英语语言学Chapter 5
chapter5 语言学
Chapter 5 Semantics⏹5.1 Semantics⏹----the study of language meaning.⏹Meaning is central to the study of communication.⏹What is meaning?Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning.5.2 Some ViewsConcerning the Study of Meaning⏹Naming Theory (Plato)⏹The Conceptualist view⏹Contextualism (Bloomfield)⏹BehaviorismNaming Theory (Plato)⏹Words are names or labels for things.⏹Limitations:1) Applicable to nouns only.2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phoenix…3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred，idea, limitation…The Conceptualist View⏹The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation(调节) of concepts in the mind.Ogden and Richards: Semantic TriangleOgden and Richards: Semantic Triangle⏹The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words and phrases);⏹The referent refers to the object in the world of experience;⏹Thought or reference refers to concept.⏹The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.The Contextualism⏹Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior.⏹Two types of contexts are recognized:⏹Situational context: spatiotemporal situation⏹Linguistic context: the probability of a word‟s co-occurrence or collocation.⏹For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.⏹他把自行车修好了。
英语语言学Chapter 5_semantics
5. Sense & Reference
• Sense and reference are the two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning. • Sense– the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. • Reference: What a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.
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„Colorful‟ meaning
• Commendatory • tough-minded • resolute, firm • shrewd • childlike • wiseman • man of usual talent • portly, stout, solid, plum • slender, slim • • • • • • • • • Derogatory ruthless obstinate sly, crafty childish wiseguy freak fleshy, fat, tubby lean, skinny, lanky, weedy, scraggy
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Differences:
• (1) • (2) • (3) linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. e.g. I was once bitten by a dog. Mind you. There is a dog over there. Sometimes linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense. “朝阳” & “夕阳” “主任” &
戴炜栋英语语言学概论Chapter 5
The naming theory
Proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, words are just names or labels for things. Limitations: 1) It‘s applicable to nouns only; 2) Even within the category of nouns, there are still some nouns can not be named by physical objects.
Semantic triangle or triangle of significance (语义三角或意义三角)
THOUGHT/ REFERENCE (ept)
SYMBOL/ FORM…….. REFERENT (所指)
Linguistic element (words, phrases)
grammatical meaning (语法意义): grammaticality (语法性), which is governed by the grammatical rules of the language. semantic meaning (语义意义): is governed by rules called selectional restrictions (选择 限制), i. e. , constraints on what lexical items can go with what others (即对词汇项搭
X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X.) X 蕴含 Y (Y是 X的一个含义) e.g. X: He has been to France. Y: He has been to Europe. ―He has been to France‖ entails ―He has been to Europe‖ 或者 “He has been to Europe‖ is entailed by ―He has been to France‖. If X is true, Y is necessarily true. If X is false, Y may be true or false. 如果X为真,那么Y必定为假，如果X为假, 那么Y可 能为真也可能为假.
Chapter_5 语言学
Chapter 5 Meaning(semantics)Semantics•Definition: Semantics is the study of meaning in language.•Meaning has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers, logicians and linguists. E.g. Plato & Aristotle.5.1 The meaning of “meaning”•C. K. Ogden & I. A. Richards (1923). The Meaning of Meaning.•John means to write.•A green light means to go.•Health means everything.•His look was full of meaning.•What is the meaning of life?•What does …capitalist‟ mean to you?•What does …cornea‟ me an?•The transparent, convex, anterior portion of the outer fibrous coat of the eyeball that covers the iris and the pupil and is continuous with the sclera.•Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:–Conceptual meaning → Denotation–Connotative meaning → Connotation–Social meaning–Affective meaning–Reflected meaning–Collocative meaning–Thematic meaning(1) Conceptual meaning•Also called …denotative‟ or …cognitive‟ meaning.–Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.–Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.(2) Connotative meaning•What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.•Involving the …real world‟ experience one associates with an expres sion when one uses or hears it. •Unstable: they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.Step motherDenotation & Connotation•Denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in real world. •Connotation:the properties of the entity a word connote, it‟s a term in contrast with denotation.•E.g.1 words with the same denotation, but differ in the connotative meanings:politician (derogatory) statesman ( favorable)•E.g. 2•color words Denotation Connotationwhite the color of white purityred the color of red passion, blood, happynessblue the color of blue sadnessMr. Smith is a white man. He was looking rather green the other day. He has been feeling blue today. When I saw him, he was in brown mood. I hope he‟ll soon be in the pink again. (3) Social meaning•What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.–Dialect: the language of a geographical region or of a social class.–Time: the language of the 18th c., etc.–Status: polite, colloquial, slang, etc.Such as:•abode: poetic•home: general•steed: poetic•horse: general•nag: slang•gee-gee: baby language(4) Affective meaning•Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about. Such as–Y ou‟re a vicious tyrant and a villainous reprobate, and I hate you for it!–I‟m terribly sorry to interru pt, but I wonder if you would be so kind as to lower your voices a little. or–Will you belt up.…Colorful‟ meaningCommendatory•tough-minded•resolute, firm•shrewd•childlike•wiseman•man of usual talent•stout, solid, plum•slender, slimDerogatory•ruthless•obstinate•sly, crafty•childish•wiseguy•freak•fleshy, fat, tubby•lean, skinny, lanky, weedy, scraggy(5) Reflected meaning•What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression. Such as, When you hear …click the mouse twice‟, you think of Gerry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited.•Many taboo terms are result of this.(6) Collocative meaning•The associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.–pretty: girl, boy, woman, flower, garden, colour, village, etc.–handsome: boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc.(7) Thematic meaning•What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis. Such as,–Mrs Bessie Smith donated the first prize.–The first prize was donated by Mrs Bessie Smith.–They stopped at the end of the corridor.–At the end of the corridor, they stopped.5.2 The Referential Theory•Referential theory: the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stand for.•Leech‟s conceptual meaning has 2 sides:Sense (Connotation): the abstract properties of an entity;Reference (Denotation): the concrete entities having those properties.Concept: the abstract thing which has no existence in the material word and can only be sensed in our mind.•Note: every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference. Eg. “but ” “if” “God” “dragon”… So we should study meaning in terms of sense rather than reference.•Words→Concepts →Things: Ogden & Richards in The Meaning of Meaning5.3 Sense Relations•Synonymy(sameness relation)•Antonymy(oppositeness relation)•Hyponymy(inclusiveness relation)5.3.1 Synonymy•buy/purchase•thrifty/economical/stingy•autumn/fall•flat/apartment•tube/underground5.3.2 Antonymy(1) Gradable antonymy•good ----------------------- bad•long ----------------------- short•big ----------------------- small–Can be modified by adverbs of degree like very.–Can have comparative forms.–Can be asked with how.•NOTE:•1) They are gradable, the denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other.good – bad (so-so, average, etc.)hot – cold (warm, cool, etc.)•2)they are graded against different norms.a big car < a small car•3) one member of the pair (usually the higher grade) serves as the cover terms.how old are you? (both old and young)length, depth, width, etc.(2) Complementary antonymyNot A = B; not B= A•alive : dead•male : female•present : absent•innocent : guilty•complementary gradable(3) Converse antonymy•buy : sell•lend : borrow•give : receive•parent : child•husband : wife5.3.3 Hyponymy•Inclusiveness•A is included in / a kind of B.•Cf.: chair and furniture, rose and flower–Superordinate: the more general term–Hyponym: the more specific term–Co-hyponyms: members of the same classAnimalbird fish insect animalhuman animaltiger lion elephant ...Animal : auto-hyponym 自动下义词（是其本身的下义词）•Note:•A superordinate may be missing. Eg.“Color” is not the superordinate of “green, white, red, yellow…”“Beard, moustuch, whisker” have no superordinate.b. Hyponyms may be missing. E.g.uncle, rice in English in contrast to chinese 叔叔，伯伯，舅舅，稻，谷，米，饭5.4. Componential Analysis•The modern approach to the study of meaning, using semantic feature or semantic component to analyze the meaning of words.•E.g.–boy [HUMAN, YOUNG, MALE]–girl [HUMAN, YOUNG, FEMALE]–man [HUMAN, ADULT, MALE]–woman [HUMAN, ADULT, FEMALE]ADULT→ [+ADULT]YOUNG→ [-ADULT]FEMALE→ [-MALE]–boy [-ADULT, +MALE]–girl [-ADULT, -MALE]–man [+ADULT, +MALE]–woman [+ADULT, -MALE]Note:•a. Two words or expressions which have the same semantic components will be synonymous. E.g.Bachelor & unmarried man: [+adult, +male,+ unmarried]•b. Words which have a contrasting components are antonyms. E.g.Man & woman; boy & girl•c. words which have all the semantic components of another are hyponyms. E.g.Boy, girl → child : [+human, -adult]This componential analysis also explains the sense relations of sentences.•1. The following sentences are self-contradicted sentences as the words or expressions have contradictory semantic components.a. John killed Bill, but Bill did not die.b. John murdered Bill without intending to.•2. Entailment: the truth of the second sentence necessarily follows from the truth of the first while the falsity of the second follows from the falsity of the first. E.g.a. John killed Bill.b. Bill died.a. John is a bachelor.b. John is unmarried.(Because (a) sentences contain words which have all the semantic components of a word in (b).)5.5 Sentence Meaning•The meaning of a sentence is obviously related to the meanings of the words used in it, but it is also obvious that sentence meaning is not simply the sum total of the words.•The cat is chasing the mouse.•The mouse is chasing the cat.•I have read that book.•That book I have read.•T he daughter of Queen Elizabeth‟s son is the son of Queen Elizabeth‟s daughter.。
语言学第五章chapter5
His look was full of meaning.
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What is the meaning of life?
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What does ‘capitalist’ mean to you?
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5.2 Approaches to Meaning
5.2.1 Meaning as naming 5.2.2 Meaning as concept 5.2.3 Meaning as behavior 5.2.4 Meaning as context 5.2.5 Meaning as truth conditions
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Ogden and Richards: Semantic triangle
（1923：11）
Thought (concept)
Symbol (word)
Referent (object/thing)
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airplane
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The
symbol or word signifies an object by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.
Semantics
1
Chapter 5
5.1 Definition of Semantics
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. Meaning has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers, logicians and linguists. E.g. Plato & Aristotle.
新编简明英语语言学Chapter5Semantics语义学
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学、定义1. semantics 语义学：Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 语义学可以简单地定义为对意义的将研究。
二、知识点5.2 Different views of meaning 意义研究的不同观点521 The naming theory命名论(by 希腊Scholar Plato)The naming theory命名论：Words are just names or labels for thin gs词语只不过是其代表的事物的名字或标记。
Eg. desk—a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs.The limitations of this theory 局限性：1. This theory seems applicable to nouns only这一理论看起来仅适用于名词(Some words are definitelynot lables of object：eg. jump, quickly, pretty, an d, i n,hearted, thi nk, hard, slowly …)2. There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world： ghost,grago n, un icorn麒麟.有些名词是指世界中根本就不存在的事物。
3. Nouns that do not refer to physical object, but abstract notions such asjoy and impulse有些名词并不是指实物性的物体，而是指：joy, impulse 刺激，这样的抽象概念。
语言学第五章Semantics
Chapter Five SemanticsTeaching Focus▪1. What is semantics?▪2. Meanings of “meaning”▪3. Sense and reference▪4. Sense relations▪5. Componential analysis --- a way to analyze lexical meaning▪6. Predication analysis --- a way to analyze sentence meaning1. What is semantics?▪Semantics is the study of meaning in language.▪Or specifically, it is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.✦Different focus of the study in semantics:▪Logical semantics/philosophical semantics: Logicians and philosophers have tended to concentrate on a restricted range of sentences (typically, statements, or …propositions‟) within a single language.▪Linguistic semantics: The linguistic approach is broader in scope, aiming to study the properties of meaning in a systematic and objective way, with reference to as wide a range of utterances and languages as possible.2. Meanings of “Meaning”▪The word “meaning” has different meanings.▪It has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers, logicians and linguists.✦The naming theory: Plato & Aristotle✦Words are just names or labels for things.✦Can you show the limitations of this theory?▪The semantic triangle: C. K. Ogden & I. A. Richards (1923) → The Meaning of Meaning.▪There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. ▪thought/reference (concept)symbolizes refers tosymbol/form referent(word, phrase) stands for(object)▪Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:✦Conceptual meaning✦Connotative meaning✦Social meaning✦Affective meaning associative meaning✦Reflected and meaning✦Collocative meaning✦Thematic meaning(1) Conceptual meaning▪It makes the central part of meaning.✦Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.✦Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.(2) Connotative meaning▪The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.✦A multitude of additional, non-criterial properties, including not only physical characteristics but also psychological and social properties, as well as typical features. ▪Involving the …real world‟ experience one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it.✦Unstable: they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.▪Any characteristic of the referent, identified subjectively or objectively, may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression which denotes it.(3) Social meaning▪What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.✦Dialect: the language of a geographical region or of a social class.✦Time: the language of the 18th c., etc.✦Province: language of law, of science, of advertising, etc.✦Status: polite, colloquial, slang, etc.✦Modality: language of memoranda, lectures, jokes, etc.✦Singularity: the style of Dickens, etc.▪domicile: very formal, official steed: poetic▪residence: formal horse: general▪abode: poetic nag: slang▪home: general gee-gee: baby language (4) Affective meaning▪Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.✦You‟re a vicious tyrant and a villainous reprobate, and I hate you for it!✦I‟m terribly sorry to interrupt, but I wonder if you would be so kind as to lower your voices a little. or✦Will you belt up.(5) Reflected meaning▪Arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.✦When you hear …click the mouse twice‟, you think of Gerry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited.▪Many taboo terms are result of this.(6) Collocative meaning▪The associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.✦pretty: girl, boy, woman, flower, garden, colour, village, etc.✦handsome: boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc.(7) Thematic meaning▪What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.✦Mrs Bessie Smith donated the first prize.✦The first prize was donated by Mrs Bessie Smith.✦They stopped at the end of the corridor.✦At the end of the corridor, they stopped.3. Sense and reference▪Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.✦Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.✦Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.▪Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.✦Grammatical words like but, if ,and do not refer to anything. And words like God, ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things.▪Therefore it is suggested that we should study meaning in terms of sense rather than reference.4. Sense relations▪Synonymygradable▪Antonymy complementaryconverse▪Hyponymy▪Polysemy4.1 Synonymy▪Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.▪Complete synonyms are rare. According to the way they differ, synonyms can be divided into the following groups:▪i. Dialectal synonyms --- used in different regional dialects✦British English American English✦autumn fall✦lift elevator✦flat apartment✦tube underground▪ii. Stylistic synonyms --- differing in style✦kid, child, offspring✦kick the bucket, pop off, die, pass away, decease▪iii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning✦collaborator, accomplice▪iv. Collocational synonyms✦accuse, charge▪v. Semantically different synonyms✦surprise, amaze, astound4.2 Antonymy▪The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.▪There are three types of antonyms.▪i. Gradable: Can be modified by adverbs of degree like very; Can have comparative forms; Can be asked with how.✦good, bad✦young, old✦hot, cold▪ii. Complementary: the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.✦alive, dead✦male, female✦present, absent▪iii. Converse or relational: exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the pair; one presupposes the other.✦husband, wife✦buy, sell✦before, after4.3 Hyponymy▪Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general word and a more specific word. It is a kind of inclusiveness.▪Superordinate: the more general word▪Hyponyms: the more specific words▪Co-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinate✦flower, rose, lily✦animal, cat, dog✦furniture, bed, desk4.4 Polysemy▪Polysemy refers to the sense relation that the same one word has more than one meaning. Such a word is called a polysemic word.✦table: a piece of furniture; orderly arrangement of facts, figures5. Componential analysis---a way to analyze lexical meaning▪Componential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.▪The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.▪HUMAN✦man (ADULT, MALE)✦woman (ADULT, FEMALE)✦boy (NON-ADULT, MALE)✦girl (NON-ADULT, FEMALE)▪father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)✦x is a parent of y, and x is male.▪take: CAUSE (x, (HA VE (x, y)))✦x causes x to have y.▪give: CAUSE (x, (~HA VE (x, y)))✦x causes x not to have y.▪Componential analysis provides an insight into the meaning of words and a way to study the relationships between words that are related in meaning.6. Predication analysis --- a way to analyze sentence meaning▪The meaning of a sentence is obviously related to the meanings of the words used in it, but it is also obvious that sentence meaning is not simply the sum total of the words.▪Predication analysis: proposed by the British linguist G. Leech▪The basic unit in this method is called prediction. It is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.▪A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.✦An argument is logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.✦A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.▪Tom smokes.▪Tom is smoking.▪Tom has been smoking. TOM (SMOKE)▪Does Tom smoking?▪Tom does not smoke. argument predicate▪Kids like apples. → KID, APPLE (LIKE)▪It is hot. → (BE HOT)Assignments▪How can words opposite in meaning be classified? To which category does each of the following pairs of antonyms belong?▪north/south vacant/occupied▪literate/illiterate above/below▪doctor/patient wide/narrow▪poor/rich father/daughter▪honest/dishonest normal/abnormalExercises▪I. Multiple choice.▪1. The naming theory seems applicable to ___ only.▪A. verbs B. adjectives C. adverbs D. nouns▪2. Hyponyms of the superordinate “flower” do not include “___”.▪A. wardrobe B. tulip C. lily D. rose▪3. Predication analysis is a way to analyze ___ meaning.▪A. phoneme B. word C. phrase D. sentence▪II. Make judgments (true or false)▪1. In the diagram of the classic semantic triangle, the word “symbol” refers to the object in the world of experience.▪2. When the same one word has more than one meaning we call it a polysemic word. ▪3. Complete synonyms, i.e. synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rare in English.。
英语语言学教程Chapter5
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4. Some important figures in the conceptualist view
1. Aristotle（亚里斯多德）: 事情有本质，但 只有语言形式才有意义。本质是能从对象中 分离出来的、又能与词语相结合的东西，本 质即意义。（《解释篇》） 2. Locke（洛克）：文字不是本身就具有意义 的，而在于他们所表示的观念。 3. Frege（弗雷格）（现代语义理论的开创 者）：意义有系统意义（sense）和外指意义 （reference）之分。词语与现实世界不是直 接的关系，还有“系统意义”这一心理表征 的层面，语句的意义就是它所表达的思想或 概念，这是更为基本的意义，是外指意义的 基础。（1892: On Sense and Reference） 31
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Logicians and philosophers have tended to concentrate on a restricted range of sentences (typically, statements, or „propositions‟) within a single language. The linguistic approach is broader in scope, aiming to study the properties of meaning in a systematic and objective way, with reference to as wide a range of utterances and languages as possible.
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. Chomsky: A sentence, while grammatical, can be meaningless. A good sentence has to be well-formed not only in nature, but in meaning and logic as well.
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Chapter 5Ⅱ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. As_____ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.2. As_____ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.3. As_____ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.4. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called p_____.5. A c_____ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.6. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_____ clause.7. Major lexical categories are o_____ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.8. A_____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.9. P_____ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages. 10. The theory of C_____ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.11. S_____ restrictions are constraints on what lexical items can go with others.12. There are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair of g_____ antonyms.13. The various meanings of a p_____ word are related to some extent.14. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different r_____ indifferent situations.15. According to Wittgenstein, for a large class of cases, the meaning of a word is in its u_____ in the language.16. Hyponymy is the relation of entailment, a super ordinate entails all h _____.17. “Buy” and “sell” are a pair of r_____ opposites.18. In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called p _____.19. There is an important difference between entailment and presupposition, that is, presupposition unlike entailment, in not vunerable ton_____.20. A semantically a_____ sentence is absurd in the sense that it presupposes a contradiction.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1. The naming theory is advanced by________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth2. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD. behaviourism3. Which of the following is not true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.4. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______“Youhave a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes5._____ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6. “Alive” and “dead” are________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above7. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense8._____ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy9. Words that are close in meaning are called________.A. homonymsB. polysemyC. hyponymsD. synonyms10. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. select ional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic features11. Which of the following is NOT the concern of “sense”?A. It is the study of the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. It is the study of what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world.C. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compliers are interested in.D. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.12. The meaning relationship between the two words “sheep” and “ewe” is _____.A. AntonymyB. HomonymyC. HyponymyD. Polysemy13. X: They are going to have another baby.Y: They have a child.The relationship of X and Y is _______.A. synonymousB. inconsistentC. X entailingD. X presupposing Y14. According to the componential analysis, he word “girl” and “woman” differ in the feature of _______.A. HUMNANB.ANIMATEC. MALED. ADULT15. According to predication analysis, the predication of the sen tence “It is hot.” is a _______.A. no-place predicationB. one-place predicationC. two-place predicationD. three-place predication16. The relationship between “violet” and “tulip” is ________.A. co-hyponymsB. super or dinateC. hyponymsD. antonyms17. The relationship between “Begin” and “Commence” is _______.A. Dialectal synonymsB. Stylistic synonymsC. Collocational synonymsD. Semantically different synonyms18. Predication analysis is a way to analyze ______ meaning.A. phonemeB. wordC. phraseD. sentence19. What is the relationship between the words “color” and “red”?A. SynonymyB. AntonymyC. PolysemyD. Hyponymy20. “Fall” and “autumn” are _______sy nonyms.A. dialectalB. stylisticC. evaluatively differentD. semantically different21. Homophones are often employed to create puns for desired effects of ______.A. humorB. sarcasmC. ridiculeD. all of the above22. The four major modes of semantic change are ______.A. extension, narrowing, elevation and degradationB. extension, generalization, elevation and degradationC. extension, narrowing, specialization and degradationD. extension, elevation, amelioration and degradation23. Hyponymy _______.A. is the relationship which obtains between specific and general lexical items, such that the former is included in the latterB. is the relationship that stands between “flute”and “instrument”C. both A and BD. none24. We call the relation between “animal”and “horse” as _______.A. synonymyB. PolysemyC. homonymyD. Hyponymy25. The semantic features of the word “girl” can be expressed as _______.A. +animate, - human, +adult, +maleB. +animate, +human, -adult, +maleC. +animate, +human, +adult, -maleD. + animate, +human, -adult, - male26. What is the sentential relation between “He likes skating.” and “He likes sports.”?A. presuppositionB. EntailmentC. ContradictionD. Hyponymy27. According to the predication analysis proposed by the British linguist G. Leech, the predication of the sentence “It is raining.” is a _______.A. no-place predicationB. one-place predicationC. two-place predicationD. three-place predication28. The pair of the words “borrow/lend” is called _______.A. relational oppositesB. synonymsC. complementaryD. gradable opposites29. Which description of the meaning components of the word “father” is right?A. +human, +adult,-maleB. +human, -adult, +maleC. –human, +adult,-maleD. +human, +adult, +male30. “Yellow” has different meanings to Chinese or to western people, that is its _____.A. conceptual meaningB. cognitive meaningC. associative meaningD. stylistic meaning31. X: He has been to France.Y: He has been to Europe.The relationship of A and B is _______.A. synonymousB. inconsistentC. X entailing YD. X presupposing Y32. The ambiguity in “pass the port” is caused by _______.A. lexical itemsB. a grammatical structureC. homonymyD. polysemy33. _______ is NOT a pair of homophones.A. “Rain” (water condensed from atmosphere icvapor and falling in drops) and “reign” (exercise of sovereign power, as by amonarch)B. “Flea” (any of various small, wingless, blood sucking nsects) and “flee” (to escape)C. “Lead” (to guide) and “lead” (metal of adull bluish-grey color that melts easily)D. “compliment” (an expression of praise, admiration,or congratulation) and “complement”(something that completes, makes up awhole, or brings to perfection)34. The word “luggage” and “baggage” are_______.A. synonyms differing in emotive meaningB. dialectal synonymsC. collocation ally-restricted synonymsD. synonyms differing in styles35. Componential analysis is a method applied in the field of ______.A. PhoneticsB. syntaxC. semanticsD. pragmatics36. “Big” and “small” are a pair of _______opposites.A. complementaryB. gradableC. completeD. converse37. The classic semantic triangle reflects the ________.A. naming theoryB. conceptual viewC. contextualismD. behaviourist theory38. Bloomfield drew on ______psychology when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms.A. Gestaltb.conceptualist C. behaviourist D. contextual39. The linguistic _______is known as co-text.A. situationB. contextC. contextualizationD. situation of context40. The noun “tear” and the verb “tear” are _______.A. homophonesB. homographsC. polysemic wordD. complete homonyms41. _______ concerns with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form; it’s abstract and de-contextualized.A. ReferenceB. enseC. ReferentD. Semantist42. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called _______.A. grammatical rulesB. phrase structure rulesC. selectional restrictionsD. syntactic agreement43. The sentence “John gave Mary a present” contains _______arguments.A. noB. oneC. twoD. three44. The meaning relationship between the two words “couch” and “table” is______.A. synonymyB. polysemyC. hyponymyD. co-hyponym45. A(n)_______is a logical participant in a predication.A. argumentB. predicateC. subjectD. patient46. “Words are names or lables for things”, this view is known as ______ insemantic theory.A. the naming theoryB. the mentalist theoryC. the conceptual viewD. contextualism。