英语语言学框架知识中文版
英语语言学—中文版
单元练习..．.．.7６页英语语言学概论—自学指导主编：支永碧王永祥英语语言学概论—自学指导主编：支永碧王永祥副主编:李葆春丁后银王秀凤前言本书主要为参加英语专业（本科段）自学考试和全国研究生入学考试的考生而编写，是《英语语言学概论》（王永祥、支永碧，2０07）的配套辅导用书。
自2007年起,《英语语言学概论》(王永祥、支永碧,200７)被确定为英语专业（本科段）自学考试的指定教材。
在此期间，许多参加自学考试的考生希望能再出一本配套的辅导教材。
他们中的不少人不仅希望自学考试轻松过关,还希望和全国其他学生一样将来能参加全国统一的研究生入学考试继续升造求学。
而现有的教材内容和相关练习似乎还不能充分满足他们的需求。
其一，配套练习尚不够全面,缺少问答题的参考答案；其二，和研究生入学考试真题相比,配套练习的类型也不够全面;其三,参加自学考试的学生往往很难得到老师的亲自授课和指导，而英语语言学理论和概念往往抽象难懂，再加上其它各种原因，不少考生不能轻易地掌握各章的所有重点、难点,因此,他们迫切需要有一本简单实用的自学考试指南和辅导练习帮助他们解决问题;此外,在英语专业研究生入学考试中,英语语言学是一门必考科目。
入学以后,英语语言学也是英语专业研究生的一门必修课。
鉴于此,他们希望了解更全面的英语语言学基本理论，多做一些更实用的英语语言学练习和真题,以备将来需要。
为了满足广大自考学生和准备参加英语专业研究生入学考试的考生的需要,我们在广泛征求了各方面的意见之后,精心编写了本书。
本书的编写除了主要参照王永祥、支永碧主编的《英语语言学概论》以外,我们还参考了胡壮麟主编的《语言学教程》（修订版）和戴炜栋、何兆熊主编的《新编简明英语语言学教程》和其它一些高校使用的语言学教程。
本书第一部分为英语语言学核心理论和概念,主要包括：本章主要考点,课文理解与重点内容分析;第二部分为英语语言学概论的十三章单元配套练习，和原教材中的练习稍有不同的是，在本部分，我们选编了部分自学考试真题和各个高校历年考研真题,以便考生更好地了解本章重点。
语言学---第一章知识框架
Chapter 1Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why Study Language?1.Some myths about language2.Some fundamental views about language3.Some concrete demonstrations to show Linguistics’importance1.2 What is Language?1. Language “is not to be confused with human speech, of which it is only a definite part, though certainly an essential one. It is both a social product of the faculty of speech and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit individuals to exercise that faculty”.--Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913): Course in General Linguistics (1916) 2. “Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”--Edward Sapir (1884-1939): Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech (1921)3. “A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates.”--Bernard Bloch (1907-1965) & George Trager (1906-1992): Outline of Linguistic Analysis (1942)4. “A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society interact in terms of their total culture.”--George Trager: The Field of Linguistics (1949)5. “From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”--Noam Chomsky (1928- ): Syntactic Structures (1957)6. Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”--Robert A. Hall (1911-1997): Introductory Linguistics (1964)7.“Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.”--Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to Linguistics (1977)8. “Language is a means of verbal communication.”—It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.—It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. -- Our textbook (2006)9. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design Features of LanguageLanguage distinguishes human beings from animals in that it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.Human language is ‘unique’1. Arbitrariness①Definition②Different levels of arbitrarinessa.Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaningb.Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelc.Arbitrariness and convention2. Duality①Definition②Two levels of structures in languageThe secondary level (sounds, meaningless)The primary level (words, meaningful)③Hierarchy of language3. Creativity①Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can useit to create new meanings.②The recursive nature of language provides a potential to create an infinitenumber of sentences. For instance:---He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who ..4. Displacement①Definition②Two examples③The advantage of displacement1.4 Origin of language1.The “bow-wow”theory2.The “pooh-pooh”theory3.The “yo-he-ho”theory1.5 Functions of language1.Jakobson’s classificationContextREFERENTIALAddresser EMOTIVE(e.g. intonation showing anger)MessagePOETIC(e.g. poetry)AddresseeCONATIVE(e.g. imperatives andvocatives)ContactPHATIC(e.g. Good morning!)CodeMETALINGUAL(e.g. Hello, do you hear me?)2.Halliday’s classification①Three metafunctions of language②Seven categories of language functions by observing child languagedevelopment3.The author’s introduction①Informative②Interpersonal Function③Performative④Emotive Function⑤Phatic Communion⑥Recreational Function⑦Metalingual Function1.6 What is Linguistics?Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language.1.7 Main branches of Linguistics1.Phonetics2.Phonology3.Morphology4.Syntax5.Semantics6.Pragmatics1.8 Macrolinguistics1.Psycholinguistics2.Sociolinguistics3.Anthropological Linguisticsputational Linguistics1.9 Important distinctions in Linguistics1.Descriptive vs. Prescriptive2.Synchronic vs. Diachronicngue & Parolepetence and Performance。
英语语言学知识整理1
Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences →semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning→pragmatics（语用学）→ the context of language use Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure ——Course in General Linguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求现象变化的, 历时的) one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. And linguists’data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language（7个识别特征）①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能M.A.K. Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization andabstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （语音学）①the study of the phonic medium of language②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves →acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat② the oral cavity→the mouth③ the nasal cavity→the nose⒉The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocalcords⒊the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription（宽式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription（严式标音）→the transcription withletter-symbols together withthe diacriticsClassification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms ofmanner ofarticulationIn terms of place of articulation③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⑤Classification of English vowels⒈criteria :（monophthongs）单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back The openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-closevowels/semi-openvowels/open vowels The shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedThe length of the vowels: tense/lax⒉diphthongs 双元音/ ei // ai // au // əu // ɔi // iə //εə// uə /Phonology 音韵学，语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in allhuman languages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a languageform patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast（音位对立）Complementary distribution（音位变体的互补分布）Minimal pairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set（最小对立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l // r // w /②assimilation rule:同化规则③deletion rule：省略规则Suprasegmental features 超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）①stress（单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。
新编简明英语语言学教学课件中文版
第一章：绪论1．什么是语言学？1．1定义语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。
语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言。
为了揭示语言的本质，语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察，并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设，这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验，最终形成一条语言理论。
1．2语言学的研究范畴:语言学研究有不同的侧重。
对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。
语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。
音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。
形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。
句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则。
语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义，语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究。
语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。
从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。
语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容。
心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言。
它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的，人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。
把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。
狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。
除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。
1．3语言学研究中的几对基本概念1．3．1规定性和描述性语言学研究是描述性的，不是规定性的。
这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。
语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析，而不是对语言的使用作出规定。
传统语法是规定性的，它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上，旨在规定一系列的语法规则，并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。
新编简明英语语言学教程中文版
第一章：绪论1．什么是语言学？1．1定义语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。
语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言。
为了揭示语言的本质，语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察，并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设，这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验，最终形成一条语言理论。
1．2语言学的研究范畴:语言学研究有不同的侧重。
对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。
语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。
音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。
形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。
句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则。
语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义，语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究。
语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。
从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。
语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容。
心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言。
它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的，人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。
把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。
狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。
除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。
1．3语言学研究中的几对基本概念1．3．1规定性和描述性语言学研究是描述性的，不是规定性的。
这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。
语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析，而不是对语言的使用作出规定。
传统语法是规定性的，它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上，旨在规定一系列的语法规则，并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。
英语语言学概论知识点总结
英语语言学概论知识点总结English linguistics is a fascinating field that delves into the structure, variation, and evolution of the English language. It encompasses phonetics, which studies the sounds of speech, and phonology, the system of sounds in a language.Morphology, the study of word formation, and syntax, which examines sentence structure, are crucial components of linguistics. They reveal how words are constructed and how they combine to form meaningful sentences.Semantics, the study of meaning in language, and pragmatics, which looks at language in use and the context in which it is spoken, help us understand how language conveys information and intention.Sociolinguistics explores the relationship between language and society, including how dialects and accents vary across different social groups and regions.Psycholinguistics, on the other hand, investigates the cognitive processes involved in language acquisition and use, shedding light on how we learn and understand language.Historical linguistics traces the development of the English language over time, from its roots in Old English through to the modern language we speak today.Finally, applied linguistics takes the theoretical knowledge from these areas and applies it to real-world problems, such as language teaching, translation, and language policy development.In summary, English linguistics offers a comprehensive view of the language, from its smallest units to its role in society, and from its past to its present and future forms.。
(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程中文版
第一章：绪论1．什么是语言学？1．1定义语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。
语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言.为了揭示语言的本质，语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察,并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设，这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验，最终形成一条语言理论。
1．2语言学的研究范畴：语言学研究有不同的侧重。
对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学.语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。
音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。
形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。
句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则.语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义，语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究.语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。
从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。
语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容.心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言.它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的,人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。
把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。
狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。
除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。
1．3语言学研究中的几对基本概念1．3．1规定性和描述性语言学研究是描述性的,不是规定性的。
这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。
语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析，而不是对语言的使用作出规定。
传统语法是规定性的,它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上，旨在规定一系列的语法规则,并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。
英语语言学框架
英语语言学框架作为全球最流行的语言，英语对于我们的日常交流和学习有着重要的作用。
然而，要想深入理解和掌握英语语言，我们需要了解英语语言学框架。
下面将分步骤阐述英语语言学框架的重要内容。
第一步：音位学英语语言的音位学研究了英语中的音素、音与音之间的关系以及发音的规则。
英语中的音素有44个，包括元音、辅音、浊音和清音等。
此外，英语中也有许多发音规则，如元音的发音通常取决于它们在单词中的位置，辅音与元音的搭配也有一定规则等。
第二步：语音学英语语音学研究了音素、音型、音调和语调等问题。
其中，音型指的是单词和句子中的语音形态，音调是说话时发音抑扬顿挫的高低音节奏，而语调则是比音调更高层次的整个句子的语言基调和表情。
第三步：词法学英语词法学研究了英语单词的构成、分类、词性及其语法功能。
英语中的单词可以分为名词、动词、形容词、副词等。
在语法上，单词的不同词性会对句子的结构和语法功能产生不同的影响。
第四步：句法学英语句法学研究了英语句子的构成和结构。
英语中的句子有四种基本结构，即主语+谓语、主语+谓语+宾语、主语+谓语+表语、主语+谓语+宾语+宾语补足语。
在句子的构成过程中，还需要考虑主谓一致、时态以及语态等问题。
第五步：语义学英语语义学研究了英语单词和句子的意义。
在英语中，单词的意义受到一定的语境、词义辨析等因素的影响。
此外，英语中的句子也需要考虑上下文的语境和语用功能，以更好地理解句子的意思。
总之，英语语言学框架是我们深入理解英语语言的重要工具。
通过学习英语的音位学、语音学、词法学、句法学和语义学等内容，可以更加全面地掌握英语的使用方法和语言规则，提升英语的听、说、读、写等各方面的能力。
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一、绪论语言学的定义语言学的研究范畴几对基本概念语言的定义语言的甄别特征What is linguistics 什么是语言学Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。
语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。
The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for "correct" behavior.Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high" written languageSynchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic studyThe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic studyIn modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons: （1） speech precedes writing in terms of evolution（2） a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing（3） speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languageLanguage and parole 语言与言语Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole refers to the realization of language in actual useCompetence and performance 能力与运用Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users' knowledge of the rules of his language Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationWhat is language 什么是语言Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language: 语言的特性Language is a rule-governed systemLanguage is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary （the fact different languages have different words for the sameobject is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet": "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet."）Language is used for human communicationDesign features of language 语言的甄别特征American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:1） arbitrariness 武断性2） productivity 创造性3） duality 二重性4） displacement移位性5） cultural transmission 文化传递性二、音系学语言的声音媒介什么是语音学发音器官音标……宽式和严式标音法英语语音的分类音系学和语音学语音、音位、音位变体音位对立、互补分部、最小对立几条音系规则超切分特征Two major media of communication: speech and writingThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。
Phonetics语音学: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's language.Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 发音语音学（most highly developed）, auditory phonetics 听觉语音学and acoustic phonetics 声学语音学Organs of speech 发音器官The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities:The pharyngeal cavity咽腔——the throatThe oral cavity口腔——the mouthThe nasal cavity 鼻腔——the noseVibration of the vocal cords （声带） results in a quality of speech sounds called "voicing" 浊音，which is a feature of all vowels 元音 and some consonants 辅音。
单词补充：01） velum: The soft palate. 软腭02） uvula: A small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from the center of the softpalate. 小舌，悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块03） larynx: n. 喉04） vocal cord: 声带05） membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regions, structures, or organs of an animal or a plant. 膜薄而柔软的组织层，覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域、结构或动植物器官06） the soft palate: 软腭07） the hard palate: 硬腭08） the teeth ridge: 齿龈09） alveolus: A tooth socket in the jawbone 牙槽颚骨处的牙床10） the teeth: 牙齿11） the lips: 上下唇12） blade of tongue: 舌面13） back of tongue: 舌根14） pharyngeal cavity: 咽腔15） nasal cavity: 鼻腔16） velar: Articulated with the back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate, as （g） in good and （k） in cup.软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的，如在 good中的（g）以及在 cup中的（k）17） the tip of the tongue: 舌尖18） the upper front teeth: 上齿19） the roof of the mouth: 上颚20） the lower lip: 下唇音标……宽式和严式标音法International Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）The vowels （monophthongs and diphthongs）元音（单元音&双元音）The constants 辅音Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only. （in dictionaries and teaching textbooks）用一个符号来表示一个语音的标音方式叫做宽式标音法，这种音标法常见于词典和教科书。