英语语言学概论METAFUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE4
英语语言学概论精选试题学生版
《英语语言学概论》精选试题11. Which of the following statements about language is NOT trueA. Language is a systemB. Language is symbolicC. Animals also have languageD. Language is arbitrary2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of languageA. SymbolicB. DualityC. ProductiveD. Arbitrary3. What is the most important function of languageA. InterpersonalB. PhaticC. InformativeD. Metalingual4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and ParoleA. SaussureB. ChomskyC. HallidayD. Anonymous5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his languageA. competenceB. paroleC. performanceD. langue6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it" is .A. informativeB. phaticC. directiveD. performative7. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies .A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechB. the perception of soundsC. the combination of soundsD. the production of sounds8. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in .A. the place of articulationB. the obstruction of airstreamC. the position of the tongueD. the shape of the lips9. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcriptionA. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. SemanticsD. Pragmatics10. Which studies the sound systems in a certain languageA. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. SemanticsD. Pragmatics11. Minimal pairs are used to .A. find the distinctive features of a languageB.find the phonemes of a languageC. compare two wordsD. find the allophones of language12. Usually, suprasegmental features include ___ ,length and pitch.A. phonemeB. speech soundsC. syllablesD. stress13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllableA. CodaB. OnsetC. StemD. Peak三、判断analyst collects samples of the language as it is used, not according to some views of how it should be used. This is called the prescriptive approach. Ftranscription is normally used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. F台州学院考试题1.Articulatory Phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds.2.English is a typical intonation language.3.Phones in complementary distribution should be assigned to the same phoneme.4.Linguistic c__________ is a native speaker’s linguistic knowledge of his language.1.The relationship between the sound and the meaning of a word is a________.2.P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.3.Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.1. Which of the following branch of linguistics takes the inner structure of word as its main object of studyA. Phonetics.B. Semantics.C. Morphology.D. Sociolinguistics.3. Which of the following is a voiceless bilabial stopA.[w].B. [m].C. [b].D. [p].6. What phonetic feature distinguishes the [p] in please and the [p] in speakB. AspirationC. RoundnessD. Nasality11. Conventionally a ________ is put in slashes.A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme13. Language is tool of communication. The symbol “highway closed” serves___.A. an expressive functionB. an informative functionC. a performative functionD. a persuasive function14. Which of the following groups of words is a minimal pairA. but/pubB. wet/whichC. cool/curlD. fail/find16. What are the dual structures of languageA. Sounds and letters.B. Sounds and meaning.C. Letters and meaning.D. Sounds and symbols.19. Which of the following is one of the core branches of linguisticsA. Phonology.B. Psycho-linguistics.C. Sociolinguistics.D. Anthropology.IV. Translate the following linguistic terms: (10 points, 1 point each)A. From English to ChineseB. From Chinese to English1. acoustic phonetics6. 應用語言學2. closed class words4. distinctive featuresVI. Answer the following questions briefly. (20 points)1. Define phoneme. (4 points)2. Explain complementary distribution with an example.(5 points)3. What are the four criteria for classifying English vowels. (4 points)问答答案1. A contrastive phonological segment whose phonetic realizations are predictable byrules. (4 points)(or: A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.)2. The situation in which phones never occur in the same phonetic environment.（4 points）. [p] and [p h] never occur in the same position. （1 point）3. the position of the tongue in the mouth(1 point), the openness of the mouth(1 point), the shape of the lips(1 point), and the length of the vowels. (1 point)Chapter 1 Introductions to LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. Community2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitraryA. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. Bang3. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is__________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. Performative4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it performA. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situationA. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language—A nice day, isn’t it— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________.A. cultural transmissionB. productivityC. displacementD. Duality9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10. __________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language. F13. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems.14. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages. F15. We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted. F16. Only human beings are able to communicate. F17. F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist. F18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic历时 study of language. F19. Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms. FIII. Fill in the blanks. (10%)21. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of __verbal________ communication.22. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed ___creativity_______.23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is __________.24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the ___yo-he-ho_______ theory.25. Linguistics is the __systematic________ study of language.26. Modern linguistics is __________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.27. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of __________ over writing.28. The description of a language as it changes through time is a __________ study.29. Saussure put forward two important concepts. __________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.30. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Design feature32. Displacement33. Competence34. Synchronic linguisticsV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature （南开大学，2004）35.Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which will be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, . words, which are distinct in meaning.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as __________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech soundsA. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulationA. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowelsA. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibratingA. VoicelessB. VoicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be either __________ or __________, while all vowel sounds are __________.23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.26. In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __________.27. In English there are a number of __________, which are producedby moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions. 28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation32. Suprasegmental feature33. Complementary distribution34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics（中国人民大学，2003）36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation（南开大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricative32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence.The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone.33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.V. 35.Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36. When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.。
英语语言学概论语言学ppt
Metafunctions of Language
M.A.K. Halliday
12英语2班 翁京京 马密密 王雅莛 唐晓雯 唐苑
A British-born Australian linguist who developed the internationally influential systemic functional linguistic model of language.
逻辑功能
The experiential function 经验功能
It refers to the grammatical choices that enable
speakers to make meanings about the world around us
and inside us. 经验功能指的是语言对人们在现实世界（包括内心世界） 中的各种经历的表达。换言之，就是反映客观世界中所 发生的事、所牵涉的人和物以及与之有关的时间、地点 等环境因素。
The logical function
逻辑功能
Halliday describes the logical function as those systems
“whichnships between o
ne clausal unite and another”
《英语语言学概论》配套习题(五)(问答题)
《英语语言学概论》配套习题（五）（问答题）Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics1.What are design features of language?2.What are the characteristics of human language?3.Explain the characteristic of arbitrariness. What are the relationship betweenarbitrariness and convention?4.What does productivity mean for language?5.What functions does language have?6.Explain the metalingual function of language.7.What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?8.What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies oflanguage?Chapter 2 Phonology1.What does phonetics concern?2.How do the three branches of phonetics contribute to the study of speech sounds?3.How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?4.In which two ways may consonants be classified?5.How do phoneticians classify vowels?6.To what extent does phonology differ from phonetics?7.What do minimal pair refer? Give an example to illustrate.8.What kind of phenomenon is complementary distribution?Chapter 3 Morphology1.What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?2.What is the difference between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?3.What is compounding?4.What are the criteria of a compound word?5.What is acronymy?6.What is blending?7.Decide which way of word formation is used to form the following words.comsatmotellasememonightmareASEANROMbitbabysitcock-a-doodle-dogrunt8.What are closed-class words and open-class words?Chapter4 Syntax1.What is syntax?2.What is a simple, compound, or complex sentence?3.What is the hierarchical structure?4.How to distinguish immediate constituents from ultimate constituents?5.What are subordinate and coordinate constructions?6.What are deep and surface structures?7.Can you describe the syntactic structure of the sentence “The old tree swayed inthe wind” by using a tree diagram?8.How to reveal the differences in sentential meaning in the sentence “The motherof the boy and the girl will arrive soon” by drawing tree diagrams?Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is a semantic field? Can you illustrate it?2.What are the major types of synonyms in English?3.In what way do the following pairs offer contrast?4.Categorize the following pairs: child-kid, alive-dead, big-small, husband-wife.5.What is hyponymy composed of? Illustrate whether there is always asuperordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate.6.How is meronymy different from hyponymy?7.Why may a sentence be ambiguous?8.What predication analysis? What is a no-place, one-place, two-place, orthree-place predicate? Give examples.Chapter 6 Pragmatics1.What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?2.How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?3.What is contextual meaning?4.Explain the meanings of locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary actthrough examples.5.What is cooperative principle(CP)?6.What is conversational implicature?7.How does the violation of the maxims of CP give rise to conversationalimplicature?8.What is adjacency pair?Chapter 8 Language and Society1.What is sociolinguistics?2.What is speech community?3.What is dialect?4.What is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?5.What is speech variety?6.What is standard language?7.What is pidgin?8.What is bilingualism?9.What is multilingualism?Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition1.What is psycholinguistics?2.What is bottom-up processing and what is top-down processing?3.What are the six major types of speech error? Give examples of each.4.What is the critical period for language acquisition?5.What is language acquisition and what is L2 language acquisition? What is learnerlanguage and what is target language?6.What is interlanguage(IL)?7.What are the different views on language transfer?8.What is the difference between input and intake?。
英语语言学概论Metafunctions of Language课件
英语语言学概论Metafunctions of Language
Ideational function（概念元功能）
• Ideational function comprises two components, the experiential function and the logical function.
英语语言学概论Metafunctions of Language
Thanks!
英语语言学概论Metafunctions of Language
• Textual function is represented through two categories of resources, structural resources which consist of thematic structure and thematic progression, and nonstructural resources which comprise all kinds of cohesive device.
“the speaker’s emotions,judgment and attitudes”.
英语语言学概论Metafunctions of Language
Textual function (语篇元功能)
• The textual function is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner to fit the particular situation in which they are used.
语言学概念第四版笔记
语言学教程第四版重点笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 Arbitrariness 任意性Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning2.arbitrariness at the syntactic level3.arbitrariness and convention 任意性与规约性1.3.2 Duality 二元性Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and writtendiscourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 Informative 信息功能The informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal function 人际功能The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 Performative 施为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriageceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive function 感情功能〔被打fuck 吃惊god〕The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communion 应酬交谈〔无实质，“早上好〞〕The phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational function 娱乐功能The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a ba by’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual function 元语言功能The metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book〞to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book〞to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k〞itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 Phonetics 发音学Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 Phonology 音系学Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 Morphology 形态学Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 Syntax 句法学Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 Semantics 语义学Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.8 Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学Macrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 Psycholinguistics 心理语言学Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 Sociolinguistics 社会语言学Sociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics 人类语言学Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguistics 计算机语言学Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics 重要区别1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描写式vs 规定式To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.〞is a pres criptive command; “People don’t say X.〞is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时〔历史上一点〕vs 历时〔历史长河〕A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronicdescription is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & parole 语言〔抽象〕vs 言语〔日常〕Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints;langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performance 语言能力VS 语言运用According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the syste m of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competenc e, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics语音学studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. . It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学– the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics声学语言学– the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics 听觉语言学– the study of perception of speech soundsPhonology音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to “discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.〞发音变化规律2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 The IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowels 辅音、元音定义Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.V owels are produced without obstruction so the air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose.2.4.2 ConsonantsManners of articulation发音方式the place of articulation发音部位发音方式refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; they may narrow the space considerably; they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.);发音部位refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds.2.4.5 The consonants of English1. Received Pronunciation (RP):The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English〞or “Oxford English〞because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.2. the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 VowelsThe criteria of vowel description 描述元音1.the height of tongue raising(high, mid, low)2.the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back)3.the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short)4.lip-rounding(rounded vs. unrounded)We can now describe the English vowels in this way:【i:】high front tense unrounded vowel【u】high back lax rounded vowel【ə】mid central lax unrounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription 协同发音2.6.1 Coarticulation协同发音Coarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.发音变化倾向于后面〔following sound〕叫anticipatory Coarticulation; 倾向前面perseverative ~2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptions 宽式、严式转写The use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.8 Phonemes and allophones 音位和音位变体2.8.1 Minimal pairs 最小比照对Minimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theoryPhoneme 〔音位〕：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. (refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast)Phonemic transcription 音位转写放在abstract, not physical ，放在/ /.Allophones (音位变体)Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. Phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.e.g.: pot, spot, cup: [ph] vs. [p] vs. [ p¬ ] (unreleased)i) complementary distribution互补分布ii) free variationiii)phonemic contrast.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts.2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features超音段特征: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable音节: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.2.12 Stress 重音Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [] is used just before the syllable it relates to.Intonation and Tone 声调语调Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase3.1 What is morpheme?3.1.1 Morpheme 语素A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit thatcannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.E.g. the word “boxes〞has two morphemes: “box〞and “es,〞neither of which permits further division oranalysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.Morphology〔形态学〕：The study of internal structures and rules of morphemes by which words are formed.3.1.2 Types of MorphemesFree morpheme and bound morpheme 自由语素〔能独立出现〕黏着语素〔disclose中dis-〕Free morpheme refers to those which may occur alone or which may constitute words by themselves.Bound morpheme refers to those which cannot occur alone and must appear with at least one other morphemeRoot, affix and stem 词根词缀词干Root is the base form of a word that can’t be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. For example, internationalism, after removing the “int er-“〞-al〞〞-ism〞, the part retained is the root nation.affix词缀----is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme.it can classified into three subtypes, prefix, suffix and infix.stem词干----is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.(friends中friend-,friendships中friendship-)词干可以包括词根和一个及以上词缀Inflectional affix and derivational affix 屈折词缀和派生词缀Inflectional affix----A morpheme that serves to adjust words by grammatical modification to indicate such grammatical relations as number, tense, degree and case. e.g. tables, talks, opened, strongest, John’sDerivational affix---A morpheme that serves to derive a word of one class or meaning from a word of another class or meaning. e.g. cite-citation-cital#3.2 What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing. Three senses of word:1.a physical unit2. a lexical item3. a grammatical unit3.2.1 Identification of words 词的特点1. Stability 稳定性〔词内部结构不能重新排序chaieman≠manchair〕Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibility 相对连续性〔此中不可插入其他成分〕By uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis +appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3.A minimum free form 最小的自由形式〔任意一个词都能成为句子〕This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form〞and word “the minimum free form,〞the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, acomplete utterance.3.2.2 Classification of words 词的分类1. Variable and invariable words 可变化词〔follow〕和非变化词〔since, but〕In variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow –follows –following –followed.Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflectiveendings.2. Grammatical words and lexical words 语法词和词汇词Grammatical words, also called function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class words 封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited.New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are allclosed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguisticanalysis.(1)Particles助词: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,〞the negative marker “not,〞and thesubordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,〞“do up,〞“look back,〞etc.(2)Auxiliaries助动词: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, whichone could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.(3)Pro-forms代词: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements in asentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4)Determiners限定词: Determiners refer to words which are used before the noun acting as head of anoun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into threesubclasses: predetermines, central determiners and post determiners.3.3 Word formation: Inflection and word formation 词的构成：从语素到词1.Inflection 屈折变化〔不改变词性〕Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formation 词的形成Word formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).(1)Compound 复合Compound refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc. Compounds can be further divided into two kinds: the endocentric compound and exocentric compound.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is de-verbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbal compound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participant of the process verb. E.g. Nouns: self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives: virus-sensitive, machine washable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formed by V + N, V + A, and V + P, whereas the exocentric come from V + N and V + A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat, etc. Adjectives: breakneck, walk-in, etc. 复合这个术语指那些由两个或两个以上的词素构成的词，或是指由两个单独的词连接起来构成一个新的形式的构词方法(2)Derivation 派生Derivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.3.3 Lexical change 词汇变化1. Invention 创造法〔coke〕Since economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names.2. Blending混成法(smok+fog=smog)Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.3. Abbreviation / clipping缩写词〔bicyle-bick〕A new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part or cutting both the initial parts of the original words.4. Acronym 缩略词〔WB-world bank ，WTO〕Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5.Back-formation 逆构词法〔editor-edit〕Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imaged affix from a longer form already in the language.已存在较长单词删去词缀，变成较短另外含义单词6.Analogical creation 类推构词〔过去式之类〕The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.7. class shift 词性变换〔已有单词开发另一词性意义〕By shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as zero-derivation, or conversion.8. Borrowing 借用English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in this process.Chapter 4 From Word to Text1. Syntactic relations〔句法关系〕Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.1.1Relations of Position 位置关系〔主谓宾〕Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all.Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations〔横组合关系〕observed by F. de Saussure. They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.1.2. Relation of Substitutability 替换关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic Relations〔纵聚合关系〕by Hjemslev〔叶尔姆斯列夫〕To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence 〔同现关系/纵横关系〕It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to forma sentence or a particular part of a sentence.Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.2. Grammatical construction and its constituents 语法结构和成分2.1 Grammatical Construction 语法结构定义：GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION〔语法结构体〕or CONSTRUCT can be used to refer to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.On the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and its internal properties.The external syntax of a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole, that is to say, anything speakers know about the construction that is relevant to the larger syntactic contexts in which it is welcome.结构外部句法特征The internal syntax of a construction is really a description of the construction’s “make-up〞, with the terms such as “subject, predicate, object, determiner, noun〞.结构内部句法特征2.2 Immediate Constituents(直接成分) IC analysis？Constituent〔成分〕is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANAL YSIS or IC analysis (直接成分分析法)，the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions (向心结构和离心结构)The syntactic constructions analyzed are of two main types: endocentric and exocentric constructions, depending on their distribution and the relation between their constituents. 句法结构可依据成分的分布以及它们之间的关系分析为两大类Endocentric construction(有中心词)is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD.其整体功能与其某个或某些组成成分〔单个词或词组〕相同或相似，这个词组是整体的核心或中心。
《英语语言学概论》配套习题(五)(问答题)答案.docx
《英语语言学概论》配套习题（五）（问答题）答案Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics1.What are design features of language?Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of anima communication.2.What are the characteristics of human language?The characteristics of human language include arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, discreteness, transferability and linearity.3・Explain the characteristic of arbitrariness・What are the relationship between arbitrariness and convention?Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation.4.What does productivity mean for language?It means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. It refers to the property that language enables language users to produce or understand an indefinite number of sentences including novel sentences by use of finite set of rules.5・ What functions does language have?Language has at least seven funcitons: informative, interpersonal, performative, emotive, phatic, recreational and metalingual.6・ Explain the metalingual function of language・The metalingual function of language refers to the fact that language can be used to talk about itself.7・ What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?Synchronic linguistics takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. In contrast, diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history; therefore, it is also called historical linguistics.8・ What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies of language?The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, norms, of correctness, which are in the scope of prescriptive linguistics.Chapter 2 Phonology1・ What does phonetics concern?Phonetis is the scientific study of speech sounds of human beings. Phonetics can be suv-classified into articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and auditory phonetics. 2・ How do the three branches of phonetics contribute to the study of speech sounds?Articualtory phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds. Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speeech. Auditory phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.3・ How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?Consonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. By contrast, a vowel is produced without such obstruction so no turbulance or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.4.In which two ways may consonants be classified?The categories of consonants are established on two important factors, which are termed as manners of articulation and places of articulation.5.How do phoneticians classify vowels?The di scription of vowels includes four aspects: the height of tongue raising(high, mid, low); the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back); the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short) and lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).6.T0 what extent does phonology differ from phonetics?Phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way wounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. 7.What do minimal pair refer? Give an example to illustrate・Certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word, whereas other sounds do not. For instance, the word big can be described in a phonetic transcription [big]. If [g] is replaced by [t], there is another word: bit.[g] and [t] are called minimal pairs. Therefore, when sound substitutions cause differences of meaning, these sounds are minimal pairs.8.What kind of phenomenon is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in complementary distribution. For example, the aspirated English stops never occur after [s], and the unaspirated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of [1], for instance, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occur only before a vowel, the dark [1] occur after a consonant or at the end of a word.Chapter 3 Morphology1・ What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?Morpheme may be classified into free and bound. A free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning, it can exist on its own without a bound morpheme.A free morpheme is a word, in the traditional sense. Man, book, take and red are free morphemes.A bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance. It must appear with at least one other morphem, free or bound, like un- in unhappy, past tensemorpheme in worked.2・ What is the difference between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?An inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. It does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is added. The inflecitonal affixes today are the plural marker, the genetive case, the verbal endings, the comparative degrees and superlative degrees. Inflectional affixes have only their particualr grammatical meanings, so they are also called grammatical meanings, so they are also called grammatical affixes.A derivational affix serves to derive a new word when it is added to another morpheme. Derivational affix has lexical meaning, but less important than the meaning of the root in the same word, like -able in the word workable. Derivaitonal affixes are commonly subdivided into prefixes and suffixes.3・ What is compounding?Compounding or composition is a word-formation process by joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word. Compounds can be divided into three categories according to parts of the speech: (1) noun compounds (like hearbeat);(2)adjective compounds (like dutyfree); (3) verb compounds (like housekeep).4.What are the criteria of a compound word?(1)Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: solid (like airmail).hyphenated (like air-conditioning) and open (like air raid).(2)Phonologically, many compounds have a so-called compound accent, that is, asingle stress on the first element, as in "space rocket; or a main stress on the first element and a secondary stress on the second element.(3)Semantically, compounds can be said to have a meaning which may be relatedto, but cannot always be inferred from the meaning of its component parts.5.What is acronymy?Acronymy is a type of shortening by using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase・ If the shortened word is pronounced letter by letter, it is an initialism like BBC; if the shortened word is pronounced as word rather than as a sequence of letters, it is an acronym like SAM(for surface-to-air missile).6.What is blending?Blending is a preocess of word・forniation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news+ broadcast), brunch (breakfast +lunch).7.Decide which way of word formation is used to form the following words.Comsat (from communications + satellite, by blending)Motel (from motor + hotel, by blending)Lase (from laser, by back-formation)Memo (from memorandom, by back clipping)Nightmare (from daymare, by analogy)ASEAN(from the Association for South-East Asian Nations, by acronymy)ROM(from read-only memory, by initialism)Bit(from binary + digit, by blending))Babysit(from babysitter, by back・fonnatioii)cock-a・doodle・do(from the sound produced by cock, by onomatopoeia))grunt (from the sound produced by pig, by onomatopoeia)8・ What are closed-class words and open-class words?A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc., are all closed items.The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.With the emergence of new ideas, inventions, etc., new expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.Chapter4 Syntax1.What is syntax?Syntax is a sub-field of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. Specifically, It is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are joined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.2.What is a simple, compound, or complex sentence?A simple sentence is made up of one independent clause with dependent clause attached. It consists of at least one subject and one predicate. Either the subject or the complement may be compound (consisting of more than one element joined with a coordinating conjunction), and modifiers and phrases may be added as well.A compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses, but no dependent clauses. The clauses are joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction, a comma and a correlative conjunction, or a semicolon with no conjunction.A complex sentence uses one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.For example, the following five sentences are simple, compound, complex, compound, and complex sentence respectively.(1)He and I understood.(2)Lucy watches football on television, but she never goes to a game.(3)You can borrow my pen if you need one.(4)Paul likes football and David likes chess.(5)We had to go inside when it started raining.3.What is the hierarchical structure?The hierarchical structure is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.4.Howto distinguish immediate constituents from ultimate constituents?An immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constituent a construction. Immediate constituents are often further reducible.An ultimate constituent is one of the grammatically irreducible units that constitutea construction.For example, the immediate constituents of the sentence You eat bananas are you and eat bananas; the ultimate constituents of the sentence are you. eat. banana, and —s.5.What are subordinate and coordinate constructions?Subordinate and coordinate constructions are two subtypes of endocentric constructions. Those in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constituent dependent, are subordinate constructions. For example, the short expression Lovely Lucy is a subordinate construction with Lucy as its head. While coordinate constructions have more than one head. For example, boys and girls, coffee or tea, the city Rome, are coordinate constructions, in which, both the two content constituents, boys and girls, coffee and tea, the city and Rome, are capable of serving as the head. They are of equal syntactic status, and no one is dependent on the other.6・ What are deep and surface structures?Deep structure is a central theoretical term in generative grammar, opposed to surface structure. It is the abstract syntactic representation of a sentence一an underlying level of structural organization which specifies all the factors governing the way the sentence should be interpreted.Surface structure is a central theoretical term in generative grammar, opposed to deep structure. It is the final stage in the syntactic representation of a sentence, which provides the input to the phonological component of the grammar, and which thus most closely corresponds to the structure we articulate and hear.7. Can you describe the syntactic structure of the sentence “The old tree swayed in the wind” by using a tree diagram?8・ How to reveal the differences in sentential meaning in the sentence “The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon” by drawing tree diagrams?The sentence is an ambiguous sentence, which can be interpreted in two different ways, so it could assigned two tree diagram, as would be shown below: Tree Diagram (1):the wind The old tree swayed in NPDetTree Diagram (2):Chapter 5 Semantics1. What is a semantic field? Can you illustrate it?It is an organizational principle that the lexicon and groups of words in the lexicon can be semantically related, rather than a listing of words as in a published dictionary. On a very general and intuitive level, we can say that the words in a semantic field, though not synonymous, are all used to talk about the same general phenomenon, and there is a meaning inclusion relation between the items in the field and the field category itself. Classical examples of semantic fields include color terms (red, green, blue, yellow), kinship terms (mother, father, sister, brother), and cooking terms (boil, fry, broil, steam) as semantic fields.2・ What are the major types of synonyms in English?They are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantic synonyms. Examples are as follows:fond of, keen on (collocational)autumn, fall (dialectal)dad, father (stylistic)thrifty, miserly, economical (emotive) escape, flee (semantic)3・ In what way do the following pairs offer contrast?earth l.our planet. 2. the soil on the surface of our planet.bank l.a financial institution. 2. side of a river, bear 1. a wild animal, bare:naked.bow a. an inclination of the head or body, as in greeting, consent, courtesy, acknowledgement, submission, or veneration.(e) lead a. go in front of a group of people. 2. a soft heavy easily melted grayish-blue metal(f) found: 1. of find. 2. establish or set upThe five entities show different semantic relations of words.(a) is an example of polysemy, and it is different from the next which fall into the category of homography. (b) is an example of perfect homonymy, while “beaf and “bare" in (c) are homophones, those in (d) are homographs, and the words in (e) are homophones. \JZ \)z \)z abed z(\ /(\ /k z(\Swill arrive soonAux VPPolysemy and homonymy both deal with multiple senses of the same phonological word, but polysemy is invoked if the senses are judged to be related. Homonymous senses, however, are unrelated. Homonymy can be classified into partial homonymy and perfect homonymy. Words falling under the category of partial homonymy can be homophones or homographs. Perfect homonymy is exemplified by the words which are identical in sound and spelling or both in sound-form and part of speech.4. Categorize the following pairs: child・kid，alive-dead, big-small, husband-wife・Child-kid can be categorized under synonymy, alive-dead complementary antonymy, old-young gradable antonymy, and husband-wife converse antonymy.5・What is hyponymy composed of? Illustrate whether there is always a superordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate・Hyponymy is composed of a superordinate and hyponyms; the hyponyms under the same superordinate are co-hyponyms. there is not always a superordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate. Sometimes a superordinate may be a superordiante to itself. For example, the word "animal" may only include beasts like “tigef, “lion", "elephant”，"cow”，“horse" and is a co-hyponym of “hum arT. But it is also the superordinate to both “human" and "animal" in contrast to “bircT,"行sh", and “insect”，when it is used in the sense of "mammal". It can further be the superordinate to “bird'',"行sh", "insect”，and "mammal" in contrast to “pbnt". From the hyponym's point of view, “animal" is a hyponym of itself, and may be called autohyponym.6・ How is meronymy different from hyponymy?Meronymy is a term used to describe a part-whole relationship between lexical items. We can identify this relationship by using sentence frames like "X is part of or 66Y has as in "A page is part of a book", or book has pages". While hyponymy has to do with inclusiveness, we cannot do the same with hyponymy. For example, bird is the superordinate to crow, hawk, duck, and se cannot say that bird has crows, or hawks'：and so on.Meronymy also differs from hyponymy in transitivity. Hyponymy is always transitive, for example bird is the superordinate to hawk, hawk is the superordinate to sparrowhawk, and thus bird is the superordinate to sparrowhawk. But meronymy may or may not be so. A transitive example is: nail is a meronym of finger, md finger of hand. We can see that nail is a meronym of finger, and finger of hand. We can see that nail is a meronym of hand. A non-transitive example is: pane is a meronym of window, and window of room; but pane is not a meronym of room.7. Why may a sentence be ambiguous?The ambiguity of a sentence may arise from lexical ambiguity or structural ambiguity. Lexical ambiguity arises from polysemy or homonymy which can not be determined by the context. For example,(a)The table is fascinating.(b)She couldn't bear children.Table in (a) is an example of polysemy. It can be a piece of furniture, or the stated kind or quality of food served at a meal here. The ambiguity of (b) lies in the two meanings of the homonym bear一endure or produce children.The following sentence is an example of structural ambiguity.(c)The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon.8・ What predication analysis? What is a no-place, one-place，two-place, or three-place predicate? Give examples・Predication analysis is a new approach for sentential meaning analysis which is to break down the sentence into their smaller constituents: argument and predicate. The predicate is the major or pivotal element governing the argument. The argument is the logical participant.A no-place predicate is a predicate which governs no argument; a one-place predicate, one argument; a two-place predicate, two arguments; and a three-place predicate, three arguments. Respective examples are:(a)It is snowing. (SNOW)(b)Baby is sleeping. SLEEP(JOHN, MARY)(c)John loves Mary. LOVE(JOHN, MARY)(d)John gave Mary a book. GIVE(JOHN, MARY, BOOK)Chapter 6 Pragmatics1・ What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication. It is a comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics; its development and establishment in the 1960s an dl970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics. Generally it deals with how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. The scope of pragmatic study includes “speech act theory'', “context", '"conversational implicature,\ presupposition, etc.The basic difference between pragmatics and traditional semantics is that pragmatics considers meaning in context and traditionally semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use. It may be said that pragmatics studies the meaning that is not accounted by semantics. It can also be expressed in the formula: pragmatics=meaning-semantics. G. Leech, in his principles of pragmatics holds that: Semantics answers the question: What does X mean? Pragmatics answer the question: What did you mean by X?2・ How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?Utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; the former is concrete and context-dependent and the latter is abstract and decontextualized.3・ What is contextual meaning?It is the meaning a linguistic item has in context, for example the meaning a word has within a particular sentence, or a sentence has in a particular paragraph. The question Do you know the meaning of wo厂？For example, may have two different contextual meanings:i.it may mean Do you know the meaning of the word war? , when said by alanguage teacher to a class of students.ii.It may mean war produces death, injury, and suffering, when said by an injured soldier to a politician who favors war.4.Explain the meanings of locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionaryact through examples.A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of Speech Acts between three different types of act involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence.A locutional act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood. For example, saying the sentence Shoot the snake is a locutionary act is hearers understand the words shoot, the. snake and can identify the particular snake referred to.5.What is cooperative principle(CP)?The "'cooperative principle", proposed and formulated by P Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible to carry on the talk. The principle has the four following maxims:Quantityi.Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the currentpurposes of the exchange).ii.Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. QualityTry to make your contribution one that is true.(1)Do not say what you believe to false.(2)Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.RelationBe relevant.MannerBe perspicuous.(1)Avoid obscurity of expression.(2)Avoid ambiguity.(3)Be brief.(4)Be orderly.6・ What is conversational implicature?It is an additional unstated meaning that has to be assumed in order to maintain the cooperative principle, e.g. if someone says "The President is a mouse", something that is literally false, the hearer must assume the speaker means to convey more than is being said.7. How does the violation of the maxims of CP give rise to conversationalimplicature?There are circumstances where speakers may not follow the maxims of the cooperative principle. For example, in conversation, a speaker may violate the maxim expectations by using an expression like "No comment^^ in response to a question. Although it is typically not "as informative as is required?, in the context, it is naturally interpreted as communicating more than is said (i.e. the speaker knows the answer). This typical reaction (i.e. there must be something “special" here) of listeners to any apparent violation of the maxims is actually the key to the notion of conversational implicature.When we violate any of these maxims, our language becomes indirect. In this way, we can convey more than is literally said.8.What is adjacency pair?It refers to a sequence of two utterances by different speakers in conversation. The second is a response to the first, e.g. question-answer.Chapter 8 Language and Society1. What is sociolinguistics?Sociolinguistics is the field that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.2・ What is speech community?It is a group of people who form a community, e.g. a village, a region, a nation, and who have at least one speech variety in common as well as similar linguistic norms.In bilingual and multilingual communities, people would usually have more than one speech variety in commons.3.What is dialect?It is a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a country, or by people belonging to a particular social class, which is different in some words, grammar, an/or pronunciation from other forms of the same language.4.What is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?It is a belief that our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the one hand, language may determine out thinking patterns; one the other hand, similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. As this hypothesis was strongly put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, it has often been called the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.5.What is speech variety?It is a term sometimes used instead of language, dialect, sociolect, pidgin, creole, etc. because it is considered more neutral than such terms. It may also be used for different varieties of one language, e.g. American English, Australian English, Indian English.6.What is standard language?It is also called standard variety. It is the variety of a language which has the highest status in a community or nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.7.What is pidgin?It is a language which develops as a contact language when groups of people who speak different languages try to communicate with one another on a regular basis. For example, this might occur where foreign traders have to communicate with the local population or groups of workers from different language backgrounds on plantations or in factories. A pidgin usually has a limited vocabulary and a reduced grammaticalstructure which may expand when a pidgin is used over a long period and for many purposes.8.What is bilingualism?It is the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group of speakers.A bilingual is a person who knows and uses two languages.9.What is multilingualism?It refers to the use of three or more languages by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation. Multilingualism is common in, for example, some countries of west Africa, Malaysia, Singapore, and Israel.Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition1.What is psycholinguistics?It is the study of language in relation to the mind, with focus on the processes of language comprehension, production and acquisition. It takes upon itself the job of exploring the biological basis of human language, critical periods for child language acquisition, and the relationship between the language and thought.2.What is bottom-up processing and what is top-down processing?We may define bottom-up processing as that which proceeds from the lowest level to the highest level of processing in such a way that all of levels. That is, the identification operate without influence from the higher levels. That is, the identification of phonemes is not affected by the lexical, syntactic, or discourse levels; the retrieval of words is not affected by syntactic or discourse levels; and so on.A top-down processing model, in contrast, states that information at the higher levels may influence processing at the lower levels. For instance, a sentence context may affect the identification of words within that sentence.3.What are the six major types of speech error? Give examples of each・Six major types of speech error are:i.Exchange errors: hissed all my mystery lectures (missed all my historylectures)ii.Anticipation errors: a leading list (reading list)iii.Perseveration errors: a phonological fool (phonological rule)iv.Blends: moinly(mostly, mainly), impostinatiorfimposteE impersonator)v.Shifts: Mermaid_moves (mermaids move) their legs togethervi.Substitutions: sympathy for symphony (form), finger for toe (meaning) 4.What is the critical period for language acquisition?Language development takes place during a very specific maturational stage of human development. Sometime during the second year of life (at roughly anywhere from 12 to 18 months), children begin uttering their first words. During the following 4 to 5 years, linguistic development occurs quite rapidly. By the time children enter school, they have mastered the major structural features of their language. Refinements of the major features continue to appear, and the ability to learn language (one's native language or foreign languages) continues to be strong until the onset of puberty. At this point, for reasons that are not fully understood, the '"knack for languages95 begins to decline, to a。
英语语言学概论笔记
《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲一、课程说明:《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。
《语言学概论》研究始于20世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。
现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。
语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。
对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。
本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第６学期和第７学期开设。
其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为选修。
二、教学目的及要求:本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。
本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。
在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。
本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。
应鼓励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。
三、教学重点与难点:本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。
本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。
四、与其它课程的关系:本课程是一门主干性课程。
与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。
五、学时与学分:学时：７２学时学分：４学分六、教学内容：第一章绪论本章主要教学内容:1．语言学习的意义。
2．语言的定义。
3．语言的定义特征。
4．语言的起源。
5．语言的功能。
6．语言学的定义。
英语语言学概论期末复习
英语语言学概论期末复习第一章绪论1.1什么是语言语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。
（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。
这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。
语言的起源语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。
将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。
法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。
汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。
1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。
汉语是典型的孤立语。
（2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。
在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。
日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。
（3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。
英语是不太典型的屈折语。
（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。
因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。
根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等语言的功能1.5.1 一般功能1.5.2元功能（metafunction）什么是语言学（linguistics）语言学中的重要区分（1）语言（langue）和言语（parole/langage）索绪尔对语言和言语作出了区分。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Attitude
Evluation
Ideational ≈ Descriptive
Feelings
Emotions
M达关。的E换时T言间A之、，地F就点U是等IdN反环e映境Ca客因tT观素io世。IO界n中aN所l S发生的E事xI、np所et牵reie涉rnp的ce人e和rfsu物no以cn及tioa与n之l 有
Logic function
Textual Halliday describes the logical function as those systems “which set up
“In terms of the functions that language evmolevteadfutnocsteiornve”
all langsuyasgteesmaicrefuconncstiidoenraeldlitnogbueissthiacpsed and
organised in relation to three functions, or metafunctions.
IndicSapteeaker’s role
InteErsptaebPrlisesrhosonnSaaol coiamlmreitlmaetinot nships
MainAtasinsessment
TextuaTlexts
Halliday argues that both experiential and interpersonal functions are intricately organized, but that between the two “there is comparatively very little constraint”. This means that “by and large, you can put any interactional ‘spin’ on any representational content”. What allows meanings from these two modes to freely combine is the intercession of a third, distinct mode of meaning that Halliday refers to as the textual function. The term encompasses all of the grammatical systems responsible for managing the flow of discourse.
Ideational The experiential function refers to the grammatical choices that enable
speakers to make meanings about the world around us and inside us. 经验功能指的是语言对人们在现实世界（包括内心世界）中的各种经历的表
METAFUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
@蒯红月 卢露 张颖 辛前进 周宇
Michael Halliday, who founded systemic functional linguistics
(1) The instrumental function （工具功能）
(2) The regulatory function （控制功能）
语篇功能是指语言中存在着一种机制将口头或书面的话语组织成连贯统一的 语篇，这种机制的实际的言语区别与一系列随意的句子。尽管两个句子在概 念功能和人际功能方面可能完全相同，但就语篇功能而言可能存在较大区别。
THANK YOU
(3) The interactional function （交互功能）
(4) The personal function （自指性功能）
(5) The heuristic function
（探索功能）
(6) The imaginative function （想象功能）
Hale Waihona Puke (7) The informative function （信息功能）