语言学Exercise 12

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新编语言学Ch7~12完美笔记

Linguistics 语言学Chapter 7 Discourse Analysis7.1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis1. Discourse: language above the sentence or above the clause.2. Discourse analysis 以前也叫text linguistics and discourse analysis3. Discourse analysis (discourse linguistic/discourse studies/text analysis/DA):the study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraph, conversations and interviews.4. Primary task: explore the linguistic features which characterize discourses5. Goals: examine how the reader or user of a discourse recognizes that the words/phrases/sentences in a discourse must be co-interpreted----that parts of a discourse are dependent on others.6. One of the most important features of discourse is that they have cohesion.Definitions:1. Discourse (话语):a general term for examples of language use, i.e. language which has been produced as the result of an act of communication. It refers to the larger units of language such as paragraphs, conversations and interviews7.2 Information Structure7.2.1 Given and new information1. Given information (已知信息):the information that the addresser believes is known to the addressee (often coded in condensed form)2. New information (新信息):the information that the addresser believes it not known to the addressee7.2.2 Topic and comment1. The topic represents what the utterance is about; the comment is what is said aboutit2. Topics are less central to the grammar of English than to the grammar of certain languages.3. Marking the topic is considerably more important in certain other languages. Languages such as Japanese and Korean have function words whose sole purpose is to mark a noun phrase as the topic. In Chinese, no special function words attach to topic noun phrases, but they are marked by word order. In these three languages, noun phrases marked in one way or another as the topic occur very frequently. Thus, despite the difficulty in defining it, the notion of topic is important and needs to be distinguished from other categories of information structure.Definition:1. Topic (话题): the main center of attention in a sentence2. Comment (述题): what is said about it.7.2.3 Contrast1. In the following example, Mary could be marked contrastively if the sentence were part of a conversation about how the interlocutors dislike going to Maine during the winter.Mary likes going to Maine during the winter.2. In English contrastive noun phrase can be marked in various ways, the most common of which is by pronouncing the contrastive noun phrase with strong stress.7.3 Cohesion and Coherence7.3.1 Cohesion1. Cohesive devices include reference, substitution, ellipsis conjunction and lexical cohesionDefinition:1. Cohesion (衔接): the grammatical and/or lexical relationship between the different elements of a text. This may be the relationship between different sentences or between different parts of a sentence.e.g. You can lead a horse to water but you can’t make him drink.7.3.1.1 Reference1. Reference words: pronounces (e.g. it, they, he, she, them, etc.)demonstratives (this, that, these, those)the article the, and items like such as2. Reference consists of two types:(1) endophoric reference (endophora): where the interpretive source lies in theco-text①anaphoric reference (anaphora): where the referent lies in the prior text.②cataphoric reference (cataphora): where the referent lies in the text to come(2) exophoric reference (exophora): where the interpretive source lies in thecontext.E.g. (1) Respect a man, he will do the more (anaphoric)(2) When I met her, Mary looked ill. (cataphoric)(3) (Mary is standing there) I like her. (exophoric)7.3.1.2 SubstitutionDefinitionSubstitution (替代):The process or result of replacing one word by anther at a particular position in a structure7.3.1.3 EllipsisDefinitionEllipsis (省略)(substitution by zero):The leaving out of words or phrases from sentences where they are unnecessary because they have already been referred to or mentioned. For example, when the subject of the verb in two coordinate clauses is the same, it may be omitted in the second clause to avoid.7.3.1.5 Lexical cohension1. Example:(1) RepetitionThere was a cat on the table. The cat was smiling.(2) SynonymHe got a lot of presents from his friends and family. All the gifts were wrapped in colored paper.(3) SuperordinateYesterday, a pigeon carried the first message from Pinhurst to Silbury. The bird covered the distance in three minutes.7.3.2 Coherence1. Cohenrence: the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discoursee.g. A: Could you give me a lift home?B: Sorry, I’m visiting my sister.There is no grammatical or lexical link (meaning link).(是指没有意义上的连接，不包括词汇上的连接)7.4 Discourse Markers1. Discourse Markers (DM):expressions that are commonly used in the initial position of an utterance and are syntactically detachable from a sentence.7.5 Conversational AnalysisDefinition:Conversational Analysis (CA) (会话分析)The analysis of natural conversation in order to discover what the linguistic characteristics of conversation are and how conversation is used in ordinary life.7.5.1 Adjacency pairs1. Adjacency pairs (相邻语对): a set of two consecutive, ordered turns that “go together” in a conversation, such as question/answer sequences and greeting/greeting exchange.2. Properties of Adjacency pairs(1) Adjacency pairs consist of two utterances, a first part and a second part(2) The two parts are spoken by different speakers.(3) The first and second parts belong to specific types, for examples, question and answer, or greeting and greeting(4) The form and content of the second part depends on the type of the first part.(5) Given that a speaker has produced a first part, the second part is relevant and expectable as the next utterance.Definition:Insertion sequence (插入语列)It often happens that a question-answer (Q-A) sequence will be delayed while another question-answer sequence intervenes.( can be infinite，但人类记忆有限，所以不行)Form: Q1---Q2---A2---A17.5.2 Preference structure7.5.3 Presequences1. Presequences (前序列): the opening sequences that are used to set up some specificpotential actions2. Greetings: Some situations do not require a greeting, as with a stanger approaching in the street to ask for the time: “Excuse me, sir, do you know what time it is?”. The expression ”Excuse me,sir” serves as a presequence appropriate to the context.3. The following is a pre-invitationA: What are you doing this Sunday?B: Nothing special. Why?A: Why don’t you come out with us then?Here the pre-invitation is treated as transparent by B who suspects by “why” that something is forthcoming.4. The example below is a pre-request:A: Are you going out tomorrow?B: No, not really.A: Are you using your car then?B: No. Do you want to borrow it?A: Yes, if you’re not using it.7.6 Critical Discourse Analysis1. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA):the analysis of language use directed at, and committed to, discovering its concealed ideological bias.Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics8.1 IntroductionDefinition:Sociolinguistics (社会语言学):the study of language and society: how social factors influence the structure and use of language8.2 Language Varieties8.2.1 Standard languageDefinition:Standard variety (Standard language/Standard dialects):the variety of a language which has the highest status in a community or nation, and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language8.2.2 Dialects1. Dialect: A variety of a language used recognizably in a specific region or by a specific social class2. Dialectology: the study of dialects3. Types: (1) Regional/geographical dialects.(2) Temporal dialects(3) Social dialects or sociolects①speech community: a group of people using a given language or dialect(4) Idiolects8.2.3 Registers1. Register is determined by 3 factors: field, mode, tenor of discourse(1) the field of discourse: refers to what is happening, including what is being talked about, e.g. the fields of linguistics, religion, and advertising(2) the mode of discourse: refers to the medium of language activity which determines the role played by the language in a situation. e.g. speech vs. writing (3) the tenor of discourse: refers to the relations among the participants in a language activity, especially the level of formality they adopt. e.g. colloquial or formal English 2. Example: a lecture on linguistcs in a school of foreign languages can be analyzed as follows:Field: linguistics Mode: oral (academic lecturing)Tenor: participants (teacher-students)Definition:Register (语域): a language variety associated with a particular situation of use8.2.4 Pidgins and creoles1. Creoles have large numbers of native speakers. A French-based creole is spoken by the majority of the population in Haiti, and English-based creoles are used in Jamaica and Sierra Leone.Definition:1. Pidgin (皮钦语): a variety of language that is not a native language of anyone, but is learned in contact situations2. Pidginization: the process by which a pidgin develops3. Creole (克里奥尔语): a language that begins as a pidgin and eventually becomes the first language of a speech community through its being learned by children4. Creolization: the process by which a pidgin becomes a creole8.2.5 Language planning1. Status planning: changes the function of a language or a variety of a language and the right of those who use it.2. Corpus planning: develop a variety of language or a language, usually to standardize it.Definition:Language planning (语言规划): planning, usually by a government or government agency, concerning choice of national or official language(s), ways of spreading the use of a language, spelling reforms, the addition of new words to be language and other language problems.8.3 Choosing a Code8.3.1 Diglossia1. Diglossia (双语): a situation that with a handful of languages, two very different varieties of the same language are used, side by side, for two different sets of functions8.3.2 Bilingualism and multilingualism1. Bilingualism: a situation where two languages are used by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation Definition:1. Horizontal bilingualism (横向性双语现象):the situation of the languages spoken in a bilingual society have equal status in the official cultural, and family life of the society.2. Diagonal bilingualism (倾斜性双语现象)the use of three or more languages by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or nation8.3.3 Code-switching1. Code-switching: bilinguals often switch between their two languages or language varieties in the middle of a conversation.8.4 Linguistic Taboos and Euphemisms1. Taboo word: a word that we are reluctant to useDefinition:1. Taboo: words or activities that are considered inappropriate for “polite society”2. Euphemism: a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects.8.5 Language and Gender1. Men and women speak differently; men and women are spoken about differently2. Language reflects sexism in society. Language itself is not sexist, but it can encode sexist attitudes.Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics9.1 Introduction1. Psycholinguistics: the study of the language-processing mechanismsDefinition:1. Psycholinguistics (心理语言学):the study of language and mind, the mental structures and processes which are involved in the acquisition comprehension and production of language,2. Developmental pscholinguistics (发展心理语言学)the examination of how infants and children acquire the ability to comprehend and speak their mother tongue9.2 Language Acquisition1. Children’s use of language is rule-governed. For example, children frequently say tooths and mouses instead of teeth and mice, and holded and finded, instead of held and found. These are examples of overgeneralization or overextensionDefinition:1. Language acquisition (语言习得):the learning and development of a person’s language.2. Overgeneralization (过度概括):children’s treatment of irregular verbs and nouns as if they were regular. This shows that the child has acquired the regular rules but has not yet learned that there are exceptions.3. Undergeneralization: a child uses a word in a more limited way than adults do. (e.g. refusing to call a taxi a car)4. Universal grammar (UG): the innateness or properties that pertain to the grammars of all human language.9.3 Language ProductionDefinition:Language production (语言产生): the process involved in creating and expressing meaning through language.9.3.1 Conceptualization1. Psycholinguists agree that some form of mentalese existMentalese: a representation system which is different from language.9.3.2 FormulationDefinition:1. Slips of the tongue (口误): mistakes in speech which provide psycholinguistic evidence for the way we formulate words and phrases2. Spoonerism (斯本内现象): a slip of the tongue in which the position of sounds, syllables, or words is reversed. For example: Le t’s have chish and fips instead of Let’s have fish and chips.9.3.3 Articulation9.3.4 Self-regulation9.4 Language Comprehension1. Language Comprehension: comprehension seems to be nothing more than recognition of a sequential string of linguistic symbols, although at a very rapid pace2. People do not process linguistic information in a neat, linear fashiond3. Listeners and readers use a great deal of information other than the actual language being produced to help them find the meaning of the linguistic symbols they hear or see9.4.1 Sound comprehension9.4.2 Word comprehension1. Bathtub effect: we knew the word, but could not access the whole word. For many time we could only get part of the words vaguely, such as the beginning or the ending of the words.Definition1. Parallel distributed processing (PDP) (平行分布处理):a model of cognition that attempts to account for complex behaviors such as the processing and production of speech by positing the existence of completely separate but concurrent and parallel cognitive systems operating at the same time.9.4.3 Sentence comprehension1. Garden path sentence (花园路径句): a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or phrase but discovers later that the assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the sentenceFor example: The horse reaced past the barn fella.S?The horse raced past the barn fellb.SNPVP The horse raced past the barn fell9.4.4 Text comprehension9.5 Language and Thought9.5.1 Language determines thought1. Proposer: E. Sapir and B. Lee Whorf2. Theory: Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis or Whorfian HypothesisThe theory has two parts: the first is called linguistic determinism, which says that linguistic structure determines cognitive structure; the second part is called linguistic relativity, which says that the resulting cognitive systems are different in speakers of different languages.3. Evidence: Eskimo have separate words for different types of snow. A child who grows up speaking such a language will develop more cognitive categories for snow than will an English-speaking child. When the former looks out at a snowy environment, he will, in some sense, see it differently from a child who has but one word snow.4. Modern view: the Whorfian Hypothesis----language determines though----cannot be supported. However, it is equally clear that a weak version of the hypothesis----language influence thought----is reasonable and supportable9.5.2 Thought determines language1. Proposer: B. Berlin and P. Kay2. Evidence: The result of their experiment which was concerned with how speakers of different languages divide up the color spectrum showed that there appear to be some basic constraints that limit the way in which this aspect of our experience is coded in the language.Chapter 10 Cognitive Linguistics10.1 IntroductionDefinition:Cognitive linguistics (认知语言学): a new approach to the study of language and mind. According to this approach, language and language use are based on our bodily experience and the way we conceptualize it.10.2 Categorization and CategoriesCategorization: the mental process of classificationDefinition:Category: the products of categorization10.2.1 The classical theory1. Assumptions of the classical theory:(1) the first assumption: Categories are defined by a limited set of necessary and sufficient conditions/features. In other words, a thing can not both be and not be, it cannot both have a feature and not have it, it cannot both belong to a category and notbelong to it.E.g. in the BIRD category, if a creature has two wings , two legs, a beak, feathers and lays eggs, then it is a bird; on the other hand, if a creature has all these features, this is also sufficient for classifying it as a bird.(2) the second assumption: A feature is either in the definition of a category, or it is not; an entity has this feature, or it does notE.g. the BIRD category has the feature [+two legs], but[-four legs](3) the third assumption: Categories have clear boundariesE.g. BIRD and BEAST have clear boundaries(4) the fourth assumption: all members of a category have equal statusE.g. we cannot say that the sparrow is a better member than the ostrich in the BIRD category2. Problem: some members have fuzzy boundariesE.g: do ostriches and penguins belong to the BIRD category?10.2.2 The prototype thery.1. Prototypes (典型): what members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexical category. E.g. for some English speakers “cabbage” (rather than, say, “carrot”) might be the prototypical vegitable2. Members of a category therefore differ in their prototypicality3. Proposer: E. Rosch4. Advantages: (1) It can explain how people deal with damaged examplesE.g. people would still categorize a one-winged robin who couldn’tfly as a bird, or a three-legged lion as a lion.(2) The prototype theory can work for actions as well as objectsE.g. people can judge that murder is a better example of killingthan execute or suicide(3) It is useful for explaining how people deal with atypical examplesof a categoryE.g. unbirdly birds such as penguins and pelicans can still beregarded as birds10.2.3 Levels of categorization1. Superordinate levels2. Basic-level categories* three respects: (1) Perception: overall perceived shape; single mental image; lastidentification(2) Communication: shortest, most commonly used andcontextually neutral words, first learned bychildren and first to enter the lexicon(3) Knowledge organization: most attributes of category membersare stored at this level.* Basic-level categories take primacy over categories at other levels. This is mostly because it is at this level that we perceive the evident differences between objectsand organisms of the world3. Subordinate levels10.3 Conceptual Metaphor and Metonymy10.3.1 Conceptual metaphor1. Example: LOVE IS A JOURNEYLook how far we’ve comeWe’ll just have to go our separate waysWe can’t turn back nowOur marriage is on the rocksWe’ve gotten off the trackThis relationship is founderingDefinition1. Metaphor: understanding one conceptual/cognitive domain in terms of anotherconceptual domain2. Source domain (始发域): the conceptual domain from which we draw metaphorical expressions to understand another conceptual domain3. Target domain (目标域): the conceptual domain that is understand this way Diagram: Conceptual Domain (A) Conceptual Domain (B)Target domain Source domainHe is a tiger10.3.2 Conceptual metonymy1. We have a general metonymic principle:THE BODILY SYMPTOMS OF AN EMOTION STAND FOR THE EMOTION E.g. drop in temperature for FEAR “I was chilled to the bone”erect posture for PRIDE “He swelled with pride”drooping posture for SADNESS “My heart sank”jumping up and down for JOY “He was jumping for joy2. The main difference between them is that metaphor involves a mapping across different conceptual or cognitive domains while metonymy is a mapping within one conceptual domain3. Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one cognitive category, the source, provides mental access to another cognitive category, the target, within the same10.4 IconicityDefinitionIconicity (象似性): a feature of language which means that the structure of language reflects in some way the structure of experience, that is, the structure of the word, including the perspective of imposed on the world by the speaker10.4.1 Iconicity of orderDefinitionIconicity of order: the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of element in a linguistic constructione.g. I came, I saw, I conquered10.4.2 Iconicity of distance1. Iconicity of distance accounts for the fact that things which belong together conceptually tend to be put together linguistically, and things that do not belong together are put at a distance10.4.3 Iconicity of complexity1. the positive, comparative, and superlative degrees of adjective show a gradual increase in the number of phonemes, such as long, longer and longest in English2. Iconicity of complexity accounts for our tendency to associate more form with more meaning and, conversely, less form with less meaning10.5 Grammaticalization1. Grammaticalization: the process whereby an independent word is shifted to the status of a grammatical element2. Full words, with their own lexical content, thus become form words; and this categorical change tends to be accompanied by a reduction in phonological form anda “bleaching” of meaning3. Example: the transition of the lexical verb “go” into an auxiliary used to express the future tensea. Susan’s going to London next month.b. She’s going to London to work at our officec. Sh e’s going to work at our officed. You’re going to like here. You’re gonna like herf. You gonna like her. (non-standard)Chapter 11 Language Acquisition11.1 First Language Acquisition11.1.1 The behaviorist approach1. Best-known advocator: B.F.Skinner11.1.2 The innateness approach1. Under the influence of Noam Chomsky’s linguistic theories and cognitive psychology, the behaviorist hypothesis of first language acquisition has been challenged2. The innateness hypothesis says that the ability to acquire a human language is part of the biologically innate equipment of the human being, and that an infant is born with this ability just as it is born with two arms, two legs, and a beating heart. It also claims that this built-in ability is linked in some manner to physiological maturation, that it is strongest in the very small child, and that some degree of decay in its function begins around the time of puberty.11.1.3 Stages of acquiring the first language1. Pre-language stages (3~10m)2. The one-word or holophrastic stage (single-unit or single-form) (12~18m)3. The two-word stage (18~20m)4. Telegraphic speech (2~3y)(1) the child begins producing a large number of utterances which could be categorized as multiple-word utterances, but these utterances usually leave out certain word that adults omit in telegrams, such as articles, auxiliary, verbs and prepositions (2) e.g. Andrew want ball; cat drink, this shoe all wet11.2 Second Language Acquisition1. The differences between second language and foreign language(1) Second language plays an institutional and social role in the community, that is, it functions as a recognized way of communication among members who speak some other language as their mother tongueExamples: English as a second language is learned in the United States, the United Kingdom, and countries in Africa such as Zambia and Nigeria by those whose first language is not English.(2) Foreign language learning takes place in situations where the language plays no major role in the community and is primarily learned in the classroom.Examples: English learned in Japan and FranceDefinition:Second Language Acquisition (L2 acquisition/SLA) (第二语习得):the acquisition of another language or languages after first language acquisition is under way or completed11.2.1 Contrastive analysis1. Where two languages were similar, positive transfer would occur; where they were different, negative transfer, or interference, would result. That is:(1) The main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by interference from the first language(2) These difficulties can be predicted by contrastive analysis(3) Teaching materials can make use of contrastive analysis to reduce the effects ofmother tongue interference.Definition:Contrastive analysis (CA) (对比分析):systematically comparing the first language and the target language11.2.2 Error analysis1. Error analysis (EA) refers to the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learnersDefinition:1. Intralingual errors: result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, rather than from language transfer.e.g. “He is comes”→correct: He is coming or He comes2. Interlingual errors: caused by the learner’s native languagee.g. He comes from China, Beijing →correct: He comes from Beijing, China11.2.3 Interlanguage1. There is some in-between system while acquiring L2 which certainly contains aspects of both L1 and L2, but which is an inherently variable system with rules of its own. This system is called an interlanguage2. The process of fossilization in L2 pronunciation is one obvious cause of a foreign accentDefinitionFossilization (僵化现象): (in second or foreign language learning) a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes the target language. Aspects of pronunciation, vocabulary usage, and grammar may become fixed or fossilized in second or foreign language learning.11.3 Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition11.3.1 Language aptitude1. According to Carroll, the components of language aptitude are:(1) Phonemic coding ability (音位编码能力)(2) Grammatical sensitivity (语法的感性)(3) Inductive language learning ability (语言学习归纳能力)(4) Rote learning ability (机械学习能力)Definition:Language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation and interest, etc.11.3.2 Cognitive style: field dependence and field independence1. Field dependence: measured by asking learners to look at complex patterns and identify a number of simple geometric figures that are hidden within them(1) Characteristic:①they accept the L2 information exactly as it is presented to them by the teacher.②They do not try to analyze or think about it themselves③They are very reliant on what other people think of them and depend a great deal on positive feedback in their L2 learning④They tend to be seen as outgoing and interested in others and so would be expected to develop good interpersonal communication skills in the L22. Field independent:(1) Characteristic:①do not assume that the L2 information that they are given is necessarily correct②They tend to analyze it and think about it themselves to determine whether it is correct or not③They have a strong sense of personal identity④They often seem insensitive to and distant from other people.⑤They might, therefore, be expected to be less interested in developing communication skills in the L2(2) Examples:①they think about the input that they get.②In a formal learning context they are more likely to consciously think about and analyze the structure items that are presented to them, and consider how they fit into the grammar system as a whole③In a natural acquisition context they may more actively process the input they receive to build up hypotheses about how the language works.④They would develop a broader and deeper understanding of the structure of the language.Definition1. Cognitive style (认知风格): the particular way in which a learner tries to learn something. In second or foreign language learning, different learners may prefer different solutions to learning problems. For example, some people may want explanations for grammatical rules; others may not need any explanation2. Field dependence (场依存): a learning style in which a learner tends to look at the whole of a learning task which contains many items. The learner has difficulty in studying a particular item when it occurs within a field of other items.3. Field independence (场独立): a learning style in which a learner is able to identify or focus on particular items and is not distracted by other items in the back ground or context.11.3.3 Personality traits。

Chapter 12 课后答案

新编语言学教程Chapter 12答案Applied Linguistics1. Define the following terms briefly.(1)applied linguistics: the study of language and linguistics in relation to practicalissues, e.g. speech therapy, language teaching, testing, and translation.More often than not nowadays, it is used in the narrow sense, and refers tolanguage teaching in particular.(2)grammar-translation method: a method of foreign or second languageteaching which makes use of translation and grammar study as the mainteaching and learning activities.(3) audiolingual method: the teaching of a second language through imitation,repetition, and reinforcement. It emphasizes the teaching of speaking andlistening before reading and writing and the use of mother tongue in theclassroom is not allowed.(4)communicative language teaching: an approach to foreign or second languageteaching which emphasizes that the goal of language learning is toachieve communicative competence.(5)testing: the use of tests, or the study of the theory and practice of their use,development, evaluation, etc.(6)achievement test: a test which measures how much of a language someone haslearned with reference to a particular course of study or program of instruction.(7)validity: (in testing) the degree to which a test measures what it is supposedto measure, or can be used successfully for the purposes for which it is intended.A number of different statistical procedures can be applied to a testto estimate its validity. Such procedures generally seek to determine what thetest measures, and how well it does so.(8)reliability: (in testing) a measure of the degree to which a test gives consistentresults; a test is said to be reliable if it gives the same results when it isgiven on different occasions or when it is taken by different people.(9)proficiency test: a test which measures how much of a language someone haslearned without considering the syllabus, duration and manner of learning.(10) subjective test: a test which is scored according to the personal judgment ofthe marker, such as essay writing or translation.(11) objective test: a test that can be marked without the use of the examiner’spersonal judgment.(12) language aptitude test: a test which measures a person’s aptitude for secondor foreign language learning and it can be used to identify those learners who are most likely to succeed.(13) diagnostic test: a test which is designed to show what skills or knowledge alearner knows and doesn’t know. For example, a diagnostic pronunciationtest may be used to measure the learner’s pronunciation of English sounds.It would show which sounds a student is and is not able to pronounce. Diagnostictests may be used to find out how much a learner knows or to measure how successful an instruction program has been.(14) backwash effect: Tests strongly affect what actually occurs in the classroomand the effect of tests on classroom L2 teaching and learning is known as thebackwash effect.2. The advantages of grammar-translation method:(1)As the grammars described in this method contain very detailed descriptionsof the correct construction of phrases and sentences of a language, accuracyis stressed and improved.(2)Students’ ability to read and write is encouraged and improved since themethod focuses on the written work.(3)This method is less demanding than some other approaches for a teacherwhose oral proficiency may not be adequate.(4)This method is popular with people who would like to study English independently,especially the adult learners who want to learn grammar rules anduse them to approach new materials by themselves.The disadvantages of grammar-translation method:(1)It emphasizes language at the sentence level regardless of context, so the organizationof language above the sentence level is not so carefully studied.(2)As the focus is on written work, oral fluency and spontaneity is not so welldeveloped and common everyday language is not taught enough.(3)The basic techniques in this method are rote learning of the rules and vocabulary,and grammar rules are taught deductively as general statements tobe applied in particular exercises in translation, so the learners may find itboring to learn.(4)With the emphasis on grammar, students typically know a lot about the languagebut are unable to actually use it. As a result, their use of the new languageoften tends to be literal or unnatural.3.Changes required would include:(1)Change in teacher’s role. The teacher can no longer be the source of knowledgeand trut h about the language. The teacher’s role has more to do withinitiating activities.(2)Change in learner’s role. The learner can no longer be passive. The learnermust actively participate in the activities.(3)Change of materials. These should, as far as possible, preserve the features ofauthentic instances of language use.(4)Change of techniques. These should emphasize the tasks (not drills) to beperformed and identify the skills being practiced.(5)Change in attitude. If the above are to be achieved then we are involved inchanging our attitudes towards teaching and learning in general.4.Achievement tests are based on a particular language syllabus, or part of a syllabus,or chapters in a textbook that learners are known to have studied and theyaim to know how well learners know what they have been taught. For example,the Chinese MET test, which is based on the Middle School English Syllabus andtaken by students leaving Senior Middle School, and Mid-Term tests, designed forUniversity English Majors based on just a few chapters from a textbook.5.The validity of a test relates to what the test claims to measure and how well itdoes so. If we know that a test is valid, then we know what we can confidently sayabout a person who passes or fails it. The two most important aspects of validityare content validity and construct validity. If a test has content validity it meansthat the test questions cover a fair sample of the language structures and skillsthat the test claims to be measuring. If a test has construct validity, it shows that itmeasures only what it claims to measure and nothing else.6.A test is said to be reliable if it gives the same results when it is given on differentoccasions or when it is taken by different people. There are two aspects to reliability:test reliability and scorer reliability. Test reliability refers to how consistent scoresare on a test. If, for example, there are two versions of a particular test and the sameperson takes them on consecutive days and his scores are almost the same on eachversion, then such a test has test reliability. A test has scorer reliability if there is ahigh level of agreement between different people marking the same test paper.。

英语语言学讲义Chapter4exercise

英语语言学讲义Chapter4exerciseChapter 4：SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including thecombination of morphemes into words.2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another followinga simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticalitybelong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate andstands alone as its own sentence.16. A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to forma complete statement, question or command.17. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporatedinto the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally calledan e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words areconstantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a caserecipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24. The theory of C_____condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear onlyin subject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge in themind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces theembedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________.A. transformational rulesB. generative rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. x-bar theory30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.31. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules42. D-structureV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.。

语言学练习Exercise2

Chapter 2 5
Exercises
I. Fill in the blanks. 11. _____ is the smallest linguistic unit. Phoneme 12. According to _____, when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. the maximal onset principle

Chapter 2 7
Exercises
II. Choose the best answer. 15. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are _____ of the p phoneme. A. analogues B. tagmemes C. morphemes D. allophones D 16. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as _____. A. glottis B. vocal cavity C. pharynx D. uvula A
Chapter 2 14
Exercises
III. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F]. __ 29. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation. T __ 30. [p] is voiced bilabial stop. F

语言学Chapter 12

Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics12.0 Introduction – Ferdinand de SaussureThe Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857~1913) is ―father of modern linguistics‖and ―a master of a discipline which he made modern.‖His important ideas about linguistics were collected in Course in General Linguistics (1916), which was published by his students C. Bally and A. Sechehaye.Saussure argues that the linguistic unit is a sign. The linguistic sign unites, not a sign and a name, but a concept and a sound image. He called the concept signified and the sound image signifier. The linguistics sign has two characteristics. First, the relationship between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary. Secondly, the linguistic sign is characterized by the linear nature of the signifier.Saussure makes a distinction between langue and parole. He suggests that the task of a linguist is to study langue, since it is a coherent and analyzable object. It is this distinction that leads to the distinction of phonetics and phonology.Distinction between diachronic and synchronic studies is another great contribution Saussure makes to general linguistics.[Warning (especially to ): This note is first posted by icywarmtea on . Any unauthorized post to other websites such as is strictly not allowed. – icywarmtea][Advice: The so-called website is far from being good. There are some materials stolen from this website () there. Except for those, we can hardly find any useful materials there. Please don’t go to that website, which can only waste your time. – icywarmtea]12.1 The Prague School12.1.1 IntroductionThe Prague School has three points of special importance:(1) It stresses that the synchronic study of language is fully justified as it can draw on complete and controllable material for investigation.(2) It emphasizes the systemic character of language, arguing that no element of any language can be satisfactory analyzed or evaluated if viewed in isolation. In other words, elements are held to be in functional contrast or opposition.(3) It looks on language as a tool performing a number of essential functions or tasks for the community using it.12.1.2 Phonology and phonological oppositionsThe Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonology, and its most important contribution to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of function. Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to parole whereas phonology belonged to langue. On this basis he developed the notion of ―phoneme‖as an abstract unit of the sound system as distinct from the sounds actually produced. In classifying distinction features, he proposed three criteria‖(1) their relation to the whole contrastive system (2) relations between the opposing elements(3) their power of discriminationThese oppositions can be summarized as:(1) bilateral opposition (2) multilateral opposition (3) proportional opposition(4) isolated opposition (5) privative opposition (6) gradual opposition(7) equipollent opposition (8) neutralisable opposition (9) constant opposition12.1.3 Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)1. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP): It is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that the role of each utterance part isevaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole.2. Theme: The point of departure of a sentence is equally present to the speaker and to the hearer – it is their rallying point, the ground on which they meet. This is called the theme.3. Rheme: The goal of discourse of a sentence presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer. This is called the rheme.12.2 The London SchoolThe London School has a tradition of laying stress on the functions of language and attaching great importance to contexts of situation and the system aspect of language. It is these features that have made this school of thought known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics. It is an important and admirable part of the London School tradition to believe that different types of linguistic description may be appropriate for different purposes.12.2.1 Malinowski’s theories1. The meaning of an utterance does not come from the ideas of the words comprising it but from its relation to the situational context in which the utterance occurs. His assertion is based on two kinds of observations.(1) In primitive communities there is no writing, and language has only one type of use.(2) In all societies, children learn their languages in this way.2. The meaning of spoken utterances could always be determined by the context of situation. Malinowski distinguished three types of context of situation.(1) situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity(2) narrative situations(3) situations in which speech is used to fill a speech vacuum – phatic communion12.2.2 Firth’s theories1. The meaning of any sentence consists of the following five parts:(1) the relationship of each phoneme to its phonetic context(2) the relationship of each lexical item to the others in the sentence(3) the morphological relations of each word(4) the sentence type of which the given sentence is an example(5) the relationship of the sentence to its context of situation2. In analyzing typical context of situation, one has to carry out the analysis on the following four levels.(1) The internal relations of the texta. the syntagmatic relations between the elements in the structureb. the paradigmatic relations between units in the system and find their values(2) The internal relations of the context of situationa. the relations between text and non-linguistic elements, and their general effectsb. the analytical relations between ―bits‖ and ―pieces‖ of the text (words, parts of words, phrases) and the special elements within the situation (items, objects, persons, personalities, events).12.2.3 Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar1. M.A.K. Halliday has sought to create an approach to linguistics that treats language as foundational for the building of human experience. His insights and publications form an approach called systemic-functional linguistics. A student of JR Firth (a British linguists who himself was influenced by Malinowsky), Halliday's work stresses that language cannot be dissassociated from meaning. Systemic-functional linguistics (SFL), as it's name suggests, considers function and semantics as the basis of human language and communicative activity. Unlike structural approaches that privilege syntax, SFL-oriented linguists begin an analysis with social context and then look at how language acts upon, and is constrained and influenced by, this social context. A key concept in Halliday's approach is the "context of situation" which obtains "through a systematic relationship between the social environment on the one hand, and the functional organization of language on the other" (Halliday, 1985:11).2. Description and terms for analyzing spoken and written language(1) Tokens: the number of individual items/words(2) Types: the different kinds of words used, e.g., lexical (content) items and grammatical (function) items(3) Lexical Density: The ratio of lexical and grammatical items in an utterance or text; a "measure of information density within a text" (Yates, 1996:37).(4) Take-home message: Written language is lexically dense, while oral language is syntactically more complex.3. Systemic semantics(1) Textual function: type/token ratios, vocabulary use, register(2) Interpersonal function: speech-function, exchange structure, involvement and detachment, personal reference, use of pronouns, "interactive items" showing the position of the speaker (just, whatever, basically, slightly), discourse markers (words that moderate/monitor the interaction, e.g., well, might, good, so, anyway) A spoken corpus is primarily an "I", "You" text; the world as seen by you and me. Illustrates INVOLVEMENT A written corpus often takes 3rd person and objective reporting styles (it, he, she, and passive voice).Illustrates DETACHMENT(3) Ideational function: propositional content; modality through (in English) modal auxiliaries, e.g., (in Yates, 1996:42) modals of obligation (must, need, should) ；modals of ability and possibility (can, could) ；modals of epistemic possibility (may, might) ；modals of volition and prediction (will, shall) ；hypothetical modals: (would, should).4. The analysis of contextField: what is happening, the nature of the social interaction taking place: what is it that the participants are engaged in, in which language figures as an essential component?Tenor: who is taking part; the social roles and relationships of participant, the status and roles of the participants Mode: the symbolic organization of the text, rhetorical modes (persuasive, expository, didactic, etc); the channel of communication, such as spoken/written, monologic / dialogic, + / - visual contact, computer-mediated communication/telephone/F2F, etc.12.3 American StructuralismAmerican Structuralism is a branch of synchronic linguistics that developed in a very different style from that of Europe. While linguistics in Europe started more than two thousand years ago, linguistics in America started at the end of the 19th century. While traditional grammar plays a dominating role in Europe, it has little influence in America. While many European languages have their own historical traditions and cultures, English is the dominating language in America, where there is no such a tradition as in Europe. In addition, the pioneer scholars in America were faced with the urgent task of recording the rapidly perishing Native American Indian languages because there was no written record of them. However, these languages were characterized by features of vast diversity and differences which are rarely found in other parts of the world. To record and describe these exotic languages, it is probably better not to have any presuppositions about the nature of language in general. This explains why there was not much development in linguistic theory during this period but a lot of discussion on descriptive procedures.Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of distribution, and that the structure of each language should be described without reference to the alleged universality of such categories as tense, mood and parts of speech.Firstly, structural grammar describes everything that is found in a language instead of laying down rules. However, its aim is confined to the description of languages, without explaining why language operates the way it does. Secondly, structural grammar is empirical, aiming at objectivity in the sense that all definitions and statements should be verifiable or refutable. However, it has produced almost no complete grammars comparable to any comprehensive traditional grammars.Thirdly, structural grammar examines all languages, recognizing and doing justice to the uniqueness of each language. But it does not give an adequate treatment of meaning.Lastly, structural grammar describes even the smallest contrasts that underlie any construction or use of a language, not only those discoverable in some particular use.12.3.1 Early period: Boas and Sapir1. Boas(1) There was no ideal type or form of languages, for human languages were endlessly diverse.(2) In the Introduction to his Handbook, Boas discussed the framework of descriptive linguistics. He held that such descriptions consist of three parts: the sound of languages, the semantic categories of linguistic expression, and the process of grammatical combination in semantic expression.2. Sapir(1) He started from an anthropological viewpoint to describe the nature of language, with his main focus on typology. He defines language as ―a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols.‖(2) He also compares speech with walking, saying that walking is ―an inherent, biological function of men,‖ and it is ―a general human activity that varies only in circumscribed limits as we pass from individual to individual,‖and its variability is ―involuntary and purposeless.‖(3) In discussing between speech and meaning, Sapir holds that the association of speech and meaning is a relation that may be, but need not be, present.(4) In discussing the relation between language and thought, Sapir holds that although they are intimately related, they are not to be considered the same. Language is the means, and thought is the end product. Without language, thought is impossible.(5) He says that all human races and tribes, no matter how barbaric or underdeveloped, have their own languages. Language is the oldest human legacy, and no other aspects of any culture can be earlier than its language. Without language, there is no culture.12.3.2 Bloomfield’s theoryStructuralism, also called in different cases ―structuralist linguistics school,‖―structural linguistics,‖and ―structural grammar,‖ in its broad meaning, refers to the study of any language that regards language itself as an independent, phonological, grammatical and lexical system. In its narrow sense, it refers to the linguistic approach of Prague School, American Structuralism, or any other similar school, which supposes that any individual linguistic element must be associated for an analysis with other elements wherewith it occurs.L. Bloomfield is regarded as one of the founders and representative figures of American Structuralism at the beginning of the 20th century. He laid much emphasis on the objectivity and systematicity of observable data in his study of language. He was more interested in the ways items were arranged than in meaning. To him meaning was simply the relationship between a stimulus and a verbal response, which could hardly be explained by any rigorous analytical method. It was claimed that by following some of the ―discovering procedures‖ that he and his followers were able to arrive at an appropriate phonological and grammatical description of language under investigation.For Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of psychology, and specifically of the positivistic branch of psychology known as behaviorism. Behaviorism is a Principal scientific method, based on the belief that human beings cannot know anything they have not experienced. Behaviorism in linguistics holds that children learn language through a chain of ―stimulus-response reinforcement,‖and the adult’s use of language is also a process of ―stimulus-response.‖ When the behaviorist methodology entered linguistics via Bloomfield’s writing, the popular practice in linguistic studies was to accept what a native speaker says in his language and to discard what he says about it. This is because of the belief that a linguistic description was reliable when based on observation of unstudied utterances by speakers; it was unreliable if the analyst had resorted to asking speakers questions such as ―Can you say … in your language?‖12.3.3 Post-Bloomfieldian linguisticsInfluenced by Bloomfield’s Language, American linguists such as Z. Harris (1909 –), C. Hockett (1916 – 2000), G. Trager, H. L. Smithm, A. Hill, and R. Hall further developed structuralism, characterized by a strict empiricism. Harris’s Methods in Structural Linguistics(1951) is generally taken as marking the maturity of American descriptive linguistics.Hockett was both a linguist and anthropologist, remaining firmly within the structuralist paradigm and hailed as a star of post-Bloomfieldian linguistics.The most significant figure in continuing the structuralist tradition may be K. Pike (1912 – 2000), who and his followers have a special name for their technique of linguistic analysis — tagmemics.12.4 Transformational-Generative (TG) grammar1. Language Acquisition Device (LAD)Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a Language Acquisition Device, which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning. He argues the child comes into the world with specific innate endowment, not only with general tendencies or potentialities, but also with knowledge of the nature of language. According to this view, children are born with knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge is universal. The relations and categories exist in all human languages and all human infants are born with knowledge of them. According to Chomsky, there are aspects of linguistic organization that are basic to the human brain and that make it possible for children to acquire linguistic competence in all its complexity with little instruction from family or friends. He argues that LAD probably consists of three elements: a hypothesis-maker, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.2. Development of TG grammarChomsky’s TG grammar has seen five stages of development.(1) The Classical Theory aims to make linguistics a science.(2) The Standard Theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistic theory.(3) The Extended Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar.(4) The Revised Extended Standard Theory (or GB) focuses discussion on government and binding.(5) The Minimalist program is a further revision of the previous theory.The development of TG grammar can be regarded as a process of constantly minimalising theories and controlling the generative power. Although TG grammar has involved putting forward, revising, and cancelling of many specific rules, hypotheses, mechanisms, and theoretical models, its aims and purposes have been consistent, i.e. to explore the nature, origin and the uses of human knowledge or language.3. Features of TG grammarThe starting point of Chomsky’s TG grammar is his innateness hypothesis, based on his observations that some important facts can never be otherwise explained adequately. TG grammar has the following features:(1) Chomsky defines language as a set of rules or principles.(2) Chomsky believes that the aim of linguistics is to produce a generative grammar which captures the tacit knowledge of the native speaker of his language. This concerns the question of learning theory and the question of linguistic universals.(3) Chomsky and his followers are interested in any data that can reveal the native speaker’s tacit knowledge. They seldom use what native speakers actually say; they rely on their own intuition.(4) Chomsky’s methodology is hypothesis-deductive, which operates at two levels:a. the linguist formulates a hypothesis about language structure – a general linguistic theory; this is tested by grammars for particular languagesb. each such grammar is a hypothesis on the general linguistic theory(5) Chomsky follows rationalism in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.。

语言学练习（一,二）

语言学练习（一,二）Exercises of LinguisticsChapter 2Multiple choices (3*15=45?)1. Which of the following feature cannot be used to describe English consonants?A. voicelessB. oralC. alveolarD. lateral2. Which of the following statements about allophone is NOT correct?A. Allophones are different forms of the same phonemeB. Allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution.C. Allophones distinguish meaning.D. Allophones are language-specific.3. The word _____ contains a high vowel.A. matB. mudC. dotD. boot4. Phoneticians adopt the following standards in describing English consonants. Which of the following is NOT correct about [s] sound?A. fricativeB. voicelessC. alveolarD. affricate5. The syllabic structure of “blade” can be described as______.A. CCVCB. CCVCVC. CVCD. CVCV6. _______ refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound.A. Addition of soundB. Loss of soundC. AssimilationD. Metathesis7. Assimilation includes the following phenomena except________.A. nasalizationB. palatalizationC. dentalizationD. transmutation8. Which of the following statements is correct? ( )A. Diacritics added to letter-symbols bring out finer distinctions than the letters alone can do.B. The lips are the most flexible part in articulation, only secondary to tongue.C. The [e] sound in English is a front, semi-close, unrounded, tense vowel.D. Minimal pairs are created in order to show the distinctive value of one phone.9. Which is not a suprasegmental feature? ( )A. stressB. toneC. intonationD. conjuncture10. About phone, phoneme and allophone, which statement is wrong? ( )A. Phones are speech sounds we actually hear and produce during linguistic communication.B. Phones do not necessarily have distinctive values but phonemes do.C. Allophones in some cases also have distinctive values.D. Phones in complementary distribution are not necessarily allophones.11. Which one is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [?]C. [e]D. [I]12. _____ doesn?t form a minimal pair.A. meter-metreB. ill-isC. pad-patD. ton-tongue13. Conventionally, a ____ is put in slashes (/ /). A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme14. In the word______, [l] is velarized.A. leadB. stealC. lethalD. glide15. There are ____ syllables and _____ phonemes in the wordgentlemanly.A. 4, 9B. 3, 10C. 4, 10D. 3, 9Blank-filling (2*10=20?)16. If a sound can be a substitute for the other in a word in the same environment without changing the meaning, the two sounds are in__________ _________ (two words).17. The maximal numbers of consonants in coda position and onset position are respectively _____ and_____ (e.g. ________ and _______).18. The [g] sound is silent in design and paradigm but present in their corresponding forms signature and paradigmatic. This is due to a _______ rule which could be stated as: when occurring before a final consonant, a[g] sound is not pronounced.19. In terms of places of articulation, [θ] and [e ] can be classified into the category _______.20. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit which has distinctive value.21. When the vocal cords are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be _______. True or false (T for true and F for false 1*10=10?)22. Linguists are concerned with all the sounds produced by the human speech organs. ( )23. English has four basic types of intonation. ( )24. Suprasegmental features cannot distinguish meaning. ( )25. Phonology is language specific but phonetics is not. ( )26. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception ofspeech sounds. ( )27. The stress can be laid on different syllables of a word, resulting in different meanings. ( )28. Because of assimilation, the negative forms of legal and possible are illegal and impossible. ( )29. All vowels are voiceless. ( )30. [m] sound is both a labiodental and a nasal. ( )31. The sound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels. ( )Brief definitions (3*5=15?)32. phonology33. articulatory phonetics34. complementary distributionSound Description (2*5=10?)Describe the following speech sounds according to the criteria that we have learnt.35. [Λ]____________________________________________36. [ j ]____________________________________________37. [d?]____________________________________________38. [ h ]____________________________________________39. [ I ]____________________________________________Exercises of LinguisticsChapter 1Multiple choices (4*10=40?)1.Which of the following does not fall into the core of linguistics?A. phoneticsB. syntaxC. sociolinguisticsD. semantics2.Of the following statements, which is incorrect?A.Applied linguistics in a narrow sense refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching.B.The study of language variation in terms of gender and psychology belongs to the category ofpsycholinguistics.C.Modern linguistics takes a descriptive attitude rather than a prescriptive one in language study.D.The ultimate goal of language is not just to generate grammatically well-formed sentences but to createmeaningful sentences.3.Which of the following statements are problematic?A.Modern linguistics is supposed to be scientific and objective, which seeks to describe the language people actually use.B.According to F. de Saussure, langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of acommunity, while parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.C. A diachronic approach in modern linguistics is given priority over a synchronic one.D.N. Chomsky thinks what a linguist should study is an ideal speaker’s performance instead of his competence.4.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in some different ways except ____.A.Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is laying down rules of “correctness”.B.Spoken language is given prominence, not the written language in modern linguistics. The situation wasreverse in traditional grammar.C.Traditional grammar only examined one aspect of language while modern linguistics studies language in a comprehensive way.D.Modern linguists are opposed to the notion that any one language can provide an adequate framework for all others while traditional grammarians proposed a universal framework.5.“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”--The famous quotation from Shakespeare's playRomeo and Juliet demonstrates that language and objects in physical world are associated by _____.A. conventionB. rulesC. arbitrarinessD. symbols6.Choose correct statements about arbitrariness of language.______/doc/fd6908020.html,nguage is not entirely arbitrary.B.Onomatopoeic words in language are motivated.C.Some compounds in language are not formed entirely arbitrarily.D.Different sounds may refer to the same object in different languages.7. A professor is employing the _____ function when he says, “Next, I will explain what …Paleozoic? means.”A. referentialB. conativeC. metalinguisticD. poetic8.Human language can be used to refer to situations removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.This design feature is called _____.A. productivityB. displacementC. discretenessD. duality 9.According to Halliday, when we use language to organize our experience of the real or imaginary world, we are performing the _____ function of language.A. textualB. interpersonalC. ideationalD. evaluative10.We can understand abstract words like happiness and motivation. This shows language has the propertyof _______.A. dualityB. creativityC. arbitrarinessD. displacementTrue or false (T for true and F for false) (4*6=24?)11. Recursiveness, as seen in some sentences, well illustrates the creativity of language. ( )12. Some animal communication systems do show the feature of duality. ( )13. The sentence “I like the idea that Joseph proposed at the conference” shows referential function of language.( )14. Human child must learn a specific language after s/hewas born though genetically endowed with the ability to learn. ( )15. The distinction between syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation was made by N. Chomsky. ( )16. A linguistic study is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for the correct use of language. ( )Brief Definitions17. What is language? (6’)18. What is called general linguistics? (10’)Thought-provoking Question (20’)19. Is it necessary to make a distinction between speech and writing in linguistic study? Why?。

语言学知识问题版

III、语言学知识练习150题1.Which of the following statements about language is NOT true?nguage is a system.nguage is symbolic.C.Animals also have languages.nguage is arbitrary.2.Which of the following is NOT a constituent?A.I like the song.B.I.C.Song.D.Like.3.Of the following sound combinations, only is permissible.A.kiblB.bkilC.ilkbD.ilbk4.The relation between the determiner “this” and the noun “man” in the phrase “this man” isernmentB.concordC.bindingD.paradigmatic5.The sentence that has a NP and a VP is mostly shown in a formula “S → NP + VP”.A.hierarchicalB.linearC.tree diagramD.vertical6.“Big” and “small” are a pair of opposites.plementaryB.gradablepleteD.converse7.Which of the following phrases is exocentric?A.women and menB.on the tableC. a clever boyD.an ugly man8.Arbitrariness of language was first discussed byA.ChomskyB.HallidayC.FirthD.Saussure9.Which pair of words is NOT a minimal pair?A.cat / batB.put / butC.jig / pigD.sit / bit10.Which function is the major role of Language?rmativeB.InterpersonalC.PerformativeD.Emotive11.If two sounds are in complementary distribution, they are of the same phoneme.A.symbolsB.allophonesC.phonesD.signs12.Which branch of study cannot be included in the scope of Linguistics?A.SyntaxB.PragmaticsC.PhoneticsD.Anthropology13.Atom is a word of origin.tinB.GreekC.ArabicD.Spanish14.The distinction of langue and parole is made byA.HallB.SapirC.ChomskyD.Saussure15.are bound morphemes because they cannot be used as separate words.A.RootsC.Affixespounds16.is the study of the relationship between symbols and their interpreter.A.SyntaxB.SemanticsC.PragmaticsD.Sociolinguistics17.is the defining properties of units like nouns (number, gender, case, etc.) and verbs(tense, aspect, voice, etc.)A.Parts of speechB.Word classesC.CategoriesD.Function of words18.The noun “tear” and the verb “tear” areA.homophonesB.homographsplete homonymsD.allophones19.The function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is socrucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.A.performativeB.phaticC.recreationalD.emotive20.The term may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies languagechanges over various periods of time and at various historical stages.A.synchronic linguisticsparative linguisticsC.diachronic linguisticsD.historical comparative linguistics21.examines how meaning is encoded in a language.A.SemanticsB.SyntaxC.PragmaticsD.Morphology22.Saussure distinguishes the linguistic competence of the speaker asnguageC.systemngue23.The fundamental distinction between competence and performance is discussed byA.ChomskyB.SaussureC.BloomfieldD.Austin24.An affix can be added to certain type of to form a new word.A.infixB.affixC.stemD.word25.In a sentence, which of the following is usually NOT stressed?A.NounsB.VerbsC.PrepositionsD.Adjectives26.The maxim of requires that a participant’s contribution be relevant to theconversation.A.quantityB.qualityC.mannerD.relation27.The relationship between “meat” and “meet” isA.synonymyB.antonymyC.polysemyD.hononymy28.That there is no direct link between language and the real world is the view of concerningthe study of meaning.A.socialistB.conceptualistC.contextualistD.behaviorist29.What are the dual structure of language?A.Sounds and lettersB.Sounds and meaningC.Letters and meaningD.Sounds and symbols30.Where are the vocal cords?A.In the mouthB.In the nasal cavityC.Above the tongueD.Inside the larynx31.Which of the following statements about language is NOT true?nguage is a means of verbal communication.nguage is some arbitrary symbols.C.The language system is unique to human beings.nguage is yet to be understood.32.studies the sound systems in a certain language.A.PhoneticsB.PhonologyC.SemanticsD.Syntax33.is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression andcontent.A.RootB.AllomorphC.MorphemeD.Word34.A speaker’s actual utterance in Chomsky’s terminology is calledA.deep structureB.linguistic universalsC.universal grammarD.surface structure35.A word with several meanings is called word.A. a polysemousB. a synonymousC.an abnormalD. a multiple36.The study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication isA.general linguisticsB.phonologyC.semanticsD.morphology37.Leech divided meanings into types.A. 4B. 5C. 6D.738.English has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languagesEXCEPTA.FrenchB.KoreantinD.Greek39.Distinctive features are used to describeA.phonesB.phonologyC.allophonesD.phonemes40.The English word “untouchable” is composed of morphemes.A.fourB.threeC.twoD.five41.The process by which words are formed by putting the initial letters of several words togetheris calledpoundingB.clippingC.acronymD.blending42.“The Adam’s Apple” isA. a kind of appleB.related to AdamC.the front part of larynxD.on the top of larynx43.The founder of modern linguistics isA.ChomskyC.BloomfieldD.Saussure44.Modern linguistics focuses on the present day language, and it will be possible to describelanguage from a perspective.A.sociologicalB.synchronicC.diachronicD.psychological45.The four major modes of semantic change areA.extension, narrowing, meaning shift and class shiftB.extension, generalization, elevation and degradationC.extension, narrowing, specialization and degradationD.extension, elevation, amelioration and degradation46.In the production of consonants at least articulators are involved.A.oneB.twoC.threeD.four47.The basic unit in the study of morphology isA.the internal structureB.morphemeC.the rules by which words are formedD.word48.The relation between “food” and “bread” is calledA.synonymyB.polysemyC.hononymyD.hoponymy49.V oiceless sounds are produced when the vocal folds areA.closedB.apartC.totally closedpletely open50.Which of the following is NOT a compound word?A.Pencil boxB.UnreasonableD.Upstairs51.involve more than one manners of articulation.A.StopsB.FricativesC.Affricatesterals52.Which is NOT true for the vowel /i/?A.HighB.UnroundedC.MidD.Front53.The sentence “I apologize!”belongs to the category of according to the speech acttheory.A.expressiveB.performativeC.representativeD.constative54.General linguistics is the scientific study ofnguage of a certain individualB.the English languageC.human languages in generalD.the system of a particular language55.The distinction between vowels and consonants lies inA.the place of articulationB.the obstruction of airstreamsC.the position of the tongueD.the shape of the lips56.studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received.A.PhoneticsB.PhonologyC.PhonemeD.Phonics57.sounds are produced with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.A.VelarB.PalatalC.Glottal58.is concerned with the study of the actual use of language in communication.A.SociolinguisticsB.SemanticsC.PragmaticsD.Synchronic linguistics59.Where is the primary stress of the word “phonology”?A.phoB.noC.loD.gy60.refers to the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.A.Locutionary actB.Illocutinary actC.Perlocutionary actD.Speech act61.Which of the following words is built by abbreviation?A.SmogB.FridgeC.MotelD.Edit62.What is the full form of LAD?nguage associative districtnguage acquisition districtnguage associative devicenguage acquisition device63.The semantic components of the word “man” can be expressed asA.+ amimate, + human, +male, adultB.+ animate, + human, +male, + adultC.+ animate, + human, -male, - adultD.+ animate, + human, -male, + adult64.A(n) is the smallest unit of sound in a language, which can distinguish two words.A.morphemeB.soundC.phonemeD.allophone65.Productivity is one of the features of languages.A.distinctiveB.designC.suprasegmentalD.pragmatic66.What is the common feature of the three sounds: /b/, /p/, /m/?A.V oicelessB.V oicedC.NasalD.Bilabial67.Which of the following items is NOT one of the grammatical categories of English pronouns?A.GenderB.NumberC.CaseD.V oice68.In the word “internationalism”, which part is the root?A.interB.nationC.alD.ism69.“V oiced fricatives→voiceless / voiceless” is a .A.phonological ruleB.syntactic ruleC.phrase structure ruleD.functional rule70.The word “pen”originally meant “feather used for writing with ink”. Now it refers to anydevice used for writing with ink. This is an example ofA.degradation of meaningB.broadening of meaningC.narrowing of meaningD.elevation of meaning71.The word “smog” is formed throughA.breakformationB.blendingC.clippingD.derivation72.In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their language.A.firstB.secondC.dialectalD.individualized73.Which of the following statements is NOT true for vowels?A.V owels are sonorants.B.In the production of vowels, there is no obstruction of air.C.Tongue height is one criterion to distinguish vowels.D.V owels are also called obstruents.74.All syllables must have a(n) .A.codaB.onsetC.nucleusD.consonant75.Lkaps is not a possible word form in English due to .A.sonority scaleB.phonological ruleC.syntactic ruleD.morphological rule76.Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Chomsky’s TG Grammar?A.InnatenessB.Deductive methodologyC.Emphasis on interpretationD.Emphasis on stimulus-response reinforcement77.“Judo” is of origin.A.ScottishB.KoreanC.JapaneseD.Chinese78.Which of the following is the major cause of invention of new lexical items?A.The rapid development of science and technologyB.The way of language teachingC.The way of children’s language acquisitionD.Economic activities79.In Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which theory focuses discussion on government and binding?A.The Classical TheoryB.The Standard TheoryC.The Extended Standard TheoryD.The Revised Extended Standard Theory80.When the suffix is added to a verb, it changes this verb into an adjective.A.lessB.nessC.fullyD.er81.The function of the sentence “Lovely weather, isn’t it?” isrmativeB.phaticC.performativeD.recreational82.Once the notion of was taken into consideration, semantics spilled into pragmatics.A.meaningB.contextC.formD.content83.Which of the following criteria can NOT be used to classify vowels?A.The part of the tongue that is held highestB.The openness of the mouthC.The vibration of the vocal cordsD.The shape of the lips84.There are maxims under the cooperative principle.A. 2B. 3C. 4D. 585.Chomsky argues that LAD probably consists of elements.A. 2B. 3C. 4D. 586.“Buy” and “sell” form a pair ofA.converse antonymsB.gradable antonymsplementary antonymsD.marked antonyms87.If a phoneme is substituted for another in a word and the substitution results in a change of theword meaning, the two phonemes are said to beA.minimal pairB.minimal setC.distinctive phonemesD.distinctive features88.is a phrase which can only be understood as a unit, not as a summation of the meaningof each constituent word.A.CollocationB.IdiomC.Semantic componentD.Synonym89.The well-known formula: S→r…. s→R was put forward byA.BloomfieldB.FirthC.HockettD.Harris90.is a pair of complementary antonyms.A.Wild and tameB.Nimble and lameC.Cold and warmD.Alive and dead91.Firth’s second important contribution to linguistics is his method of prosodic analysis, calledA.prosodic phonologyB.feature geometryC.optimality phonologyD.supersegmental phonology92.Which of the following is NOT a Suprasegmental feature?A.SyllableB.StressC.ToneD.V oicelessness93.The s in drums isA. a morphemeB. a stemC. a rootD.an inflectional affix94.The word bodyguard is apound wordplex wordC.derivational wordD.free morpheme95.In English, the gender distinctions areA.not related to real world entitiesB.on the whole naturalC.divided into Feminine, Masculine and NeuterD.divided into Feminine and Masculine96.Halliday’s Systemic-Functional Grammar takes as the object of study.A.actual uses of languageB.ideal speaker’s linguistic competenceC.children’s languageD.adult’s language97.Which of the following English sounds is NOT bilabial?A./ b /B./ m /C./ p /D./ f /98.can be used independently without being combined with other morphemes.A.Free morphemesB.Bound morphemesC.AffixesD.Roots99.Which of the following words is a derivational one?A.BlackboardB.SingsC.AstonishmentD.Boys100.John Austin proposed in the late 1950s.A.Speech Act TheoryB.7 types of meaningC.Cooperative PrincipleD.Predication Analysis101.WTO isA.an abbreviationB.an acronymC. a word which is formed by blendingD. a word which is formed by backformation102.For Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of psychology and specifically of the brand of psychology known asA.behaviorismB.structuralismpetenceD.performance103.Which of the following is a voiceless bilabial stop?A./ w /B./ m /C./ b /D./ p /104.is NOT a grammatical category of English verbs.A.TenseB.AspectC.NumberD.Gender105.All words contain aA.rootB.bound morphemeC.prefixD.suffix106.Of the following word formation processes, is the most productive.A.clippingB.blendingC.initialismD.derivation107.practiced a special style of synchronic linguistics and its most important contribution to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of function.A.The London SchoolB.American structuralismC.The Prague SchoolD.The TG Grammar108.is NOT included in Leech’s associative meaning.A.Connotative meaningB.Social meaningC.Collocative meaningD.Thematic meaning109.deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience.A.SenseB.ReferenceC.SymbolD.Thought110.Luggage and baggage are synonyms.A.dialectalB.stylisticC.semantically differentD.collocational111.The maxim of quality requires: do not say what you believe to beA.falseB.trueC.indirectD.insufficient112.Knight originally meant youth, but now it means a medieval gentleman soldier. This is a meaningA.broadeningB.narrowingC.meaning shiftD.class shift113.Expressions like “Tom” or “He” can both be filled in the blank of the sentence “is missing.” So Tom and He have relation.A.syntagmaticB.paradigmaticC.systematicerning114.Foolish which comes from “fool + ish” is a word.A.derivationalB.inflectionalpoundplex115.The Prague School is best known for its contribution to .A.phoneticsB.syntaxC.morphologyD.phonology116.Which of the following is NOT the function of language?A.Metalingual functionB.Interpersonal functionC.Emotive functionD.Cultural transmission117.“We can do things with words” is the main idea ofA.the speech act theoryB.the cooperative principlesC.the polite principlesD.pragmatics118.Motel is a(n)A.abbreviationB.coinageC.blendingD.acronym119.is NOT a pair of homophones.A.“Fair” (adj.) and “fair” (n.)B.“Flea” and “flee”C.“Lead” (v.) and “lead” (n.)D.“Compliment” and “complement”120.The classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance mainly illustrates the view ofA.conceptualismB.contextualismC.behaviorismD.structuralism121.We can refer to Confucius, even though he has been dead for over 2,500 years. This feature of language is calledA.dualityB.creativityC.arbitrarinessD.displacement122.Which function of language is also called ideational function in the framework of functionalgrammar?A. Informative functionB. Interpersonal functionC. Emotive functionD. Recreational function123.investigates the interrelation of language and mind.A.PsycholinguisticsB.SociolinguisticsC.Anthropological linguisticsputational linguistics124.Morphology is concerned withA.the meaning of wordsB.the pronunciation of wordsC.the internal organization of wordsD.the combination of words into sentences125.The sentence “You should never use cliché in writing” isA.descriptiveB.prescriptiveC.obligatoryD.narrative126.If a study focuses on Shakespearean language, it is study.A.diachronicB.synchronicC.systematicD.pragmatic127.is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.A.Auditory phoneticsB.Articulatory phoneticsC.Acoustic phoneticsD.Phonology128./ l / is the only in English.A.fricativeB.affricativeC.nasalteral129./ f, v / are both labiodentals and .A.nasalsB.fricativesC.affricativesD.alveolar130.The idea of establishing a phonetic alphabet was first proposed by the Danish grammarianA.Otto JespersenB.Daniel JonesC. A.J. EllisD. A.M. Bell131.The Sound Patterns of English (SPE 1968) mainly deals withA.multi-level phonologyB.non-linear phonologyC.super segmental phonologyD.linear approach of phonology132.In Chinese Putonghua, only can occur after the vowel.A.nasalsB.stopsteralD.vowels133.A compound is composed ofA. a root and an affixB. a stem and an affixC. a root and a free morphemeD.two free morphemes134.The word hamburger is of origin.A.AmericanB.ItalianC.GermanD.French135.The phrase “the three small Chinese children” is construction.A.endocentricB.exocentricC.hierarchicalD.linear136.The contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning fromA.functionB.contextC.instinctD.observation137.If one word has more than one meaning, then we call itA.polysemyB.synonymyC.homonymyD.hyponymy138.The words “male” or “female” are antonyms.A.gradableplementaryC.converseplete139.The words “amaze” and “astound” are very close in meaning, they are synonyms.A.dialectalB.stylisticC.semantically differentD.collocational140.Which pair is the emotive synonyms?A.dad and fatherB.flat and apartmentC.mean and frugalD.charge and accuse141.The words “rain” and “reign” areA.homographsplete homonymsC.homophonesD.allophones142.B.L. Whorf was the student ofA.BloomfieldB.FirthC.HallidayD.Sapir143.Which of the following functions is NOT the function put forward by Halliday?A.The Ideational FunctionB.The Interpersonal FunctionC.Generative FunctionD.The Textual Function144.Which of the following is NOT Saussure’s field of study?A.LinguisticsB.SociologyC.PsychologyD.Anthropology145.Grice introduced four categories of maxims, which one means we should be clear in our meaning?A.Quantity MaximB.Manner MaximC.Quality MaximD.Relation Maxim146.The Q-principle isA.hearer-basedB.speaker-basedC.both the hearer and the speaker basedD.context-based147.Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study ofA.word functionB.word meaningC.word formationD.word system148.The notion of Functional Sentence Perspective is used to describeA.how information is distributed in sentencesB.how sentences are formedC.the function of sentencesD.the relation between language and its users149.The first major theory in the study of language in use is calledA.illocutionary theoryB.Speech Act TheoryC.Conversational implicatureD.The Q and R-principle150.is the major concern of semantics.A.MeaningB.WordsC.Sentence structuresD.Phrase structure rules21。

语言学汇总unit 7-unit12

Malinowski language and culture It is a mode of action and not an instrument of reflection’. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis①Proposed:Benjamin Lee Whorf & Edward Sapir②内容Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speaker’s unique ways of understanding the world.观点1) language may determine our thinking patterns; 2) similarity between language is relative. Linguistic Determinism and Linguistic Relativity③The strong version refers to the original hypothesis makes, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our way of thinking patterns.The weak version suggests that there is a correlation between language, culture and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationships between language use and socialstructure. It investigates the correlation between linguistic variables and social variables影响因素：class,gender,age,ethnic identity, education background, occupation, religious belief Speech community is a concept in sociolinguistics that describes a more or less discrete group of people who use language in a unique and mutually accepted way among themselves.Dialect is a form of language spoken in a particular geographical area or by members of a particular social class or occupational group, distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.register is a variety of language used for a particular purpose or in a particular socialsetting.Halliday identifies three variables that determine register: 1field2tenor 3modeChapter 9Style: variation in the language use. L i t e r a r y s t y l e:w a y s o f w r i t i n g e m p l o y e d i n l i t e r a t u r e a n d b y i n d i v i d u a l w r i t e r s;t h e w a y t h e m i n d o f t h e a u t h o r e x p r e s s e s i t s e l f i n w o r d s.Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which studies the features of situationally distinctive uses of language, and tries to establish principles capable of accounting for the particular choices made by individual and social groups in their use of language. 广义, it studies the use of language in all kinds of contexts and how language use varies in accordance with changing circumstances. 狭义stylistics only focuses on texts of artistic value.Stylistics in this narrow sense is called literary stylistics, the goal of which is to explain the relation between language and artistic function. 文学语言的特点：（foregrounding/figurative language）Foregrounding has the function of giving unusual prominence to one element or property of a text, relative to other less noticeable aspects.Device:deviation and parallelism(偏离Lexical, Syntactic Deviant phrase structure. )figurative language:simile,metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche视角Narrators /Schema-oriented language .Given vs New information .DeixisSpeech presentation: DS FIS IS NRAS NRS .Thought presentation DT FIT IT NRTA NRT NRSA:A summer of a longer piece of discourse.NRS:namely a sentence which merely tells us that speech occurred, and which does not even specify the speech act involoved.如何分析小说语言1.Lexis/vocabulary2.Grammatical organization3.Textualorganization4..Figures of speech（前景化，比喻性语言）5Style variation 6Discoursal patterning 7Viewpoint manipulation(语言思想)Pragmatics: The study of language in use. It is usually concerned with the meanings that sentences have in particular contexts in which they are used. Pragmatics is different from traditional semantics in that it studies meaning not in isolation but in context.1. Speech Act Theory Austin (1) Two types of sentencesPerformatives施为句: The utterance of a sentence is, or is part of, the doing of an action.言有所为。

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Exercises 12 8
II. Choose the best answer.
12.
The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of _____. A. function B. meaning C. signs D. system A
10.
Systemic-Functional Grammar takes the actual uses of language as the object of study, while Chomsky's TG Grammar takes the ideal speaker's linguistic _____ as the object of study. competence
Exercises
Exercises 12
1
I. Fill in the blanks.
1.
The Prague School practiced a special style of _____ Linguistics. synchronic 2. The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between _____ and phonology. phonetics

Exercises 12 15
II. Choose the best answer.
19. TG Grammar has seen _____ stages of development. A. three B. four C. five D. six C

Exercises 12
16
III. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F].
Exercises 12 9
II. Choose the best answer.
13.
The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is _____. A. Boas B. Sapir C. Bloomfield D. Harris C
Exercises 12 19
III. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F].
25.
The Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar. [F] The Extended Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar.
Exercises 12
7
II. Choose the best answer.
11.
The person who is often described as "father of modern linguistics" is _____. A. Firth B. Saussure C. Halliday D. Chomsky B
Exercises 12 18
[T]
23.
III. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F].
24.
American Structuralism is a branch of diachronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century. [F] American Structuralism is a branch of synchronic linguistics.

Exercises 12
11
II. Choose the best answer.
15. Generally speaking, the _____ specifies whether a certain tagmeme is in the position of the Nucleus or of the Margin in the structure. A. Slot B. Class C. Role D. Cohesion A
Exeห้องสมุดไป่ตู้cises 12 4
I. Fill in the blanks.
7.
In the history of American linguistics, the period between 1933 and 1950 is also known as the _____ Age. Bloomfieldian 8. _____ in language theories is characteristic of America. Descriptivism
Exercises 12 5
I. Fill in the blanks.
9.
The starting point of Chomsky's TG Grammar is his _____ hypothesis. innateness
Exercises 12
6
I. Fill in the blanks.

Exercises 12 14
II. Choose the best answer.
18. The rheme in the sentence "On it stood Jane" is _____. A. On it B. stood C. On it stood D. Jane D 19. Chomsky follows _____ in philosophy and mentalism in psychology. A. empiricism B. behaviorism C. rationalism D. mentalism C
Exercises 12 20
III. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F].
26.
American descriptive linguistics is empiricist and focuses on diversities of languages. [T]
Exercises 12 10
II. Choose the best answer.
14. The theory of _____ considers that all sentences are generated from a semantic structure. A. Case Grammar B. Stratificational Grammar C. Relational Grammar D. Generative Semantics D
Exercises 12 17
III. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F].
22.
London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics. According to Firth, a system is a set of mutually exclusive options that come into play at some point in a linguistic structure.

Exercises 12 13
II. Choose the best answer.
17. In Halliday’s view, the _____ function is the function that the child uses to know about his surroundings. A. personal B. heuristic（启发式的） C. Imaginative D. informative B
Exercises 12
21
III. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F].
27.
Chomsky's concept of linguistic performance is similar to Saussure's concept of parole, while his use of linguistic competence is somewhat different from Saussure's langue. [T]
Exercises 12 3
I. Fill in the blanks.
5.
Systemic-Functional Grammar is a (n) _____ oriented functional linguistic approach. sociologically 6. Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of _____. distribution