中文：考古学家花在清洗分类陶瓷碎片上的劳动托福阅读长难句100句参考翻译：这种丰富性在罗马居住点(尤其在城市)很明显，在这些地方考古学家花在清洗分类陶瓷碎片上的劳动占了挖掘初期总工作量的很高的比例。
托福阅读长难句精选
托福阅读长难句精选为了让大家更好的准备托福考试，给大家整理托福阅读长难句，下面就和大家分享，来欣赏一下吧。
托福阅读长难句1一般情况下，句子主语、宾语和句子中其他部分的名词可能因包含大量前置或后置定语成分而变得非常复杂，而整句的谓语动词，其前后最多有副词作修饰，所以相对容易判断。
我们一旦找到整句谓语动词，它的施动者-主语、受动者-谓语以及主干也自然容易进一步识别。
例句1：A desire to throw over reality a lightthat never was might give away abruptly to the desire on the part of what wemight consider a novelist-scientistto record exactly and concretely thestructure and texture of a flower.这个句子里出现的动词有throw, was, might give, mightconsider和record等。
首先，动词不定式不能作谓语，去掉throw和record;was 后不能紧跟情态动词，所以was和might give应属不同的句子，往前看我们发现that never was形成S+V格式，且紧跟着名词light后，再根据句意判断可知that never was 为a light的后置定语从句;稍作判断可知to throw over reality a light 为不定式做A desire的后置定语，此时吧它的不定式后置定语及alight的后置定语拿掉可得到简化结构：A desire might give awayabruptly to thedesire…。
Abruptly显然修饰动词短语give away。
至此我们得到a desire(S)+might giveaway(V)+thedesire(O), 经过这样的简化，整句主干已经得到;至于might consider, 明显和它前面的we组成S+V格式，这个从句跟在on the part of 后面做整句宾语thedesire的后置定语从句纵观整句，主语谓语后都跟了较长的定语成分，造成我们判断它们终结位置的困难。
精选400句托福阅读长难句
精选400句托福阅读长难句(OG & TPO)第一类1.The same thing happens to this day, though on a smaller scale, wherever a sediment-laden river or stream emerges from a mountain valley onto relatively flat land, dropping its load as the current slows: the water usually spreads out fanwise, depositing the sediment in the form of a smooth, fan-shaped slope.2.In lowland country almost any spot on the ground may overlie what was once the bed of a river that has since become buried by soil; if they are now below the water’s upper surface (the water table), the gravels and sands of the former riverbed, and its sandbars, will be saturated with groundwater.3.But note that porosity is not the same aspermeability, which measures the ease with which water can flow through a material; this depends on the sizes of the individual cavities and the crevices linking them.4.If the pores are large, the water in them will exist as drops too heavy for surface tension to hold, and it will drain away; but if the pores are small enough, the water in them will exist as thin films, too light to overcome the force of surface tension holding them in place; then the water will be firmly held.5.But the myths that have grown up around the rites may continue as part of the group’s oral tradition and may even come to be acted out under conditions divorced from these rites.6.Another, advanced in the twentieth century, suggests that humans have a gift for fantasy, through which they seek to reshape reality into more satisfying forms than those encountered in daily life.7.For example, one sign of this condition is theappearance of the comic vision, since comedy requires sufficient detachment to view some deviations from social norms as ridiculous rather than as serious threats to the welfare of the entire group.8.Timberline trees are normally evergreens, suggesting that these have some advantage over deciduous trees (those that lose their leaves) in the extreme environments of the upper timberline.9.This is particularly true for trees in the middle and upper latitudes, which tend to attain greater heights on ridges, whereas in the tropics the trees reach their greater heights in the valleys.10.As the snow is deeper and lasts longer in the valleys, trees tend to attain greater heights on the ridges, even though they are more exposed to high-velocity winds and poor, thin soils there.11.Wind velocity also increases with altitude and may cause serious stress for trees, as ismade evident by the deformed shapes at high altitudes.12.Some scientists have proposed that the presence of increasing levels of ultraviolet light with elevation may play a role, while browsing and grazing animals like the ibex may be another contributing factor.13.Probably the most important environmental factor is temperature, for if the growing season is too short and temperatures are too low, tree shoots and buds cannot mature sufficiently to survive the winter months.14.Immediately adjacent to the timberline, the tundra consists of a fairly complete cover of low-lying shrubs, herbs, and grasses, while higher up the number and diversity of species decrease until there is much bare ground with occasional mosses and lichens and some prostrate cushion plants.15.In order for the structure to achieve thesize and strength necessary to meet its purpose, architecture employs methods of support that, because they are based on physical laws, have changed little since people first discovered them-even while building materials have changed dramatically.16.Some of the world’s finest stone architecture can be seen in the ruins of the ancient Inca city of Machu Picchu high in the eastern Andes Mountains of Peru.17.It works in compression to divert the weight above it out to the sides, where the weight is borne by the vertical elements on either side of the arch.18.The Ogallala aquifer is a sandstone formation that underlies some 583,000 square kilometers of land extending from northwestern Texas to southern South Dakota.19.Unfortunately, the cost of water obtained through any of these schemes wouldincrease pumping costs at least tenfold, making the cost of irrigated agricultural products from the region uncompetitive on the national and international markets. 20.Whatever the final answer to the water crisis may be, it is evident that within the High Plains, irrigation water will never again be the abundant, inexpensive resource it was during the agricultural boom years of the mid-twentieth century.21.To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop.22.Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities.23.The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in thenorthwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans.24.Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the ―patchiness‖ of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform.25.Similarly, a plant or animal cannot squander all its energy on growing a big body if none would be left over for reproduction, for this is the surest way to extinction.26.At the other extreme are ―competitors,‖ almost all of whose resources are invested in building a huge body, with a bare minimum allocated to reproduction.27. A new plant will spring up wherever a seed falls on a suitable soil surface, but because they do not build big bodies, theycannot compete with other plants for space, water, or sunlight.28.These plants are termed opportunists because they rely on their seeds’ falling into settings where competing plants have been removed by natural processes, such as along an eroding riverbank, on landslips, or where a tree falls and creates a gap in the forest canopy.29.Human landscapes of lawns, fields, or flowerbeds provide settings with bare soil and a lack of competitors that are perfect habitats for colonization by opportunists. 30. A massive oak claims its ground for 200 years or more, outcompeting all other would-be canopy trees by casting a dense shade and drawing up any free water in the soil.31.It should be noted, however, that the pure opportunist or pure competitor is rare in nature, as most species fall between the extremes of a continuum, exhibiting a blendof some opportunistic and some competitive characteristics.32.Because some paintings were made directly over others, obliterating them, it is probable that a painting’s value ended with the migration it pictured.33.One Lascaux narrative picture, which shows a man with a birdlike head and a wounded animal, would seem to lend credence to this third opinion, but there is still much that remains unexplained.34.Perhaps so much time has passed that there will never be satisfactory answers to the cave images, but their mystique only adds to their importance.35.In 1994 there were nearly 20,000 wind turbines worldwide, most grouped in clusters called wind farms that collectively produced 3,000 megawatts of electricity. 36.Most were in Denmark (which got 3 percent of its electricity from wind turbines) and California (where 17,000 machinesproduced 1 percent of the state’s electricity, enough to meet the residential needs of a city as large as San Francisco).37.In the long run, electricity from large wind farms in remote areas might be used to make hydrogen gas from water during periods when there is less than peak demand for electricity.rge wind farms might also interfere with the flight patterns of migratory birds in certain areas, and they have killed large birds of prey (especially hawks, falcons, and eagles) that prefer to hunt along the same ridge lines that are ideal for wind turbines.39.David Douglas, Scottish botanical explorer of the 1830s，found a disturbing change in the animal life around the fort during the period between his first visit in 1825 and his final contact with the fort in 1832.40.The researchers Peter Ucko and Andree Rosenfeld identified three principal locationsof paintings in the caves of western Europe: (1) in obviously inhabited rock shelters and cave entrances; (2) in galleries immediately off the inhabited areas of caves; and (3) in the inner reaches of caves, whose difficulty of access has been interpreted by some as a sign that magical-religious activities were performed there.41.Perhaps, like many contemporary peoples, Upper Paleolithic men and women believed that the drawing of a human image could cause death or injury, and if that were indeed their belief, it might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave art.42.For example, wild cattle (bovines) and horses are portrayed more often than we would expect by chance, probably because they were larger and heavier (meatier) than other animals in the environment.43.Consistent with this idea, according to the investigators, is the fact that the art of thecultural period that followed the Upper Paleolithic also seems to reflect how people got their food.44.But in that period, when getting food no longer depended on hunting large game animals (because they were becoming extinct), the art ceased to focus on portrayals of animals.45.When the well reaches a pool, oil usually rises up the well because of its density difference with water beneath it or because of the pressure of expanding gas trapped above it.46.More than one-quarter of the world’s oil and almost one-fifth of the world’s natural gas come from offshore, even though offshore drilling is six to seven times more expensive than drilling on land.47.While there are a dozen or more mass extinctions in the geological record, the Cretaceous mass extinction has always intrigued paleontologists because it marksthe end of the age of the dinosaurs.48.The explosion lifted about 100 trillion tons of dust into the atmosphere, as can be determined by measuring the thickness of the sediment layer formed when this dust settled to the surface.49.Such a quantity of material would have blocked the sunlight completely from reaching the surface, plunging Earth into a period of cold and darkness that lasted at least several months.50.The explosion is also calculated to have produced vast quantities of nitric acid and melted rock that sprayed out over much of Earth, starting widespread fires that must have consumed most terrestrial forests and grassland.51.Following each mass extinction, there is a sudden evolutionary burst as new species develop to fill the ecological niches opened by the event.52.Earth is a target in a cosmic shootinggallery, subject to random violent events that were unsuspected a few decades ago.53.Early in the century, a pump had come into use in which expanding steam raised a piston in a cylinder，and atmospheric pressure brought it down again when the steam condensed inside the cylinder to forma vacuum．54.The final step came when steam was introduced into the cylinder to drive the piston backward as well as forward thereby increasing the speed of the engine and cutting its fuel consumption.55.Iron manufacturers which had starved for fuel while depending on charcoal also benefited from ever-increasing supplies of coal; blast furnaces with steam- powered bellows turned out more iron and steel for the new machinery.56.He received rudimentary village schooling but mostly he roamed his uncle's farm collecting the fossils that were so abundantin the rocks of the Cotswold hills．57.The companies building the canals to transport coal needed surveyors to help them find the coal deposits worth mining as well as to determine the best courses for the canals.58.In 1831 when Smith was finally recognized by the Geological Society of London a s the ―father of English geology‖, it was not only for his maps but also for something even more important．59.Maturation of the frontal lobes of the brain continues throughout early childhood, and this part of the brain may be critical for remembering particular episodes in ways that can be retrieved later.60.Demonstrations of infants’ and toddlers' long-term memory have involved their repeating motor activities that they had seen or done earlier，such as reaching in the dark for objects, putting a bottle in a d oll’s mouth, or pulling apart two pieces of a toy.61.Through hearing stories with a clear beginning，middle, and ending children may learn to extract the gist of events in ways that they will be able to describe many years later.62.The world looks very different to a person whose head is only two or three feet above the ground than to one whose head is five or six feet above it, 0lder children and adults often try to retrieve the names of things they saw, but infants would not have encoded the information verbally．63.General knowledge of categories of events such as a birthday party or a visit to the doctor's office helps older individuals encode their experiences, but again, infants and toddlers are unlikely to encode many experiences within such knowledge structures．64.Physiological immaturity may be part of why infants and toddlers do not form extremely enduring memories, even whenthey hear stories that promote such remembering in preschoolers.65.In 1947 Norwegian adventurer Thor Heyerdahl drifted on a balsa-log raft westward with the winds and currents across the Pacific from South America to prove his theory that Pacific islanders were Native Americans (also called American Indians).66.Contrary to the arguments of some that much of the pacific was settled by Polynesians accidentally marooned after being lost and adrift, it seems reasonable that this feat was accomplished by deliberate colonization expeditions that set out fully stocked with food and domesticated plants and animals.67.The undisputed pre-Columbian presence in Oceania of the sweet potato, which is a New World domesticate, has sometimes been used to support Heyerdahl’s ―American Indians in the Pacific‖ theories.68.As Patrick Kirch, an American anthropologist, points out, rather than being brought by rafting South Americans, sweet potatoes might just have easily been brought back by returning Polynesian navigators who could have reached the west coast of South America.69.Conditions that promote fossilization of soft-bodied animals include very rapid covering by sediments that create an environment that discourages decomposition.70.This 700-million-year-old formation gives few clues to the origins of modern animals, however, because paleontologists believe it represents an evolutionary experiment that failed.71.At one time, the animals present in these fossil beds were assigned to various modern animal groups, but most paleontologists now agree that all Tommotian fossils represent unique body forms that arose inthe early Cambrian period and disappeared before the end of the period, leaving no descendants in modern animal groups. 72.These fossil beds provide evidence of about 32 modern animal groups, plus about 20 other animal body forms that are so different from any modern animals that they cannot be assigned to any one of the modern groups.73.With question such as these clearly before them, the scientists aboard the Glomar Challenger processed to the Mediterranean to search for the answers.74.In all probability it was the fertile plain of Latium, where the Latins who founded Rome originated, that created the habits and skills of landed settlement, landed property, landed economy, landed administration, and a land-based society.75.Agriculture seems to have reached these people from the Near East, since the first domesticated crops were millets andsorghums whose origins are not African but west Asian.76.Most of Africa presents a curious case in which societies moved directly from a technology of stone to iron without passing through the intermediate stage of copper or bronze metallurgy, although some early copper-working sites have been found in West Africa.77.They spoke a language, prior-Bantu (―Bantu‖ means ―the people‖), which is the parent tongue of a language of a large number of Bantu languages still spoken throughout sub-Sahara Africa.78.Why and how these people spread out into central and southern Africa remains a mystery, but archaeologists believe that their iron weapons allowed them to conquer their hunting-gathering opponents, who still used stone implements.79.With Cuicuilco eliminated as a potential rival, any one of a number of relativelymodest towns might have emerged as a leading economic and political power in Central Mexico.80.The hard volcanic stone was a resource that had been in great demand for many years, at least since the rise of the Olmecs (a people who flourished between 1200 and 400 B.C.), and it apparently had a secure market.81.Moreover, recent research on obsidian tools found at Olmecs sites has shown that some of the obsidian obtained by the Olmecs originated near Teotihuacán.82.The growing power of the elite, who controlled the economy, would give them the means to physically coerce people to move to Teotihuacán and serve as additions to the labor force.83.By measuring how many of these meteorites fall to Earth over a given period of time, scientists can estimate how long it might have taken to deposit the observedamount of lr in the boundary clay.84.They bear a strong resemblance to river systems on Earth, and geologists think that they are dried-up beds of long-gone rivers that once carried rainfall on Mars from the mountains down into the valleys.85.Runoff channels on Mars speak of a time 4 billion years ago (the age of the Martian highlands), when the atmosphere was thicker, the surface warmer, and liquid water widespread.86.The onrushing water arising from these flash floods likely also formed the odd teardrop-shaped ―islands‖ (resembling the miniature versions seen in the wet sand of our beaches at low tide) that have been found on the plains close to the ends of the outflow channels.87.Judging from the width and depth of the channels, the flow rates must have been truly enormous―perhaps as much as a hundred times greater than the 105 tonsper second carried by the great Amazon river.88. A computer-generated view of the Martian north polar region shows the extent of what may have been an ancient ocean covering much of the northern lowlands. 89.Proponents point to features such as the terraced ―beaches‖ shown in one image, which could conceivably have been left behind as a lake or ocean evaporated and the shoreline receded.90.But detractors maintain that the terraces could also have been created by geological activity, perhaps related to the geologic forces that depressed the Northern Hemisphere far below the level of the south, in which case they have nothing whatever to do with Martian water.91.It has long been accepted that the Americas were colonized by a migration of peoples from Asia, slowly traveling across a land bridge called Beringia (now the BeringStrait between northeastern Asia and Alaska) during the last Ice Age.92.The first water craft theory about the migration was that around 11,000-12,000 years ago there was an ice-free corridor stretching from eastern Beringia to the areas of North America south of the great northern glaciers.93.But belief in this ice-free corridor began to crumble when paleoecologist Glen MacDonald demonstrated that some of the most important radiocarbon dates used to support the existence of an ice-free corridor were incorrect.94.He theorized that with the use of watercraft, people gradually colonized unglaciated refuges and areas along the continental shelf exposed by the lower sea level.95.Fladmark's hypothesis received additional support from the fact that the greatest diversity in Native Americanlanguages occurs along the west coast of the Americans, suggesting that this region has been settled the longest.96.Vast areas along the coast may have been deglaciated beginning around 16,000 years ago, possibly providing a coastal corridor for the movement of plants, animals, and humans sometime between 13,000 and 14,000 years ago.97.The coastal hypothesis has gained increasing support in recent years because the remains of large land animals, such as caribou and brown bears, have been found in southeastern Alaska dating between 10,000 and 12,500 years ago.98.Fladmark and others believe that the first human colonization of America occurred by boat along the Northwest Coast during the very late Ice Age, possibly as early as 14,000 years ago.99.The most recent geologic evidence indicates that it may have been possible forpeople to colonize ice-free regions along the continental shelf that were still exposed by the lower sea level between 13,000 and 14,000 ago.100.T hey were concerned that many would be drawn to these new, refreshing conceptions of teaching only to find that the void between the abstractions and the realities of teacher reflection is too great to bridge. 101.F urther observation revealed the tendency of teachers to evaluate events rather than review the contributory factors in a considered manner by, in effect, standing outside the situation.102.T he researchers estimate that the initial training of the same teachers to view events objectively took between 20 and 30 hours, with the same number of hours again being required to practice the skills of reflection. 103.T he teachers in the program described how they found it difficult to put aside the immediate demands of others in order togive themselves the time they needed to develop their reflective skills.104.S upport and encouragement were also required to help teachers in the program cope with aspects of their professional life with which they were not comfortable. 105.T he fungi absorb moisture and mineral salts from the rocks, passing these on in waste products that nourish algae.106.L ichens helped to speed the decomposition of the hard rock surfaces, preparing a soft bed of soil that was abundantly supplied with minerals that had been carried in the molten rock from the bowels of Earth.107.By means of these seeds, plants spread more widely to new locations, even to isolated islands like the Hawaiian archipelago, which lies more than 2,000 miles west of California and 3,500 miles east of Japan.108.A lthough we now tend to refer to thevarious crafts according to the materials used to construct them-clay, glass, wood, fiber, and metal-it was once common to think of crafts in terms of function, which led to their being known as the "applied arts." 109.Since the laws of physics, not some arbitrary decision, have determined the general form of applied-art objects, they follow basic patterns, so much so that functional forms can vary only within certain limits.110.T hat this device was a necessary structural compromise is clear from the fact that the cannonball quickly disappeared when sculptors learned how to strengthen the internal structure of a statue with iron braces (iron being much stronger than bronze).111.E ven though the fine arts in the twentieth century often treat materials in new ways, the basic difference in attitude of artists in relation to their materials in the fine artsand the applied arts remains relatively constant.112.P akicetus was found embedded in rocks formed from river deposits that were 52 million years old.113.T he structure of the backbone shows, however, that Ambulocetus swam like modern whales by moving the rear portion of its body up and down, even though a fluke was missing.114.T he impact of raindrops on the loose soil tends to transfer fine clay particles into the tiniest soil spaces, sealing them and producing a surface that allows very little water penetration.115.T he gradual drying of the soil caused by its diminished ability to absorb water results in the further loss of vegetation, so that a cycle of progressive surface deterioration is established.116.D uring the dry periods that are common phenomena along the desert margins,though, the pressure on the land is often far in excess of its diminished capacity, and desertification results.117.T he increased pressures of expanding populations have led to the removal of woody plants so that many cities and towns are surrounded by large areas completely lacking in trees and shrubs.118.T he increasing use of dried animal waste as a substitute fuel has also hurt the soil because this valuable soil conditioner and source of plant nutrients is no longer being returned to the land.119.I n areas where considerable soil still remains, though, a rigorously enforced program of land protection and cover-crop planting may make it possible to reverse the present deterioration of the surface.120.T he cinema did not emerge as a form of mass consumption until its technology evolved from the initial "peepshow" format to the point where images were projectedon a screen in a darkened theater.121.I t was designed for use in Kinetoscope parlors, or arcades, which contained only a few individual machines and permitted only one customer to view a short, 50-foot film at any one time.122.I n the phonograph parlors, customers listened to recordings through individual ear tubes, moving from one machine to the next to hear different recorded speeches or pieces of music.123.H e refused to develop projection technology, reasoning that if he made and sold projectors, then exhibitors would purchase only one machine-a projector-from him instead of several. 124.B ut the movies differed significantly from these other forms of entertainment, which depended on either live performance or (in the case of the slide-and-lantern shows) the active involvement of a master of ceremonies who assembled the finalprogram.125.A lthough early exhibitors regularly accompanied movies with live acts, the substance of the movies themselves is mass-produced, prerecorded material that can easily be reproduced by theaters with little or no active participation by the exhibitor.126.E ven though early exhibitors shaped their film programs by mixing films and other entertainments together in whichever way they thought would be most attractive to audiences or by accompanying them with lectures, their creative control remained limited.127.W ith the advent of projection, the viewer's relationship with the image was no longer private, as it had been with earlier peepshow devices such as the Kinetoscope and the Mutoscope, which was a similar machine that reproduced motion by means of successive images on individualphotographic cards instead of on strips of celluloid.128.A t the same time, the image that the spectator looked at expanded from the minuscule peepshow dimensions of 1 or 2 inches (in height) to the life-size proportions of 6 or 9 feet.129.T hose individuals who possess characteristics that provide them with an advantage in the struggle for existence are more likely to survive and contribute their genes to the next generation.130.B ecause aggressive individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce, whatever genes are linked to aggressive behavior are more likely to be transmitted to subsequent generations.131.C hildren normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demands immediately.。
托福阅读长难句
1.Totally without light and subjected to intense pressures hundreds of times greater than at the Earth’s surface，the deep—ocean bottom is a hostile environment to humans，in some ways as forbidding and remote as the void of outer space．2.Basic to any understanding of Canada in the 20 years after the Second World War is the country's impressive population growth3.As a result，claims that eating a diet consisting entirely of organically grown foods prevents or cures disease or provides other benefits to health have become widely publicized and form the basis for folklore．4.There are numerous unsubstantiated reports that natural vitamins are superior to synthetic ones，that fertilized eggs are nutritionally superior to unfertilized eggs，that untreated grains are better than fumigated grains and the like．5·The desperate plight of the South has eclipsed the fact that reconstruction had to be undertaken also in the North，though less spectacularly．6·The new accessibility of land around the periphery of almost every major city sparked an explosion of real estate development and fueled what we now know as urban sprawl．7.But these factors do not account for the interesting question of how there came to be such a concentration of pregnant ichthyosaurs in a particular place very close to their time of giving birth．8. Amid rumors that there were prehistoric mammoths wandering around the unknown region and that somewhere in its wilds was a mountain of rock salt 80 by 45 miles in extent，the two captains set out．9. In the seventeenth century the organ, the clavichord，and the harpsichord became the chief instruments of the keyboard group，a supremacy they maintained until the piano supplanted them at the end of the eighteenth century．10．A series of mechanical improvements continuing well into the nineteenth century, including the introduction of pedals to sustain tone or to soften it, the perfection of a metal frame and steel wire of the finest quality，finally produced an instrument capable of myriad tonal effects from the most delicate harmonies to an almost orchestral fullness of sound，from a liquid，singing tone to a sharp, percussive brilliance．11．The largest later named Pueblo Bonito(Pretty Town)by the Spanish, rose in five terraced stories，contained more than 800 rooms，and could have housed a population of 1，000 or more．12．Accustomed though we are to speaking of the films made before 1927 as “silent”，the film has never been，in the full sense of the word, silent．13.For a number of years the selection of music for each film program rested entirely in the hands of the conductor or leader of the orchestra，and very often the principal qualification far holding such a position was not skill or taste so much as the ownership of a large personal library of musical pieces．14·Coincident with concerns about the accelerating loss of species and habitats has been a growing appreciation of the importance of biological diversity，the number of species in a particular ecosystem，to the health of the Earth and human well-being．15.The fact that half of the known species are thought to inhabit the world's rain forests does not seem surprising，considering the huge numbers of insects that comprise the bulk of the species．16.To appreciate fully the diversity and abundance of life in the sea，it helps to think small．17.Science is built with facts just as a house is built with bricks，but a collection of facts cannot be called science any more thana pile of bricks can be called a house．18.The variation between the hemispheres corresponds to which side of the body is used to perform specific activities．19.In a period characterized by the abandonment of so much of the realistic tradition by authors such as John Barth，Donald Barthelme，and Thomas Pynchon, Joyce Carol Oates has seemed at times determinedly old-fashioned in her insistence OD the essentially mimetic quality of her fiction．20．If it were not for this faculty，they would devour all the food available in short time and would probably starve themselves out of existence．21．Individualism is weakly developed in folk cultures，as are social classes．22．People in the United States in the nineteenth century were haunted by the prospect that unprecedented change in the nation's economy would bring social chaos．23．Accompanying that growth was a structural change that featured increasing economic diversification and a gradual shift in the nation's labor force from agriculture to manufacturing and other nonagricultural pursuits．24．As the roles men and women played in society became more rigidly defined, so did the roles they played in the home．25.Surrounding the column are three sepals and three petals，sometimes easily recognizable as such，often distorted into gorgeous，weird，but always functional shapes．26．With the growing prosperity brought on by the Second World War and the economic boom that followed it，young people married and established households earlier and began to raise larger families than had their predecessors during the Depression．27．The railroad could be and was a despoiler of nature；furthermore，in its manifestation of speed and noise，it might be a despoiler of human nature as well．29．On the other hand，when it comes to substantive--particularly behavioral-information，crows are less well known than many comparably common species and，for that matter，not a few quite uncommon ones：the endangered California condor，to cite one obvious example．30．Keen observers and quick learners，they are astute about the intentions of other creatures，including researchers，and adept at avoiding them．31．These researchers have sought to demonstrate that their work can be a valuable tool not only of science but also of history，providing flesh insights into the daily lives of ordinary people whose existences might not otherwise be so well documented．32．Legend has it that sometime toward the end of the Civil War(1861--1865)a government train carrying oxen traveling through the northern plains of eastern Wyoming was caught in a snowstorm and had to be abandoned．33．It is a lifelong process，a process that starts long before the start of school and one that should be an integral part of one's entire life．(并列同位语a process that…，and one that…)教育是一个终生的过程，早在人们上学之前就开始了。
TOEFL托福阅读长难句
TOEFL托福阅读长难句为了让大家更好的预备托福考试，我给大家整理托福阅读长难句，下面我就和大家共享，来观赏一下吧。
托福阅读长难句1今日我们来看这样一个句子：The Independent Television Commission, regulator of television advertising in the United Kingdom, has criticized advertisers for misleadingness—creating a wrong impression either intentionally orunintentionally—in an effort to control advertisers use of techniquesthat make it difficult for children to judge the true size, action, performance, or construction of a toy. (TPO14, 52)我是分界线，大家先测试一遍速读是否理解The Independent Television Commission, (regulator of television advertising in the United Kingdom), has criticized advertisers for misleadingness(—creating a wrong impression either intentionally or unintentionally—)(in an effort)(to control advertisers use of techniques)(that make it difficult for children to judge the true size, action, performance, or construction of a toy.)托福阅读长难句100句分析：修饰一：(regulator of television advertising in the United Kingdom) ，同位语中文：英国电视广告的管理者修饰二：(—creating a wrong impression either intentionally orunintentionally—)，破折号和非谓语动词中文：他们有意或无意营造了一个错误的印象修饰三：(in an effort) ，介词短语中文：努力修饰四：(to control advertisers use oftechniques)，非谓语动词中文：掌握广告商对技术的使用修饰五：(that make it difficult forchildren to judge the true size, action, performance, or construction of a toy.) ，从句，修饰techniques中文：这些技术使孩子很难去推断玩具的真实大小、动作、性能以及构造托福阅读长难句100句参考翻译：英国电视广告的管理者即独立电视委员会批判广告商的“误导”(他们有意或无意营造了一个错误的印象)，他们努力掌握广告商对技术的使用，这些技术使孩子很难去推断玩具的真实大小、动作、性能以及构造。
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【托福阅读】精选阅读真题长难句50句1、 Later experiments in which researchers played recordings of songs to youngbirds showed just how precise this influence was, many of them would learnthe exact pattern of the recording they had heard.2、 The crude song of a bird reared in isolation gives some clues as to what thisrough idea may be the length, the frequency range and the breaking up intonotes are all aspects of chaffinch song shared between normal birds andthose reared in isolation.3、 Whatever the nature of the learning rules in a particular species, there is nodoubt that they are effective, it is very unusual to hear a wild bird singing asong which is not typical of its own species despite the many different songswhich often occur in a small patch of woodland.4、 Chemical analysis of bones enables archaeologists to determine theproportion of meat to vegetable foods in the diet by measuring the proportionof calcium to strontium in ancient bone because strontium in place of calciumin bones comes primarily from ingested plants.5、 Each dwelling had a different arrangement of the giant bones, which camefrom the skeletons of long-dead animals retrieved from the surrounding areaby occupants of the site, not from animals they had recently hunted.6、 In a precedent-setting decision, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commissionordered the dam removed after concluding that the environmental andeconomic benefits of a free-flowing river outweighed the electricity generatedby the dam.7、 Built nearly a century ago to provide power to lumber and paper mills in thetown of Port Angeles, these dams blocked access to upstream spawning bedsfor six species of salmon on what once was one of the most productivesalmon rivers in the world.8、 The Hetch Hetchy Dam in Yosemite National Park might be taken down toreveal what John Muir, the founder of the prestigious environmentalorganization Sierra Club, called a valley “just as beautiful and worthy ofpreservation as the maj estic Yosemite.”9、 A chance collision between two comets, or the gravitational influence of oneof the Jovian planets—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune—mayoccasionally alter the orbit of a comet in these regions enough to send it tothe inner solar system and into our view.10、 These comets appear to be distributed in all directions from the Sun, forminga spherical shell around the solar system, called the Oort cloud, after theDutch astronomer Jan Oort.11、 After the arrival of hunter-gatherers in the southwestern region of NorthAmerica, several alternative types of agriculture emerged, all involvingdifferent solutions to the Southwest’s fundamental problem: how to obtainenough water to grow crops in an environment in which rainfall is so low andunpredictable that little or no farming is practiced there today.12、 That fate actually befell the Mimbres, who started by farming the floodplainand then began to farm adjacent land above the floodplain as theirpopulation ca me to exceed the floodplain’s capacity to support it.13、 However, when drought conditions returned, that gamble left them with apopulation double what the floodplain could support, and Mimbres societycollapsed suddenly under the stress.14、 One more strategy was to plant crops at many sites even though rainfall waslocally unpredictable and then to harvest crops at whichever sites did getenough rain to produce a good harvest and to redistribute some of theharvest to the people still living at all the sites that did not happen to receiveenough rain that year.15、 Sanitation problems caused by larger, more sedentary populations wouldhave helped transmit diseases in human waste, as would the use of animaldung for fertilizer.16、 The increase in many of these came not only from the fact that fewer peoplewere dying from infectious disease and were living longer but also from theresults of modern lifestyles in developed countries and among the upperclasses of developing countries – a more sedentary life leading to lessphysical activity, more stress; environmental pollution, andhigh-fat diets.17、 This evolution may have been encouraged by what some authorities considerour overuse of antibiotics, giving microorganisms a greater chance to evolveresistance by exposing them to a constant barrage of selective challenges.18、 Therefore, on many reefs it is the fast-growing, branching corals thatultimately dominate at the upper, shallower portion of the reef, whereasmore massive forms dominate in deeper areas.19、 The fact that almost all small invertebrates on reefs are so well hidden orhighly camouflaged is another indicator of how prevalent predation is onreefs and its importance in determining reef structure.20、 Finally, they need reliable methods of storage because, where plant foodscannot provide a dietary safety net, planning has to be precise and detailedto ensure that there is enough to tide them over in periods of shortage.21、 Coins also provide a valuable source of written records: they can revealinformation about the location where they are found, which can provideevidence about trade practices there, and their inscriptions can beinformative about the issuing authority, whether they werecity-states (as inancient Greece) or sole rulers (as in Imperial Rome or in the kingdoms ofmedieval Europe).22、 The great risk with historical records is that they can impose their ownperspective so that they begin not only to supply the answers to ourquestions but subtly to determine the nature of those questions and even ourconcepts and terminology.23、 Not all botanists agree with an African-South American center for theevolution and dispersal of the angiosperms, pointing out that many of themost primitive forms of flowering plants are found in the South Pacific,including portions of Fiji, New Caledonia, New Guinea, eastern Australia, andthe Malay Archipelago.24、 To elaborate, before the eighth century, the elite marriage practice, whichwas an important instrument of political alliance making, had encouragedrulers to maintain multiple palaces: that of their own family and those of theirspouses, who commonly remained at or near their native family headquarters,at least for some years after marriage.25、 Nearly five billion years ago, some external influence, such asa shock wavetraveling from a catastrophic explosion (supernova), may have triggered thecollapse of this huge cloud of gases and minute grains of heavier elements,causing the cloud to begin to slowly contract due to the gravitationalinteractions among its particles.26、 Nearly five billion years ago, some external influence, such asa shock wavetraveling from a catastrophic explosion (supernova), may have triggered thecollapse of this huge cloud of gases and minute grains of heavier elements,causing the cloud to begin to slowly contract due to the gravitationalinteractions among its particles.27、 Steady overseas demand for colonial products created a prosperity thatenabled colonists to consume ever-larger amounts not only of clothing but ofdishware, home furnishings, tea, and a range of other items both produced inBritain and imported by British and colonial merchants from elsewhere.28、 Such materials as iron and nickel and the elements of which the rock-formingminerals are composed—silicon, calcium, sodium, and so forth—formedmetallic and rocky clumps that orbited the Sun.29、 This act was intended less to raise revenue than to serve as a protective tariff(tax) that would benefit British West Indian sugar producers at the expenseof their French rivals.30、 Parliament used British tax money to pay modest incentives to Americansproducing such items as silk, iron, dyes, hemp, and lumber, which Britainwould otherwise have had to import from other countries, and it raised theprice of commercial rivals’ imports by imposing protective tariffs on them.31、 The concept of chromatic adaptation was proposed in 1883; and thehypothesis was accepted for about 100 years, until it was realized that suchzonation did not necessarily occur and that the distribution of seaweedsdepended more on herbivory (the consumption of plant material),competition, varying concentration of the specialized pigments, and the abilityof seaweeds to alter their forms of growth.32、First, demand for news increased as Europe’s commercial and politicalinterests spread around the globe—merchants in London, Liverpool, orGlasgow, for example, came to depend on early news of Caribbean harvestsand gains and losses in colonial wars.33、 Industries with high concentrations of employment in urban areas, where aworker’s change of employer does not necessarily require investing in achange of residence, appear to have higher rates of job turnover thanindustries concentrated in nonmetropolitan areas do.34、 Some researchers, for example, have argued that a particular kind of pottery,called Ramey incised (which is incised with figures of eyes, fish, arrows, andabstract objects and was used by the people in the area of present-dayMissouri and Illinois at about A.D 900), was primarily used to distribute foodbut was also used to communi cate the idea that the society’s elite, for whomthe pots were made, were mediators of cosmic forces.35、 There are several limiting factors, but results from a recent experimentsuggest that in areas of the ocean where other nutrients are plentiful, ironmay be one of the most important and, until recently, unrecognized variablescontrolling phytoplankton production.36、 In 1894, C. Lloyd Morgan, an early comparative behaviorist, insisted thatanimal behavior be explained as simply as possible without reference toemotions or motivations since these could not be observed or measured.37、 Assuming that in the early 1770s at least half of the demand for grain fromfarmers with surpluses was satisfied through long-distance channels, theproportion of grain produced for consumption beyond the local marketprobably accounted for about a quarter of total grain production consumedby humans.38、Sea turtles’ eggs are laid at night to minimize the likelihood of their discoveryby predators, and the offspring, when ready to emerge from their eggshellsand dig their way out of the sand, hatch at night for the same reason.39、 In short, therefore, the site Memphis offered the rulers of the Early DynasticPeriod an ideal location for controlling internal trade within their realm, anessential requirement for a state-directed economy that depended on themovement of goods.40、 In particular, research has focused on determining why such an apparentlyinhospitable place as Chaco, which today is extremely arid and has very shortgrowing seasons, should have favored the concentration of labor that musthave been required for such massive construction projects over brief periodsof time.41、 In one case, seeds of the arctic lupine, a member of the pea family recoveredfrom ancient lemming burrows in the Arctic, germinated in three days eventhough they were carbon-dated at more than 10,000years old!42、 In fact, unpredictability is probably a greater problem than is the severity ofthe unfavorable period.43、 Similar reasoning suggested that one could estimate total elapsed geologictime by dividing the average thickness of sediment transported annually tothe oceans into the total thickness of sedimentary rock that had ever beendeposited in the past.44、 The process that marine creatures use to create light is like that of thecommon firefly and similar to that which creates the luminous green colorseen in plastic glow sticks, often used as children’s toys or for illuminationduring nighttime events.45、 But its appearance under a microscope is even more spectacular, the livingcopepod appears as if constructed of delicately handcrafted, multicoloredpieces of stained glass.46、 Cleared lands would more likely have been worked by hand tilling, with littledirect help from animals, and the vast forests natural to Northern Europeremained either untouched, or perhaps cleared in small sections by fire, andthe land probably used only so long as the ash-enriched soil yielded goodcrops and then abandoned for some other similarly cleared field.47、 Because nests at the edges of breeding colonies are more vulnerable topredators than those in the centers, the preference for advantageous centralsites promotes dense centralized packing of nests.48、 In discussing the growth of cities in the United States in the nineteenthcentury, one cannot really use the term “urban planning,” as it suggestsmodern concerns for spatial and service organization which, in most instances,did not exist before the planning revolution called the City BeautifulMovement that began in the 1890s.49、 There the limits that topography imposed on production have been tightenedby climate, with the result that agricultural output has been more modest andless reliable, making the risk of crop failure and hardship commensuratelygreater.50、 Because liquid water was present, self-replicating molecules of carbon,hydrogen, and oxygen developed life ear ly in Earth’s history and haveradically modified its surface, blanketing huge parts of the continents withgreenery.。