Lecture 12 Collocations and Idioms解析
大学英语精读预备级unit12分析
Help students understand the cultural and historical background of the texts, which will enhance their comprehension and appreciation of the texts.
3. "The bibliography at the end of the book is extensive and well-organized." (bibliography)
04
Listening and Speaking
Training
Selection and Use of Listening Materials
语言风格
文章语言正式、规范，表达清晰、 准确，用词精准，有助于提高学 生的英语阅读理解能力和语言表 达能力。
Cultural Background
文化背景介绍
文化意识培养
文章介绍了全球气候变化的背景知识， 包括温室效应、极端天气事件、海平 面上升等现象。
通过学习这一主题，学生可以了解不 同文化对环境保护的态度和行动，培 养他们的跨文化意识和国际视野。
4. "bibliography" - a list of books and articles used as sources in research or writing.
Key grammatical structures
Grammatical Structures
2. Passive voice - a grammatical construction where the subject of the sentence is the recipient of the action, rather than the performer.
牛津九上Units 12课文注解
九上Unit1 课文注释Comic strips and welcome to the unitPage 61. Here’s an interesting article about personality这是一篇关于性格的有趣的文章:1) here: used when you are giving or showing sth to sb (给某人东西或指出某物时说): Here’sthe money I promised you这是我答应给你的钱. Here comes the bus公共汽车来了. I can’t find my keys. Oh, here they are. 我找不到我的钥匙。
原来在这里。
Here we are (= we’ve arrived) 我们到了2) an interesting article about personality一篇关于性格的有趣的文章; an, interesting, 主体词article前；about personality主体词后2. It says some people are generous. 文章说有些人慷慨大方。
say: (书面材料或可见的东西) 提供信息；指示：The notice said “Keep Out”.告示上写着“禁止入内”The clock said three o’clock. 时钟显示三点整The instructions say (that) we should leave it to set for four hours.说明书上说我们应让它凝结四小时The book doesn’t say where he was born. 书上没说他是在哪儿出生的。
The guidebook says to turn off. 旅游指南上说应向左转3. It makes them feel good to share things with others.1) feel good: to feel happy, confident, etc 感到愉快（或有信心等）It makes me feel good to know I’ve got good grades.我知道我的成绩优良感到高兴；2) it 无词义，代替本句的动词不定式短语“to share things with others”3) make (“使，让”) + 动词原形4. Hobo, you’ve eaten up my breakfast!1) eat up/eat sth up: to eat all of sth吃完；吃光；2）up: completely完全；彻底地The stream has dried up.小溪已经干涸了；use sth up: 用尽；吃光5. But this would make you feel good.1) would: 用于带出想像的结果She’d (= she would) look better with shorter hair. 她留短发会显得好看些。
托福听力讲座类lecture7大常见叙述结构逐一盘点
托福听力讲座类lecture7大常见叙述结构逐一盘点托福听力讲座类lecture7大常见叙述结构逐一盘点托福听力讲座类叙述结构：平行结构这种结构可以说是逻辑最简单、信号最明显、入门最快速的一类。
一般来说，教授会在引出主旨之后，通过并列的几个方面来描述某种现象、解释某种原理或者描述某种事物。
当然，每一个方面会有具体深入的解释和举例说明。
这里注意的是，也许每一块的内容具有共同点，但是相互之间是独立的，没有比较、相互影响的关系。
在听的过程中，要特别注意开头，比如托福官方模考套题11 Lecture 4，教授引出主旨”The ‘Four Ms’: Market, Media, Money, Message. All are important areas to focus on when creating your advertising plan. We will look at them one by one.”通过最后这句话可以预判文章的结构，在主体段分别讲解了这四个M 的原则。
在听主体段的过程中要注意first, second, and then, finally 或者提问之类的话题转变的信号词。
托福听力讲座类叙述结构：假设结构这种结构可以说是平行结构的一种衍生体。
主要的特点就是教授针对某个问题或现象的解决方案或者产生原因提出了猜想和假设，可能是深入剖析一种假设，比如托福官方模考套题22 Lecture 1中对于state形成原因是environmental approach的分析;也可能是同时提出了几种假设，比如托福官方模考套题22 Lecture 2中young sun paradox的几种solution猜想。
基本上，提出的假设都会存在一些问题和不确定性，所以要特别注意描述、解释内容之后的转折点和教授的评论。
比如出现了”but not everyone agrees with the theory. It definitely has some weaknesses.”或者教授评论如”so, there’s reason to believe that we will get an answer to that piece of puzzle one day.”那么要注意可能会对教授的态度出题。
Collocations
15.COLLOCATIONSKathleen R.McKeown and Dragomir R.RadevDepartment of Computer ScienceColumbia University,New York{kathy,radev}@ This chapter describes a class of word groups that lies between idioms and free word combinations.Idiomatic expressions are those in which the semantics of the whole cannot be deduced from the meanings of the individual constituents. Free word combinations have the properties that each of the words can be re-placed by another without seriously modifying the overall meaning of the com-posite unit and if one of the words is omitted,a reader cannot easily infer it from the remaining ones.Unlike free word combinations,a collocation is a group of words that occur together more often than by chance.On the other hand,unlike idioms,individual words in a collocation can contribute to the overall semantics of the compound.We present some definitions and examples of collocations,as well as methods for their extraction and classification.The use of collocations for word sense disambiguation,text generation,and machine translation is also part of this chapter.15.1IntroductionWhile most computational lexicons represent properties of individual words,in general most people would agree that one knows a word from the“company that it keeps”[18].Collocations are a lexical phenomenon that has linguistic and lexicographic status as well as utility for statistical natural language paradigms. Briefly put,they cover word pairs and phrases that are commonly used in lan-guage,but for which no general syntactic or semantic rules apply.Because of their widespread use,a speaker of the language cannot achievefluency without incorporating them in speech.On the other hand,because they escape charac-terization,they have long been the object of linguistic and lexicographic study in an effort to both define them and include them in dictionaries of the language.It is precisely because of the fact that they are observable in language that they have been featured in many statistical approaches to natural language processing.Since they occur repeatedly in language,specific collocations can be acquired by identifying words that frequently occur together in a relatively large sample of language;thus,collocation acquisition falls within the general class of corpus-based approaches to language.By applying the same algorithm to different domain-specific corpora,collocations specific to a particular sub-language can be identified and represented.1Once acquired,collocations are useful in a variety of different applications. They can be used for disambiguation,including both word-sense and struc-tural disambiguation.This task is based on the principle that a word in a particular sense tends to co-occur with a different set of words than when it is used in another sense.Thus bank might co-occur with river in one sense and savings and loan when used in itsfinancial sense.A second important applica-tion is translation:because collocations cannot be characterized on the basis of syntactic and semantic regularities,they cannot be translated on a word-by-word basis.Instead,computational linguists use statistical techniques applied to aligned,parallel,bilingual corpora to identify collocation translations and semi-automatically construct a bilingual collocation lexicon.Such a lexicon can then be used as part of a machine translation program.Finally,collocations have been extensively used as part of language generation systems.Generation systems are able to achieve a level offluency otherwise not possible,by using a lexicon of collocations and word phrases during the process of word selection.In this chapter,wefirst overview the linguistic and lexicographic literature on collocations,providing a partial answer to the question“What is a collo-cation?”.We then turn to algorithms that have been used for acquiring col-locations,including word pairs that co-occur inflexible variations,compounds that may consist of two or more words that are more rigidly used in sequence, and multi-word phrases.After discussing both acquisition and representation of collocations,we discuss their use in the tasks of disambiguation,translation and language generation.We will limit our discussion to these topics,however we would like to mention that some work has been done recently[3]in using collocational phrases in cross-lingual information retrieval.15.2Linguistic and lexicographic views of collo-cationsCollocations are not easily defined.In the linguistic and lexicographic literature, they are often discussed in contrast with free word combinations at one extreme and idiomatic expressions at the other,collocations occurring somewhere in the middle of this spectrum.A free word combination can be described using general rules;that is,in terms of semantic constraints on the words which appear in a certain syntactic relation with a given headword[12].An idiom, on the other hand,is a rigid word combination to which no generalities apply; neither can its meaning be determined from the meaning of its parts nor can it participate in the usual word-order variations.Collocations fall between these extremes and it can be difficult to draw the line between categories.A word combination fails to be classified as free and is termed a collocation when the number of words which can occur in a syntactic relation with a given headword decreases to the point where it is not possible to describe the set using semantic regularities.Thus,examples of free word combinations include put+[object]or run+[object]2(i.e.‘manage’)where the words that can occur as object are virtually open-ended.In the case of put,the semantic constraint on the object is relatively open-ended(any physical object can be mentioned)and thus the range of words that can occur is relatively unrestricted.In the case of run(in the sense of‘man-age’or‘direct’)the semantic restrictions on the object are tighter but still fol-low a semantic generality:any institution or organization can be managed(e.g. business,ice cream parlor,etc.).In contrast to these free word combinations,a phrase such as explode a myth is a collocation.In itsfigurative sense,explode il-lustrates a much more restricted collocational range.Possible objects are limited to words such as belief,idea,theory.At the other extreme,phrases such as foot the bill orfill the bill function as composites,where no words can be interchanged and variation in usage is not generally allowed.This distinction between free word combinations and collocations can be found with almost any pair of syn-tactic categories.Thus,excellent/good/useful/useless dictionary are examples of free word adjective+noun combinations,while abridged/bilingual/combinatorial dictionary are all collocations.More examples of the distinction between free word combinations and collocations are shown in Table1.Idioms Collocations Free word combinationsto kick the bucket to trade actively to take the busdead end table of contents the end of the roadto catch up orthogonal projection to buy a houseTable1:Collocations vs.idioms and free word combinations.Because collocations fall somewhere along a continuum between free-word combinations and idioms,lexicographers have faced a problem in deciding when and how to illustrate collocations as part of a dictionary.Thus,major themes in lexicographic papers address the identification of criteria that can be used to determine when a phrase is a collocation,characteristics of collocations,and representation of collocations in dictionaries.Given the fact that collocations are lexical in nature,they have been studied primarily by lexicographers and by relatively fewer linguists,although early linguistic paradigms which place emphasis on the lexicon are exceptions(e.g.[22,30]).In this section,wefirst describe properties of collocations that surface repeatedly across the literature. Next we present linguistic paradigms which cover collocations.We close the sec-tion with a presentation of the types of characteristics studied by lexicographers and proposals for how to represent collocations in different kinds of dictionaries.15.2.1Properties of collocationsCollocations are typically characterized as arbitrary,language-(and dialect-) specific,recurrent in context,and common in technical language(see overview by[37]).The notion of arbitrariness captures the fact that substituting a synonym for one of the words in a collocational word pair may result in an3infelicitous lexical combination.Thus,for example,a phrase such as make an effort is acceptable,but make an exertion is not;similarly,a running commen-tary,commit treason,warm greetings are all true collocations,but a running discussion,commit treachery,and hot greetings are not acceptable lexical com-binations[5].This arbitrary nature of collocations persists across languages and dialects. Thus,in French,the phrase r´e gler la circulation is used to refer to a policeman who directs traffic,the English collocation.In Russian,German,and Serbo-Croatian,the direct translation of regulate is used;only in English is direct used in place of regulate.Similarly,American and British English exhibit arbitrary differences in similar phrases.Thus,in American English one says set the table and make a decision,while in British English,the corresponding phrases are lay the table and take a decision.In fact,in a series of experiments,Benson [5]presented non-native English speakers and later,a mix of American English and British English speakers,with a set of25sentences containing a variety of American and British collocations.He asked them to mark them as either American English,British English,World English,or unacceptable.The non-native speakers got only22%of them correct,while the American and British speakers got only24%correct.While these properties indicate the difficulties in determining what is an acceptable collocation,on the positive side it is clear that collocations occur frequently in similar contexts[5,12,22].Thus,while it may be difficult to define collocations,it is possible to observe collocations in samples of the language. Generally,collocations are those word pairs which occur frequently together in the same environment,but do not include lexical items which have a high overall frequency in language[22].The latter include words such as go,know, etc.,which can combine with just about any other word(i.e.are free word combinations)and thus,are used more frequently than other words.This property,as we shall see,has been exploited by researchers in natural language processing to identify collocations automatically.In addition,researchers take advantage of the fact that collocations are often domain specific;words which do not participate in a collocation in everyday language often do form part of a collocation in technical language.Thus,file collocates with verbs such as create, delete,save when discussing computers,but not in other sublanguages.Stubbs[42]points out some other interesting properties of collocations.For example,he indicates that the word cause typically collocates with words ex-pressing negative concepts,such as accident,damage,death,or concern.Con-versely,provide occurs more often with positive words such as care,shelter,and food.15.2.2Halliday and Mel’ˇc ukMany lexicographers point back to early linguistic paradigms which,as part of their focus on the lexicon,do address the role of collocations in language[30,22]. Collocations are discussed as one offive means for achieving lexical cohesion in Halliday and Hasan’s work.Repeated use of collocations,among other devices4such as repetition and reference,is one way to produce a more cohesive text. Perhaps because they are among the earliest to discuss collocations,Halliday and Hasan present a more inclusive view of collocations and are less precise in their definition of collocations than others.For them,collocations include any set of words whose members participate in a semantic relation.Their point is that a marked cohesive effect in text occurs when two semantically related words occur in close proximity in a text,even though it may be difficult to systematically classify the semantic relations that can occur.They suggest ex-amples of possible relations,such as complementarity(e.g.,boy,girl),synonyms and near-synonyms,members of ordered sets(e.g.,Monday,Tuesday;dollars, cents),part-whole(e..g,car,brake),as well as relations between words of differ-ent parts of speech(e.g.,laugh,joke:blade,sharp;garden,dig).They point to the need for further analysis and interpretation of collocations in future work; for their purpose,they simply lump together as collocations all lexical relations that cannot be called referential identity or repetition.In later years,Mel’ˇc uk provided a more restricted view of collocations.In the meaning–text model,collocations are positioned within the framework of lexical functions(LFs).An LF is a semantico-syntactic relation which connects a word or phrase with a set of words or phrases.LFs formalize the fact that in language there are words,or phrases,whose usage is bound by another word in the language.There are roughly50different simple LFs in the meaning–text model,some of which capture semantic relations(e.g.the LF anti posits a relation between antonyms),some of which capture syntactic relations(e.g.A0 represents nouns and derived adjectivals such as sun–solar),while others capture the notion of restricted lexical co-occurrence.The LF magn is one example of this,representing the words which can be used to magnify the intensity of a given word.Thus,magn(need)has as its value the set of words{great,urgent, bad},while magn(settled)has the value{thickly},and magn(belief)the value {staunch}.O per1is another LF which represents the semantically empty verb which collocates with a given object.Thus,the O per1of analysis is{perform}.15.2.3Types of collocationsIn an effort to characterize collocations,lexicographers and linguists present a wide variety of individual collocations,attempting to categorize them as part of a general scheme[2,5,12].By examining a wide variety of collocates of the same syntactic category,researchers identify similarities and differences in their behavior,in the process coming a step closer to providing a definition. Distinctions are made between grammatical collocations and semantic colloca-tions.Grammatical collocations often contain prepositions,including paired syntactic categories such as verb+preposition(e to,put on),adjec-tive+preposition(e.g.afraid that,fond of),and noun+preposition(e.g.by accident,witness to).In these cases,the open-class word is called the base and determines the words it can collocate with,the collocators2.Often,com-putational linguists restrict the type of collocations they acquire or use to a subset of these different types(e.g.[11]).Semantic collocations are lexically5restricted word pairs,where only a subset of the synonyms of the collocator can be used in the same lexical context.Examples in this category have already been presented.Another distinction is made between compounds andflexible word pairs. Compounds include word pairs that occur consecutively in language and typi-cally are immutable in function.Noun+noun pairs are one such example,which not only occur consecutively but also function as a constituent.Cowie[12]notes that compounds form a bridge between collocations and idioms,since,like col-locations,they are quite invariable,but they are not necessarily semantically opaque.Since collocations are recursive(ibid.),collocational phrases,includ-ing more than just two words,can occur.For example,a collocation such as by chance in turn collocates with verbs such asfind,discover,notice.Flexible word pairs include collocations between subject and verb,or verb and object; any number of intervening words may occur between the words of the colloca-tion.15.2.4Collocations and dictionariesAfinal,major recurring theme of lexicographers is where to place collocations in dictionaries.Placement of collocations is determined by which word functions as the base and which functions as the collocator.The base bears most of the meaning of the collocation and triggers the use of the collocator.This distinction is best illustrated by collocations which include“support”verbs: in the collocation take a bath,bath is the base and the support verb take,a semantically empty word in this context,the collocator.In dictionaries designed to help users encode language(e.g.generate text),lexicographers argue that the collocation should be located at the base[23].Given that the base bears most of the meaning,it is generally easier for a writer to think of the basefirst. This is especially the case for learners of a language.When dictionaries are intended to help users decode language,then it is more appropriate to place the collocation at the entry for the collocator.The base–collocator pairs listed in Table2illustrate why this is the case.Base Collocator Examplenoun verb set the tablenoun adjective warm greetingsverb adverb struggle desperatelyadjective adverb sound asleepverb preposition put onTable2:Base–collocator pairs615.3Extracting collocations from text corpora Early work on collocation acquisition was carried out by Choueka et al.[8]. They used frequency as a measure to identify a particular type of collocation, a sequence of adjacent words.In their approach,they retrieved a sequence of words that occurs more frequently than a given threshold.While they were theoretically interested in sequences of any length,their implementation is re-stricted to sequences of two to six words.They tested their approach on an 11million word corpus from the New York Times archives,yielding several thousand collocations.Some examples of retrieved collocations include home run,fried chicken,and Magic Johnson.This work was notably one of thefirst to use large corpora and predates many of the more mainstream corpus based approaches in computational linguistics.Their metric,however,was less so-phisticated than later approaches;because it was based on frequency alone,it is sensitive to corpus size.Church,Hanks,and colleagues[11,10]used a correlation-based metric to retrieve collocations;in their work,a collocation was defined as a pair of words that appear together more than would be expected by chance.To estimate correlation between word pairs,they used mutual information as defined in Information Theory[34,17].If two points(words)x and y have probabilities P(x)and P(y),then their mutual information I(x,y)is defined to be[9]:I(x,y)=log2P(x,y) P(x)·P(y)In the formula,P(x,y)is the probability of seeing the two words x and y within a certain window.Whenever P(x,y)=P(x)·P(y),the value of I(x,y)becomes0which is an indication that the two words x and y are not members of a collocation pair.If I(x,y)<0,then the two words are in complementary distribution[9].Other metrics for computing strength of collocations are discussed in[32].Church et al.’s approach was an improvement over that of Choueka et al.in that they were able to retrieve interrupted word pairs,such as subject+verb or verb+object collocations.However,unlike Choueka et al.,they were restricted to retrieving collocations containing only two words.In addition,the retrieved collocations included words that are semantically related(e.g.doctor–nurse, doctor–dentist in addition to true lexical collocations.Smadja and his colleagues[36,37,38]addressed acquisition of a wider variety of collocations than either of the two other approaches.This work featured the use of a severalfilters based on linguistic properties,the use of several stages to retrieve word pairs along with compounds and phrases,and an evaluation of retrieved collocations by a lexicographer to estimate the number of true lexical collocations retrieved.Their system Xtract began by retrieving word pairs using a frequency-based metric.The metric computed the z-score of a pair,byfirst computing the average frequency of the words occurring within a ten-word radius of a7given word and then determining the number of standard deviations above the average frequency for each word pair.Only word pairs with a z-score above a certain threshold were retained.In contrast to Choueka et al.’s metric,this metric ensured that the pairs retrieved were not sensitive to corpus size.This step is analogous to the method used by both Choueka et al.and Church et al., but it differs in the details of the metric.In addition to the metric,however,Xtract used three additionalfilters based on linguistic properties.Thesefilters were used to ensure an increase in the accuracy of the retrieved collocations by removing any which were not true lexical collocates.First,Xtract removed any collocations of a given word where the collocate can occur equally well in any of the ten positions around the given word.Thisfilter removed semantically related pairs such as doctor–nurse,where one word can simply occur anywhere in the context of the other;in contrast, lexically constrained collocations will tend to be used more often in similar positions(e.g.an adjective+noun collocation would more often occur with the adjective several words before the noun).A secondfilter noted patterns of interest,identifying whether a word pair was always used rigidly with the same distance between words or whether there is more than one position.Finally, Xtract used syntax to remove collocations where a given word did not occur significantly often with words of the same syntactic function.Thus,verb+noun pairs werefiltered to remove those that did not consistently present the same syntactic relation.For example,a verb+noun pair that occurred equally often in subject+verb and verb+object relations would befiltered out.After retrieving word pairs,Xtract used a second stage to identify words which co-occurred significantly often with identified collocations.This way,the recursive property of collocations noted by[12]was accounted for.In this stage, Xtract produced all instances of appearance of the two words(i.e.concordances) and analyzed the distributions of words and parts of speech in the surround-ing positions,retaining only those words around the collocation that occurred with probability greater than a given threshold.This stage produced rigid compounds(i.e.adjacent sequences of words that typically occurred as a con-stituent such as noun compounds)as well as phrasal templates(i.e.idiomatic strings of words possibly including slots that may be replaced by other words). An example of a compound is(1),while an example of a phrasal template is (2).(1)the Dow Jones industrial average(2)The NYSE’s composite index of all its listed common stocks fell*NUMBER*to*NUMBER*.Xtract’s output was evaluated by a lexicographer in order to identify preci-sion and recall.4,000collocations produced by thefirst two stages of Xtract, excluding the syntacticfilter,were evaluated in this manner.Of these,40%were identified as good collocations.After further passing these through the syntactic filter,80%were identified as good.This evaluation dramatically illustrated the importance of combining linguistic information with syntactic analysis.Recall8was only measured for the syntacticfilter.It was noted that of the good collo-cations identified by the lexicographer in thefirst step of output,the syntactic filter retained94%of those collocations.15.4Using collocations for disambiguationOne of the more common approaches to word-sense disambiguation involves the application of additional constraints to the words whose sense is to be deter-mined.Collocations can be used to specify such constraints.Two major types of constraints have been investigated.Thefirst uses the general idea that the presence of certain words near the ambiguous one will be a good indicator of its most likely sense.The second type of constraint can be obtained when pairs of translations of the word in an aligned bilingual corpus are considered.Research performed at IBM in the early1990s[7]applied a statistical method using as parameters the context in which the ambiguous word appeared.Seven factors were considered:the words immediately to the left or to the right to the ambiguous word,thefirst noun and thefirst verb both to the left and to the right,as well as the tense of the word in case it was a verb or thefirst verb to the left of the word otherwise.The system developed indicated that the use of collocational information results in a13%increase in performance over the conventional trigram model in which sequences of three words are considered.Work by Dagan and Itai[14]took the ideas set forth in Brown et al.’s work further.They augmented the use of statistical translation techniques with lin-guistic information such as syntactic relations between words.By using a bilin-gual lexicon and a monolingual corpus of one language,they were able to avoid the manual tagging of text and the use of aligned corpora.Other statistical methods for word sense disambiguation are discussed in Chapter YZX.Church et al.[9]have suggested a method for word disambiguation in the con-text of Optical Character Recognition(OCR).They suggest that collocational knowledge helps choose between two words in a given context.For example,the system may have to chooose between farm and form when the context is either:(3)federal...creditor(4)some...ofIn thefirst case,the frequency of federal followed by farm is0.50,while the frequency of federal followed by form is0.039.Similarly,the frequencies of credit following either farm or form are0.13and0.026,respectively.One can therefore approximate the probabilities for the trigram federal farm credit, which is(0.5×10−6)×(0.13×10−6)=0.065×10−12and for federal form credit, which is(0.039×10−6)×(0.026×10−6)=0.0010×10−12.Since thefirst of these probabilities is65times as large as the second one,the OCR system can safely pick farm over form in(3).Similarly,form is273times more likely than9farm in(4).Church et al.also note that syntactic knowledge alone would not help in such cases,as both farm and form are often used as nouns.15.5Using collocations for generationOne of the most straightforward applications of collocational knowledge is in natural language generation.There are two typical approaches applied in such systems:the use of phrasal templates in the form of canned phrases and the use of automatically extracted collocations for unification-based generation.We will describe some of the existing projects using both of these approaches.At the end of this section we will also mention some other uses of collocations in generation.15.5.1Text generation using phrasal templatesSeveral early text-generation systems used canned phrases as sources of col-locational information to generate phrases.One of them was UC(Unix con-sultant),developed at Berkeley by Jacobs[25].The system responded to user questions related to the Unix operating system and used text generation to con-vey the answers.Another such system was Ana,developed by Kukich[27]at the University of Pittsburgh,which generated reports of activity on the stock market.The underlying paradigm behind generation of collocations in these two systems was related to the reuse of canned phrases,such as the following from[27]:opened strongly,picked up momentum early in trading,got offto a strong start.On the one hand,Kukich’s approach was computationally tractable,as there was no processing involved in the generation of the phrases,while on the other, it did not allow for theflexibility that a text generation system requires in the general case.For example,Ana needed to have separate entries in its grammar for two quite similar phrases:opened strongly and opened weakly.Another system that made extensive use of phrasal collocations was FOG [6].This was a highly successful system which generated bilingual(French and English)weather reports that contained a multitude of canned phrases such as (5).(5)Temperatures indicate previous day’s high and overnight low to8a.m.In general,canned phrases fall into the category of phrasal templates. They are usually highly cohesive and the algorithms that can generate them from their constituent words are expensive and sophisticated.15.5.2Text generation using automatically acquired col-locational knowledgeSmadja and McKeown[39]have discussed the use of(automatically retrieved) collocations in text generation.10。
耐心的英语学习计划
耐心的英语学习计划Building a Strong Foundation (Beginner Level)The first step in learning English is to build a strong foundation. This phase should focus on acquiring basic vocabulary, understanding simple grammar structures, and developing essential language skills.1. Study Grammar: Begin by learning the basic grammar rules such as verb tenses, articles, prepositions, and sentence structure. Use online resources, textbooks, and language apps to grasp these concepts.2. Build Vocabulary: Start with the most frequently used words in English and gradually expand your vocabulary. Use flashcards, word lists, and vocabulary apps to practice and memorize new words.3. Practice Listening and Speaking: Listen to simple English dialogues, watch beginner-level videos, and use language exchange platforms to practice speaking. Repeat phrases and sentences to improve pronunciation and fluency.4. Read and Write: Start reading simple English texts such as children's stories, short articles, and easy books. Keep a journal to practice writing basic sentences and short paragraphs.Improving Language Skills (Intermediate Level)Once you have a good grasp of the basics, it's time to focus on improving your language skills. This stage involves expanding your vocabulary, understanding more complex grammar structures, and practicing communication in real-life situations.1. Expand Vocabulary: Focus on learning vocabulary related to specific topics such as travel, food, work, and hobbies. Use vocabulary apps, read articles, and watch videos on these topics to reinforce the new words.2. Study Advanced Grammar: Dive deeper into more complex grammar rules such as reported speech, conditionals, and advanced verb forms. Practice using these structures through exercises and communicative activities.3. Enhance Listening and Speaking: Listen to podcasts, watch movies/ TV shows, and participate in group discussions or language exchange meet-ups to improve listening and speaking skills. Focus on understanding different accents and speaking confidently on various topics.4. Read and Write More: Read authentic English materials such as newspapers, novels, and magazines to improve reading comprehension. Write essays, emails, and formal letters to practice expressing ideas in written form.Increasing Fluency (Advanced Level)As you progress to the advanced level, the focus shifts towards achieving fluency, accuracy, and naturalness in both spoken and written English.1. Master Collocations and Idioms: Learn common word combinations (collocations) and idiomatic expressions to sound more natural and fluent. Use these in your speaking and writing to make your language more authentic.2. Practice Complex Listening and Speaking: Engage with advanced listening materials like TED talks, news programs, and academic lectures. Participate in debates, give presentations, and engage in discussions to enhance speaking skills in various contexts.3. Refine Reading and Writing: Read literature, academic papers, and opinion pieces to improve your reading speed and comprehension. Develop a writing style that suits different purposes, such as persuasive essays, reports, and creative writing.4. Seek Feedback and Practice: Engage with native speakers, language tutors, or join advanced English classes to receive feedback on your language skills. Continuous practice and feedback are essential for refining your language abilities.Maintaining Long-term ProgressLearning a language requires consistent effort and patience. To maintain long-term progress in English, it's important to:1. Review Regularly: Periodically review the grammar, vocabulary, and language skillsyou've learned to reinforce your knowledge.2. Set Goals: Define specific language goals and create a timeline to achieve them. This could include passing an English proficiency exam, mastering a specific accent, or becoming fluent in business English.3. Stay Motivated: Find ways to stay motivated, such as exploring English culture, setting up language challenges, or learning through fun activities like music or games.4. Be Patient and Persistent: Understand that language learning is a gradual process, and progress may not always be linear. Stay patient, celebrate small victories, and keep a positive mindset.In conclusion, a well-structured and patient approach to learning English is the key to success. By building a strong foundation, improving language skills, and increasing fluency, and maintaining long-term progress, you can achieve your language goals effectively. The key is to stay patient, persistent, and committed to your English learning journey. Remember, with time and dedication, your language skills will continue to grow and improve. Good luck!。
English Lexicology Unit-12 English Idioms
Ideas are a special type of vocabulary in English that consensus of a combination of words that has a figurative meaning that is different from the literal meaning of the individual words
• Lexicology is the study of words, their meanings, and their use in language It provides a framework for understanding how words are formed, how they acquire meaning, and how they are used in context
• Additionally, lexicology can help us identify patterns and trends in the use of English idols, so as which idols are commonly used in certificate contexts or by certificate groups of people This information can help us better understand the language and culture of English speaking communities
• English idioms are expressions that have a figurative meaning that is different from the literal meaning of the words themselves They are often non literal and culturally specific, making them challenging for non native speakers to understand and use correctly
九年级英语unit 12重难点知识点
九年级英语unit 12重难点知识点Unit 12 in the 9th grade English curriculum covers various challenging topics. Let's delve into some of the key areas of focus in this unit.1. Vocabulary Enrichment:In this unit, students encounter a range of new words and phrases. It is essential to master these vocabulary words to better understand the reading passages and effectively communicate in English. To improve vocabulary retention, students can engage in activities such as word association, creating flashcards, and using the words in context through writing exercises.2. Idioms and Phrasal Verbs:Unit 12 introduces several idiomatic expressions and phrasal verbs, which can often be confusing for non-native English speakers. An idiom is a phrase or expression that has a figurative meaning different from its literal interpretation. For example, "to face the music" means to accept the consequences of one's actions. Phrasal verbs, on the other hand, are verb phrases composed of a verb and one or more particles (preposition or adverb). An example is "to give up," meaning to surrender or stop trying.3. Verb Tenses:Verbs play a crucial role in English grammar. Throughout Unit 12, verb tenses are emphasized. Students must understand the proper usage of different verb tenses, such as the present simple, present perfect, past simple, and past perfect. Practice exercises involving verb tenses and their application in various sentence structures will reinforce learning and improve accuracy.4. Modal Verbs:Unit 12 also covers modal verbs, which are used to express ability, possibility, permission, and obligation. Common modal verbs include "can," "could," "may," "might," "must," "shall," "should," "will," "would," and "ought to." Understanding when and how to use these modal verbs correctly is crucial to construct meaningful sentences and convey the intended message accurately.5. Conditional Sentences:Conditional sentences express hypothetical situations and their potential consequences. They consist of an "if" clause and a main clause. Unit 12 introduces different types of conditionals, such as the zero conditional, the first conditional, the second conditional, and the third conditional. Each conditional form serves a specific purpose andunderstanding their usage will enable students to effectively communicate possibilities, probabilities, and counterfactual situations.6. Reading Comprehension:Unit 12 includes reading passages that test students' comprehension skills. These texts cover a wide range of topics, from scientific discoveries to historical events. Students must develop strategies to comprehend the main ideas, infer meanings from context, extract details, and make logical connections within the text. Active reading techniques such as highlighting, underlining, and summarizing can be beneficial in improving reading comprehension.7. Writing Skills:In the writing component of Unit 12, students are encouraged to enhance their skills in organizing and expressing ideas. Students should practice writing different types of essays, including descriptive, narrative, and argumentative essays. Emphasis should be placed on developing a coherent structure with relevant supporting details, using appropriate vocabulary and grammar, and editing for clarity and conciseness.As students progress through the unit, focusing on these key areas will help them gain a deeper understanding of the English language.Continuous practice, both in and outside the classroom, is essential for students to consolidate their knowledge and improve their English proficiency. Remember, perseverance and consistent effort are the keys to success in mastering English skills.。
英语词汇学_Unit_12_English_Idioms
screw one‟s courage（鼓起勇气、壮起胆子）-Shakespeare Macbeth to the manner born（与生俱来的）--Hamlet pond of flesh（合情但悖于情理的要求）--Merchant of Venice man Friday（忠仆、得力助手）--Daniel Defoe Robinson Crusoe Brevity is the soul of wit. (Shakespeare) Live not to eat, but eat to live. (Franklin) Knowledge is power. (Bacon)
面善心毒的人）
cry wolf（狼来了！比喻发假警报）
Idioms from historical events
meet one‟s Waterloo（一败涂地，出自 1815 年
的“滑铁卢之战”，类似中国的败走麦城）
burn one‟s boats (bridges)（破釜沉舟，讲的是
古罗马恺撒等名将出征时，常烧毁船只，士兵无路可 退，只有勇往直前，战胜敌人）
Idioms from Mythology
Pandora‟s box（潘多拉的盒子，引申为灾祸之源） Sphinx‟s riddle（难解之谜，狮身人面怪兽提出 “什么动
物早晨四条腿，中午两条腿，而晚上三条腿”的谜语）
the heel of Achilles （亦作 the Achilles‟ heel，阿基里
•
•
Thirdly, the constituents of an idiom cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article. For instance, out of the question means „impossible‟. If the article the is deleted, the idiomaticity will be lost and it will signify „no question‟ instead. In question (being considered) on the other hand does not allow the addition of the as *in the question, because the latter is no longer an idiom.
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Lecturer: Prof. Dr. Yan Chen Email: cyan@
Major contents
12.1 Collocation (搭配) 12.1.1 Association and collocation 12.1.2 Two perspectives to approach collocation 12.2 Idioms 12.2.1 Idiom: definition and characteristics 12.2.2 Types of English idioms 12.2.3 Variations of idioms
Semantic restrictions
The stone thinks. Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
syntactic restrictions
He elapsed the man. elapse: vi. (intransitive verb that does not take any object)
make a study of/ do a research on (into) make an analysis of/give an introduction to for this purpose/to this end by this method/in this way the method for/the way of be able to do/be capable of doing be different from/the difference between…and… be dependent on/be independent of
12.1.2 Two perspectives to approach collocation
Co-occurrence (共现) Selectional restrictions (选择限制)
Hale Waihona Puke Co-occurrence (共现)
Co-occurrence refers to the permitted syntagmatic combinations of words, i.e. the usual occurrence of one word with another.
create get around overcome present raise relieve solve sweep away
difficulty
Selectional restrictions (选择限制)
Selectional restrictions are the semantic-syntactic restrictions on compatibility between lexical elements which prevent the derivation of agrammatical sentences. In other words, collocation can be dealt with according to the grammatical rules and the semantic features of lexical items.
Sets of elements which can be substituted one for another in a given context are said to be in paradigmatic relationship.
She will arrive today. She will arrive tomorrow.
He speaks walks cries says
slowly. quickly loudly clearly
syntagmatic relationship (sequence)
paradigmatic relationship (substitution)
collocation & collocations
Collocation: [<collocate, to go together] the tendency for certain words to occur together clear sky clear conscience clear road
Collocations: lexical items consisting of lexical words from different word classes which co-occur habitually
12.1.1 Association (联想) and collocation
Definition: the process of conscious association of two or more aspects of the imagination associative rules ☺temporal contiguity ☺spatial contiguity ☺similarity ☺contrast
He frightened that he was coming. frighten: +that-clause
Collocational competence
Learners need to develop a habit of paying attention to how words are collocated instead of merely memorizing isolated words.
Syntagmatic relations (横组合关系)
Elements which combine to form a larger unit are said to be in syntagmatic relationship. She will arrive today.
Paradigmatic relationship (纵聚合关系)