英语语言学知识要点
英语语言学笔记
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语音学
语音（Phonetics）
研究语言的发音机制、音素（音位）的发音特征和分布规律。
/b/、/t/、/d/等辅音音素的发音方式。
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音位（Phoneme）
语言中能够区分意义的最小语音单位。
在英语中，“bit”和“bet”因音位/ɪ/和/ɛ/的不同而意义不同。
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音系学
音系（Phonology）
研究语言中音素的组合规则和模式，以及这些规则如何影响语言的意义。
英语中的重音和节奏模式对单词和句子的意义有影响。
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语法学
语法（Grammar）
描述语言中单词、短语和句子如何组合成有意义的结构的规则系统。
句子“The cat sat on the mat.”遵循英语语法规则。
英语语言学笔记
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主题/子主题
关键概念/术语
定义/解释
示例/应用
备注
1
语言学基础
语言学（guistics）
研究语言的科学，包括语言的结构、功能、演变以及语言在社会中的应用。
语言学家研究不同语言的语音、语法、词汇等。
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语言（Language）
人类特有的、用于沟通的一套符号系统，包括口语、书面语和手势语等。
研究语言中的词汇、短语和句子如何表达意义。
单词“happy”的意义是“快乐的”。
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语用学
语用（Pragmatics）
研究语言如何在特定情境中使用，以及语言使用者的意图、背景和互动如何影响语言的意义。
“It’s cold in here.”可能不仅仅是描述温度，还可能暗示要求关窗或开暖气。
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社会语言学
社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）
英语语言学知识点总结
英语语言学知识点总结
英语语言学是研究英语语言及其发展历史、语音、语法、词汇、语用等方面的学科。
以下是一些英语语言学的知识点总结:
1. 英语语音学：英语语音学主要研究英语的发音、声调、重音等语音现象。
其中，英语的发音规则主要包括元音、辅音和声调等方面的规则。
2. 英语语法学：英语语法学主要研究英语的语法结构和规则，包括句子结构、时态、语态、名词、形容词、副词等语法范畴。
3. 英语词汇学：英语词汇学主要研究英语的词汇构成、演化和使用情况，包括单词、词组和习语等方面的研究。
4. 英语语用学：英语语用学主要研究英语的语用功能和语境，包括语言交际、暗示、礼貌、语用失误等方面的研究。
5. 英语语音语调学：英语语音语调学主要研究英语的语音语调系统，包括英语的发音、声调、重音、节奏等方面的研究。
6. 英语文体学：英语文体学主要研究英语的文体风格和语言习惯，包括正式文体、口语文体、文学文体等方面的研究。
7. 英语词汇记忆学：英语词汇记忆学主要研究如何有效地记忆英语词汇，包括词汇记忆的方法、技巧和策略等方面的研究。
8. 英语跨文化交际学：英语跨文化交际学主要研究英语在不同文化中的交际和使用，包括跨文化沟通、文化差异、交际礼仪等方面的研究。
以上是一些英语语言学的重要知识点总结，不同学科之间的交叉
和融合也在不断推进着英语语言学的发展。
(完整版)英语语言学超强总结
语言学总结一、语言和语言学1、语言的差异性特色：Design of features of language任意性arbitrariness指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系二重性duality指语言由两层结构组成创立性creativity指语言能够被创立移位性displacement指语言能够代表时间和空间上不能及的物体、时间、见解2、语言的功能（不是很重要）信息功能informative人际功能interpersonal施为功能performative感情功能emotive function寒暄功能phatic communication娱乐功能recreational function元语言功能metalingual function3、语言学主要分支语音学phonetics 研究语音的产生、流传、接受过程，观察人类语言中的声音音位学phonology研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列形态学morphology研究词的内部结构和构词规则句法学syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则语义学semantics不但关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。
如语素和句子的意义语用学pragmatics在语境中研究意义4、宏观语言学macrolingustics心理语言学psycholinguistics 社会语言学sociolinguistics 人类语言学 anthropological linguistics计算机语言学 computational linguistics5语言学中的重要差异规定式和描述式：规定式：prescriptive 说明事情应该是怎么样的描述式： descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特准时期语言历时： diachronic研究语言发展规律语言和语言：语言：langue 指语言系统的整体语言： parole 指详尽实质运用的语言语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky 提出 )能力： competence 用语言的人的语言知识储备运用： performance 真实的语言使用者在实质中的语言使用二、语音学1、语音学分支发音语音学声学语言学听觉语音学articulatory phonetics 研究语言的产生acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知2 IPA （国际音标）是由daniel Jones 琼斯提出的三、音位学1、最小对峙体minimal pairs2、音位phoneme3音位变体allophones4互补分布 complementary distribution5自由变体 free variation6差异特色 distinctive features7超音段特色 suprasegmental feature音节syllable 重音 stress 语调 tone 声调 intonation四形态学1词的组成语素 morpheme 自由语素 free morpheme 粘着语素bound morphemeRoot 词根词缀affix词干stem屈折词汇和派生词汇inflectional affix and derivational affix2特有的词汇变化 lexical change proper新创词语 invention 混拼词 blending 缩写词 abbreviation首字母缩写词 acronym逆构词汇 back-formation 例： editor— edit类推构词 analogiacal creation 例： work-worked,,slay-slayed外来词 borrowing五句法学1范围 category 数 number性 gender 格 case 时 tense 体 aspect一致关系 concord支配关系 govenrment2结构主义学派 the structure approach组合关系syntagmatic relation 词和词组合在一起聚合关系paradigmatic 拥有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起结构和成分construction and constituents : 句子不但是线性结构liner structure 还是层级结构hierarchical structure(句子或短语被称为结构体，而组成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分) 3直接成分解析法immediate constitutional analysis指把句子分成直接成分－短语，再把这些短语依次切分，获取下一集直接成分，这样层层切分，直到不能够再分4向心结构和离心结构 endocentric and exocentric constructions向心：指一个结构中有中心词，例an old man ,中心为 man离心：指结构中没有明显的中心词。
英语语言学知识点
英语语言学知识点英语语言学是英语语言文学专业培养计划中的一门基础必修课，接下来店铺为你整理了英语语言学知识点，一起来看看吧。
英语语言学知识点：定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited sourceof expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCo mpetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
(827)英语语言学知识
英语语言学是研究英语语言的科学领域，它涵盖了英语的语音、语法、词汇、句法、语义以及语用等方面的研究。
本文将从不同角度介绍英语语言学的基本概念、研究方法以及一些相关的重要理论。
一、语音学语音学是研究语音的科学，它关注的是语音的产生、传播和感知。
在英语语言学中，我们需要了解英语的音素和音系，即英语中的音位和音位之间的关系。
此外，我们还需要了解如何正确地发音，包括英语的元音和辅音。
二、语法学语法学是研究语言的结构和规则的科学，它关注的是语言中单词和句子的组成以及它们之间的关系。
在英语语言学中，我们需要了解英语的基本句型和句子成分的分类。
同时，我们还需要学习英语的时态、语态和语气等语法现象。
三、词汇学词汇学是研究词汇的科学，它关注的是词汇在语言中的作用和使用。
在英语语言学中，我们需要了解英语的词汇分类和词义的多样性。
同时，我们还需要学习如何正确地使用英语词汇，包括词汇的拼写和用法。
四、句法学句法学是研究句子结构和句子成分的科学，它关注的是句子的组成和句子成分之间的关系。
在英语语言学中，我们需要了解英语句子的基本结构和句子成分的分类。
同时，我们还需要学习如何正确地构造和分析英语句子。
五、语义学语义学是研究语言意义的科学，它关注的是语言中词汇和句子的意义。
在英语语言学中，我们需要了解词汇的意义和句子的意义，包括词语之间的关联和句子的推理。
同时，我们还需要学习如何正确地理解和表达英语的语义内容。
六、语用学语用学是研究语言使用的科学，它关注的是语言在社交交际中的实际运用。
在英语语言学中，我们需要了解英语的语用规则和语用策略，包括言语行为和话语的意图。
同时，我们还需要学习如何在不同语境下使用英语，以达到有效交流的目的。
《(827)英语语言学知识》是一篇关于英语语言学基本概念、研究方法和相关理论的文档。
通过学习语音学、语法学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学等方面的知识，我们可以更好地理解和运用英语语言。
希望本文能够帮助读者对英语语言学有更深入的了解和认识。
英语语言学知识整理
Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. 普通语言学问题: What are the major branches of linguisticsWhat does each of them study→phonetics语音学→the study of sounds→phonology音位学→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology形态学→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax句法学→the study of rules of forming sentences→semantics语义学→the study of meaning→pragmatics语用学→ the context of language useSociolinguistics社会语言学：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch. Psycholinguistics语言心理学：Relate the study of language to psychology Applied linguistics应用语言学：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive规定性/descriptive描写性②synchronic共时/diachronic历时③speech口语/writing书面语④langue语言/parole言语the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure——Course in General Linguistics⑤competence语言能力/performance语言应用the American linguist N. Chomsky⑥traditional grammar 传统语法/modern linguistics现代语言学问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronicWhyIn modern linguistics, a synchronic 不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的 approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic 探求现象变化的, 历时的 one. Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writingFrom the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. And linguists’ data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Design features of language7个识别特征①arbitrariness 任意性 at the syntactic level②productivity 能产性,创造性Secondary units底层结构 sounds③duality 双层性Primary units 上层结构 units of meaning④displacement 不受时空限制性handle generalization and abstraction⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson6种首要因素,结构主义语言学家①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使权力功能①ideational②interpersonalindicate/establish/maintain/social relationships③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performanceThe distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, ., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system①arbitrariness 任意性 at the syntactic level②productivity 能产性,创造性Secondary units底层结构 sounds③duality 双层性Primary units 上层结构 units of meaning④displacement 不受时空限制性handle generalization and abstraction⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: 语音学①the study of the phonic medium of language②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatoryphonetics发音语音学Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics 听觉语音学Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves→acoustic phonetics声学语音学③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat② the oral cavity→the mouth③ the nasal cavity→the nose⒉ The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocal cords⒊ the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palatevelum/hard palate/teeth ridgealveolus/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet IPA①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription宽式标音→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription严式标音→the transcription with letter-symbolstogether with the diacritics Classification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms of manner ofarticulationIn terms of place of articulation ③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⒈criteria :monophthongs单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/backThe openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-close vowels/semi-openvowels/open vowelsThe shape of the lips: unrounded/rounded/ei //ai //au //u //i //i //ε// u /Phonology 音韵学,语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all humanlanguages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patternsand how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.Phone音素: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme音位: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. Allophone音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. Phonemic contrast音位对立Complementary distribution音位变体的互补分布Minimal pairs最小对立体：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set最小对立集：is used to find the important sounds in language. Phonological Analysis音位分析Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule. Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus often a vowel with optional initial and final margins often consonants单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中,单词由音节构成,音节由音位构成;句子里读重音的词：Nouns/main verbs/adjectives/adverbs/numerals/demonstrative pronouns②tone词汇层面English is not a tone languageChinese is a typical tone language:Level/the second rise/the third fall-rise/the fourth fall③intonation句子层面English has four basic types of intonation:The falling tone/the rising tone/the fall-rise tone/the rise-fall tone问题：What are the two major media of communicationOf the two, which one is primary and whySpeech and writingSpeechBecause from the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then ineveryday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. And linguists’ data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.问题：What is voicing and how is it causedVibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.Chapter 3 Morphology 词法形态学1 定义和知识点：①the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure②the branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.③it is essentially synchronic, primarily concerned with the forms of words through the use of morpheme construct.④it overlaps with the other sub-branches as a word is a sound unit that has meaning and syntactic function.⑤four facets:Sounds phonologyConstructions syntaxMeanings semanticsForms of words2 词性分类①open class words:名、动、形、副 are the content words of a language②closed class words: 连、介、冠、代 are small and stable since few new wordsare added3 词素有关Morpheme: 词素构成单词的最小意义单位,包括声音和意义,abstract units任意性Morph: 形素the sound of a morpheme 声音Allomorphs: 语素变体The variant forms of a morpheme4 分类morphemes① Free morpheme自由词素: A morpheme which can be a word by itself② bound morpheme粘着词素：A morpheme that must be attached to another one③ lexical morphemes/ derivational morphemes派生词素,包括前后缀: They are used to derive new words, also known as derivational morphemes④ inflectional morphemes屈折词素：词类不发生变化5 单词定义：WordA word is a unit of expression which is intuitively recognized by native speakers in both spoken and written language.A word is a basic and minimal units of a language to make sentences, which are combinations of words according to syntactic rules.A word is a lexeme词位. A lexeme is a word in an abstract sense.A word can be defined as a grammatical unit.6 单词结构：StructureRoot: the root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning. Roots belong to lexical category.Stem: it is the form of the word to which both inflectional and derivational morphemes can be added.Base: 词基Affixes: they are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All of them are bound morphemes and don’t belong toa lexical category.7 单词合成：Word formation①morphological rules→productive morphological rules②derivation③compounds 几点注意：When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be like this: n. + n. / adj. + adj.When the two words fall into different categories: n. + adj. / v. + n. 不总是这样The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.8 单词合成过程：①compounding②affixation or derivationBlends 混合词Abbreviation 缩略语③shortening acronyms 按音节拼读首字母的单词Initials 按字母拼读的单词Clippings 缩写词④backformation 逆构词法9 要点Grammatical morphemes are grammatical in nature, functioning as grammatical markers or show syntactic relations.They consist of both inflectional morphemes and some free ones like in, and, do, they, while, where, but and that, which are traditionally known as functional words.Chapter 4 Syntax 句法1 定义It is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2 四大派别①traditional syntax 传统学派②structural syntax 结构主义学派索绪尔③transformational syntax 生成学派乔姆斯基本书重点学习④functional syntax 功能学派哈里德3 范畴CategoriesMajor lexical categoriesAdjective APreposition P限定词/成分程度词修饰语助词Conjunction Con 连词Syntactic categories句法范畴的定义：①The fact that words in all human languages can be grouped together intoa relatively small number of classes.②注：The word-level categories are the most central categories to the syntactic study.Major lexical categories主要词汇范畴 play a very important role in sentence formation and they are often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built.Minor lexical categories次要词汇范畴Meaning 意义Three criteria to determine a word’s category inflection 屈折变化Distribution 分布It is misleading to assume that a word’s category can be told straightforward from its meaning:①nouns do not concretely reveal their entities.②some words tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.③words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories.Phrases are syntactic units that are built around a certain word category.↓The phrase is built around the word category.↓The word category determines the category of phrase.4 要点生成学派认为句子由短语构成;短语→单词→词素→音节→短语层面任何短语都有2个层面单词层面5 the most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories:NP: noun phraseVP: verb phraseAP: adjective phrasePP: prepositional phrase6 the elements of phrases that are formed of more than one word:①head/termed head 中心语/中心成分:The word around which a phrase is formed②specifiers 标志语/标志成分：The words on the left side of the heads③complements 补语/补足语/补足成分：The words on the right side of the heads7 phrase structure rule 短语结构规则定义：A special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that makes up a phrase.The phrase structure rule for NP, VP, AP, PPNP→Det N PP …VP→Qual V NP …AP→Deg A PP …PP→Deg P NP …XP ruleX’ Theory X 标杆理论①X’: The intermediate level formed by the head and the complement between word level and phrase level.②X’ Theory: specifier X’ wordX’=X complementCoordination rule 并列规则Coordinate structures 并列结构Coordination 并列,并列关系Four important properties of coordination：①there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.②a category at any level a head or an entire XP can be coordinated.③coordinated categories must be of the same type.④the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.8 Phrase elementsSpecifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles.①semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head.②syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary.In English specifiers occur at the left boundary of their respective phrases. Complements are themselves phrase and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. Complements are attached to the right of the head in English.;中心成分决定补充成分时,决定着是否需要补充成分,需要什么样的补充成分,以及补充成分的位置问题;The XP Rule revisedComplementizers Cs: 补语化成分Words which introduce the sentence complementComplement clause: 补语从句The sentence introduced by the complementizerComplement phraseCP:补语短语Matrix clause 主句Modifiers 修饰成分,修饰语The Expanded XP rule:9 sentencesThe S rule: S→NP VP4种短语1种句子为屈折短语10 transformations 转换规则Yes-no questionSyntactic movement wh-questionPassive voiceTransformation/Inversion倒置定义: a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.Inversion倒置：All Ss occur within larger CPs, whether they are embedded or not. Inversion revised:If we assume that there can be only one element in each position in a tree structure, complementizers and auxiliaries are mutually exclusive. Trace: 用“e”表示Head movement 中心语移位：The movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in anotherInversion→一般疑问句+显性助词Do insertion:Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position11 Two levels of syntactic structureDeep structure D-structure:The structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization propertiesSurface structure S-structure:The structure corresponds to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate tansformationsThe XP Rule↓Deep structure subcategorization restricts choice of complements↓Transformations↓Surface structure12 Wh Movement:Move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentenceWh Movement revised：Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP13 Move α and constraints on transformationsthere is a general rule for all the movement rules. This general rule is referred to as Moveα,where “alpha”is a cover term for any element that can be moved from one place to another.only certain categories are targeted by movement rules, and there are limits on how far elements can be moved.①inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position.②no element may be removed from a coordinate structure.Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学1语义学定义：Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.2The naming theoryancient Greek scholar PlatoA→BThe words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. Limitations:This theory seems applicable to nouns only.Abstract notions can not be defined by this theory.3The conceptualist view概念论There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. Semantic triangle/triangle of significance Ogden and Richards 1923年提出Thought/referenceSymbol/form ……………………………...referent4Contextualism 语境论J. R. Firth——British linguistMalinowski Polish anthropologistWittgenstein German philosopherThe contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.Two kinds of context:The situational contextThe linguistic context/co-textThe main components of a particular spatiotemporal situation:The placeThe timeThe speakerThe hearerThe actionsThe various objects and eventsThe linguistic context is concerned with the probability of a word’sco-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of the word, and also with the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance.5 Behaviorism 行为主义论American BloomfieldThis theory is linked with psychological interest.刺激反应理论：Jill JackS------------------r………..s-------------------R6 lexical meaningSense and referenceSense 定义:It is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. Dictionary compilers are interested in每个单词都有它的意义senseReference 定义：It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and thenon-linguistic world of experience.不是所有单词都有语义referenceMajor sense relations:synonymy 同义关系synonyms①dialectal synonyms 方言同义词British English and American EnglishGirl------lass/lassie Scottish dialectLiquor-------whiskey Irish dialectB AAutumn fallLift elevatorLuggage baggageLorry truckPetrol gasolineFlat apartmentWindscreen windshieldTorch flashlight②stylistic synonymsWords having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality . old man/daddy/dad/father/male parentStart/begin/commenceKid/child/offspringKick the bucket/pop off/die/pass away/decease③synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluation meaningCollaborator / accomplice④collocational synonyms 短语同义词Accuse…of/charge…with/rebuke…forRotten tomatoes/addled eggs/rancid bacon/sour milk⑤semantically different synonyms 语义上不同的同义词Amaze/astoundDrift/floatpolysemy 一词多义homonymy 同音异义①identical in sound homophones: Rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceleak/leek②identical in spelling homographs: Bow/bow tear/tear lead/lead③identical in both sound and spelling complete homonyms: Fast/fastscale/scalehyponymy 下义关系①It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.②superordinate 上坐标词③hyponyms 下义词④co-hyponyms 共同下义词. Flower: rose/tulip/carnation/lily/morning gloryAnimal: dog/cat/tiger/lion/wolf/elephant/fox/bearFurniture: bed/table/desk/dresser/wardrobe/setteeantonymy 反义关系①gradable antonyms 等级反义词②complementary antonyms 互补反义词不能共存,非此即彼③relational opposites 反向反义关系相反的两个极端但可共存7 sense relations between sentences①X is synonymous with Y.X真,Y真；X假,Y假②X is inconsistent with Y.X 真,Y假；X假,Y真③X entails Y.X真,Y一定真；X假,Y可真可假④X presupposes Y.X真,Y一定真；X假,Y仍为真⑤X is a contradiction. X永远假⑥X is semantically anomalous.语义破格句8 analysis of meaningcomponential analysis----a way to analyze lexical meaning成分分析Semantic features语义特征：The word “man” comprises the features of +HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE predication analysis----a way to analyze sentence meaning述谓结构分析The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up the meanings of all its constituent words.There are two aspects to sentence meaningGrammatical meaning: grammatical well-formednessThe grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.Semantic meaning:Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions选择限制.constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.注意同生成学派次范畴化进行对比Predication analysis:proposed by the British linguist G. Leech.Predication: it is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.A predication consists of arguments变元and predicate谓词. TOMSMOKEKID, APPLELIKEBE HOTSNOWArguments变元定义：It is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with a nominal element in a sentence.Predicate谓词定义：It is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.Classification of the predication according to the number of arguments contained in a predication:①two-place predication②one-place predication③no-place predicationChapter 6 Pragmatics语用学Origin 起源：1938, American philosopher Charles MorrisFoundation of the Theory of SignsSemiotics:符号学 a science of signs3 branches: syntax/semantics/pragmatics√Pragmatics 定义：It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying and understanding meaning in a certain context, it can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.Two major traditions in the study of pragmatics:①the Anglo-American tradition:Lay much emphasis on the study of specific language phenomena②the European continental tradition:It does not identify pragmatics with a specific unit of analysis, but takes pragmatics to be a general cognitive, social, and cultural perspectives at the use of language.√Pragmatics VS. SemanticsWhat essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.Five concepts: 五个概念整理First noted by British linguist John Firth in the 1930sIt is essential to the pragmatic study of languageIt is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speakerand the hearer.Various components of shared knowledge have been identified.Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him.Various components of shared knowledge:Knowledge of the language they useKnowledge of what has been said before属于linguistic contextKnowledge about the world in generalKnowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is takingplaceKnowledge about each other和进行比较The meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of thesentence itself in terms of predication. abstract/decontextualizedA sentence is a grammatical concept.Concrete/context-dependentAn utterance can be grammatically a complete sentence or incomplete sentence.注：the meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning.Speech act theory 言语行为理论理论基础：when we are speaking, we are performing actionsdoing somethingof the 20th century.It is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. It aims to answer the question “what do we do when using language ”Constatives: 述事话语表述句定义They are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable. Performatives: 行事话语施为句定义They are sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.√①locutionary act言内行为The act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonologyThe act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses②illocutionary act言外行为语言学家最感兴趣The act of expressing the speaker’s intentionThe act of performed in saying something③perlocutionary act言后行为主要与听话人有关The act performed by or resulting from saying somethingIt is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance. It is the act performed by saying something.Specific acts that fall into the five type share the same illocutionary point, but differ in their strength.①representatives/assertives阐述类:stating or describing, saying what the speakerbelieves to be true②directives指令类: trying to get the hearer to do something③commissives承诺类：committing the speaker himself to some future course ofaction.④expressives表达类：expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state⑤declarations宣告类：bringing about immediate changes by saying something.√When someone is not saying in an explicit and straightforward manner what he means to say, rather his is trying to put across his message in an implicit, roundabout way, we can say he is using indirect language.A traditional way to explain indirect language use is by the mismatch between the basic language forms and their typical communicative functions.We know of there exist three basic sentence forms, the declarative sentence, the imperative sentence, and the interrogative sentence.√Searle proposed the notion of indirect speech act, which aimed to explain indirect language in the light of the speech act theory.Primary speech act主要言语行为It is the speaker’s goal of communicationSecondary speech act次要言语行为It is the means by which he achieves his goalThe relation between the secondary speech act and the primary one is that between means and end.The recognition of the real purpose of the speaker through want he says is achieved through inferences made by the hearer based on his general knowledge and also his knowledge of some pragmatic theories and principles.。
专八语言学知识要点
第三章英语语言学第一节语言学基本概念知识点较多，但是多集中于基本概念和运用，不需要深入挖掘，记住基本概念即可。
1 语言的特点和功能特点：Creativity 可创造性Duality 两重性（声音和意义）Arbitrariness 任意性Displacement 移位性Cultural Transmission 文化传递性Interchangeabilty 可交换性Reflexivity 自反性人类的语言可以描述语言本身功能：Informative 信息功能（功能语言学中称之为ideational function）Interpersonal 人际功能通过语言来建立社会联系Performative 施为功能通过语言来完成任务，来自于语用学Emotive 感情功能可以改变听者的感情Phatic Communion 交感功能特定的表达方式来维护关系，例如打招呼Recreational 娱乐功能，例如唱歌Metalingual 元语言功能可以用语言来谈论语言本身2 语言学的主要分支内部分支：Phonetics 语音学Articulatory Phonetics 发音语音学语音产生Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学研究物理特性Auditory Phonetics 听觉语音学发音的潜在机制Consonants / VowelsPhonology 音系学研究语音和音节结构分布和排列Phone 音素语言的一个单元或是音段Phoneme 音位在语言中具有区别意义的最小的语言单位Allophones 音位变体put spanContrastive Distribution 对立分析能够找到的最小的语音对bear pearComplementary Distribution 互补分析从不在相同环境出现的音位变体peak speakFree Variation 自由变体同一个词由于某个原因发了两个音，这种差异可能来源于方言或是习惯increaseSuprasegemental Features 超音段特征（音节、重音、音调、语调）Morphology 形态学研究英语中最小单位——语素和成词过程，即单词的内部构造Morpheme 词素最小的有意义的语言单位Free Morpheme 自由语素（有自己构成英语单词的称为此，是单词root/stem）和BoundMorpheme 粘连语素（需要和自由语素联合构成单词的称为此，是词缀，进一步分为Inflectional Affixes 屈折词缀，在现代英语中主要指单复数，时态比较级等等和Derivational Affixes 派生词缀，这是形成新词的关键）。
英语语言学大全
英语语言学大全英语是全球通用的语言之一，许多人都学习英语，但并不了解英语语言学的深层次内容。
本文将为您介绍英语语言学的基本概念和主要分支，希望帮助您更好地了解和学习英语。
一、语言学基础概念语言学是研究语言的学科，它涉及语言的形态、结构、意义、使用和历史等方面。
在语言学中，有一些基础概念需要了解：1.语音学语音学是研究语音的学科，包括语音的产生、听觉和声学特征等方面。
在学习英语时，我们需要掌握它的基本音素、音标和发音规则，才能有效地进行听、说、读、写等活动。
2.语法学语法学是研究语言结构和组织的学科，有时也称为句法学。
它研究语言的词类、句子结构、语法关系等方面。
通过学习英语的语法，我们可以正确使用语言，避免出现语法错误。
3.语义学语义学是研究语言意义的学科，它探究词汇、短语和句子意义的形成和变化。
在英语学习中，我们需要理解单词和短语的意义，以及句子的含义，以便正确理解和表达内容。
4.语用学语用学是研究语言使用的学科，包括口语和书面语言的使用场合、对话方式、说话人的语言目标和对听者的影响等方面。
在英语学习中，我们需要了解不同场合和对象的语言使用规范，以便与人交流时更加得心应手。
二、英语语言学的主要分支除了以上基础概念外，英语语言学还有一些重要的学术分支，能够帮助我们更深入地了解和掌握英语。
1.语音学英语语音学探究的是英语中的音素、音标和发音规则等方面，以及与其他语音系统的比较和差异。
2.语法学英语语法学研究的是英语的句法结构、语法关系和句子意义等方面，以及与其他语言的比较和翻译问题。
3.词汇学英语词汇学是研究英语词汇的学科，包括单词的来源、组成和意义等方面，以及与其他语言的比较和词汇翻译问题。
4.语用学英语语用学研究的是英语在语言使用中的实际应用，包括语言交际、言语行为、语境和语言目的等方面。
5.文本语言学英语文本语言学是研究英语文本的结构、组织和语言特点等方面的学科，包括语篇分析和修辞分析等内容。
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Exercises for Lecture 1 Introduction2009年09月20日15:05I. <blank filling>1. By ‘scientific’ is meant linguistics is based on the s ystematic investigation of linguistic data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.2. In his study of a language a linguist usually tries to collect and observe language facts,make generalizations, formulate hypotheses, and fully prove the validity of these hypotheses.3. General linguistics deals with the study of language as a whole.4. General linguistics studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methodsapplicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relatelinguistics to the research of other areas.5. The difference between general linguistics and a linguistic branch such as semantics lies inthe fact that general linguistics studies language as a whole, whereas a linguistic branch such as semantics deals with the particular area. For instance, semantics studies the particularaspect of language, or meaning.6. Linguistics includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics,sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, and applied linguistics and so on.7. There are different independent branches of linguistics because language is a complicatedentity with multiple layers and facets, so it is hardly possible for the linguists to deal with it all at once. They have to concentrate on one aspect of it at a time.8. Phonetics is the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.9. Phonology deals with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning incommunication.10. Morphology is the study of the way in which linguistic symbols are arranged and combined to form words.11. Syntax is the study of the rules of the combination of words to form grammaticallypermissible sentences in languages.12. Semantics is the study of meaning.13. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context of language use.14. Sociolinguistics is the study of the social aspects of language and its relation with society.15. Psycholinguistics is the study of the relation of language to psychology.16. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problemsas the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics. But in a narrow sense applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.17. Descriptive linguistics is a linguistic study which aims to describe and analyze the languagepeople actually use.18. Prescriptive linguistics is a linguistic study which aims to lay down rul es for “correct andstandard” behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.19. Modern linguistics is mainly descriptive.20. The aim of prescriptive linguistics is to lay down rules for “c orrect and standard” behavior inusing language, or to set models for language users to follow.21. The task of modern linguistic is to describe the language people actually use, whether it is“c orrect” or not.22. The difference between prescriptive and descriptive linguistics is that prescriptive linguistics is to lay down rules for language users, whereas descriptive linguistics is to describe the language phenomena as they are. Therefore, the former is subjective, while the latter is objective and more scientific.23. Modern linguistics is supposed to be objective, because it aims to describe language as it is.24. Synchronic linguistics is the description of a language at some point of time in history.25. Diachronic linguistics is the description of a language as it changes through time. It is alsotermed historical linguistics.26. The difference between synchronic and diachronic linguistics is that the former deals withlanguage at some point of time in history, while the latter over a period of time.27. Modern linguistics favors synchronic approach because it is less difficult and concerned withthe current existence of language.28. The two major media of linguistic communication are speech and writing.29. Modern linguistics regards as primary speech, or the spoken language.30. F. de Saussure is regarded as the founder of modern linguistics.31. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by.32. Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is the concrete use of theconventions and the application of the rules, or the naturally occurring language events.33. Langue is the abstract linguistic system whereas parole is concrete and is the realization oflangue in actual use. Langue is relatively stable, while parole varies from person to person and from situation to situation.34. According to Chomsky, competence is the ideal user’s knowl edge of the rules of hislanguage.35. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of the ideal user’s knowledgeof the rules of his language in linguistic communication.36. N. Chomsky proposed the distinction between competence and performance.37. Noam Chomsky is an American linguist, who is famous for his syntactic studies all over theworld, and who focuses on the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.38. Saussure’s langue and parole and Chomsky’s competence and p erformance differ in that theformer takes a sociological view of language, whereas the latter a psychological perspective.39. The difference between traditional grammar and modern linguistics is that traditionalgrammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive, that traditional grammartended to emphasize the importance of writing while modern linguistics gives priority tospeech, and that traditional grammar forced languages into a Latin-based framework while modern linguistics does not.40. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.41. According to Sapir, language is a purely human and non-instinctive method ofcommunicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.42. According to Hall, language is ‘the institution whereby humans communicate and i nteractwith each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory symbols.’43. According to Chomsky, language is ‘a set (finite or infinite) of s entences, each finite inl ength and constructed out of a finite set of elements.’44. Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it fromany animal system of communication.45. Productivity refers to the fact that language makes possible the construction andinterpretation of new signals by its users, which is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. This feature is unique to human language.46. Displacement is the property that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. This feature provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place.47. Double articulation refers to the duality of structure, the fact that language is a system, whichconsists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is astructure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.II. <true or false>Identify whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).1. Linguistics is the systematic study of language.True.2. Linguistics deals with a particular language.False.Linguistics studies not any particular language, e.g. English, Chinese, Russian, Arabic, and Latin, but it studies languages in general.3. Linguistics is scientific because it is helpful to language use.False.Linguistics is scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.4. The task of a linguist is to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system.True.5. Linguistics is generally divided into general and specific linguistics.False.We have general linguistics and applied linguistics. We do not have specific linguistics.6. General linguistics deals with the general aspects of language application.False.General linguistics deals with language as a whole, not with language application in particular.7. General linguistics does not study theories of language.False.General linguistics does study theories of language.8. Phonetics studies human sound patterning and the meaning of sounds in communication.False.Phonetics studies the way human sounds are produced.9. Phonology studies how a sound is produced.False.Phonology studies human sound patterning and the meaning of sounds in communication.10. Morphology is the study of sentences.False.Morphology is the study of the rules of word formation.11. Syntax is the study of the rules of words.False.Syntax is the study of the rules of the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.12. Semantics is the study of word meaning.False.Semantics is the study of meaning.13. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context of language use.14. Sociolinguistics deals with the relation between language and society.True.15. Psycholinguistics deals with the relation of language to psychology.True.16. Applied linguistics means the language application to specific areas.False.It means the application of findings in linguistic studies to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability, or, in a narrow sense, the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.17. Modern linguistics aims at prescribing models for language users to follow.False.Modern linguistics aims at describing language as it is.18. Synchronic linguistics deals with a series of language phenomena at the same time.False.It deals with language phenomena over a period of time.19. Diachronic linguistics is also called historical linguistics.True.20. Langue means competence.False.They are similar, but differ in that the former is related to sociology and is a matter of social conventions, while the latter is concerned with psychology and is a property of the mind of each individual.21. Parole is a French word; it means the concrete language events.True.22. F. de Saussure was a Swiss linguist.23. N. Chomsky is an American linguist.True.24. According to Chomsky, the internalization of a set of rules about his language enables a speaker to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous.True.25. Chomsky regards competence as an act of doing things with a sentence.False.He regards it as an internalized set of rules of the learner’s language.26. Performance is the focus of Chomsky’s linguistic study.False.Competence, instead.27. Details of language system are genetically transmitted.False.They are not transmitted, but have to be taught and learned instead.28. Displacement of language means language use in a far-away place.False.Displacement of language means language use not subject to time and place.29. Arbitrariness of language means language can be used freely.False.Arbitrariness means language is arbitrary by nature, i.e. there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. But language is not entirely arbitrary; certain words are motivated, which make up only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language, though.30. Duality of language means language is a two-level system.True.。