The influence of vernalization and daylength on expression of flowering-time genes in the shoot apex

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美国文学选择题2014

1. In 1837, Ralph Waldo Emerson made a speech entitled _______ at Harvard, which was hailed by Oliver Wendell Holmes as "Our intellectual Declaration of Independence."A. "Nature"B. "Self-Reliance"C. "Divinity School Address"D. "The American Scholar"2. For Melville, as well as for the reader and _______ , the narrator, Moby Dick is stilla mystery, an ultimate mystery of the universe.A. AhabB. IshmaelC. StubbD. Starbuck3. Most of the poems in Whitman's Leaves of Grass sing of the "mass" and the _______ as well.A. natureB. self-relianceC. selfD. life4. Naturalism is evolved from realism when the author's tone in writing becomes less serious and less sympathetic but more ironic and more _______ .A. rationalB. humorousC. optimisticD. pessimistic5. Dreiser's Trilogy of Desire includes three novels. They are The Financier, The Titan and _______ .A. The GeniusB. The TycoonC. The StoicD. The Giant6. The impact of Darwin's evolutionary theory on the American thought and the influence of the nineteenth-century French literature on the American men of letters gave rise to yet another school of realism: American ________ .A. local colorismB. imagismC. modernismD. naturalism7. It is on his _______ that Washington Irving's fame mainly rested.A. childhood recollectionsB. sketches about his European toursC. early poetryD. tales about America8. Which of the following works concerns most concentrated the Calvinistic view of original sin?A. The Wasteland.B. The Scarlet Letter.C. Leaves of Grass.D. As I Lay Dying9. We can perhaps summarize that Walt Whitman’s poems are characterized by all the following features except that they are _______.A. conversational and crudeB. lyrical and well-structuredC. simple and rather crudeD. free-flowing10. Who exerts the single most important influence on literary naturalism, of which Theodore Dreiser and Jack London are among the best representative writers?A. FreudB. Darwin.C. W.D. Howells.D. Emerson11. Mark Twain, one of the greatest 19th century American writers, is well known for his ____.A. international themeB. waste-land imageryC. local colorD. symbolism12. The period before the American Civil War is commonly referred to as _______.A. the Romantic PeriodB. the Realistic PeriodC. the Naturalist PeriodD. the Modern Period13. “The apparition of these faces in the crowd; / Petals on a wet, black bough.” This is the shortest poem written by（）.A. e.e. Cummings C. Ezra PoundB. T.S. Eliot D. Robert Frost14. In Henry James’ Daisy Miller, the author tries to portray the young woman as an embodiment of _______.A. the force of conventionB. the free spirit of the New WorldC. the decline of aristocracyD. the corruption of the newly rich15. "Two roads diverged in a yellow woodAnd sorry I could not travel both ..."In the above two lines of Robert Frost’s The Road Not Taken, the poet, by i mplication, was referring to _______.A. a travel experienceB. a marriage decisionC. a middle-age crisisD. one’s course of life16. The Transcendentalists believe that, first, nature is ennobling, and second, the individual is _______.A. insignificantB. vicious by natureC. divineD. forward-looking17. Which of the following is not a work of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s?A. The House of the Seven Gables.B. The Blithedale Romance.C. The Marble Falun.D. White Jacket.18. _________is often acclaimed literary spokesman of the Jazz Age.A. Carl SandburgB. Edwin Arlington RobinsonC. William FaulknerD. F. Scott Fitzgerald19. In Hawthorne’s novels and short stories, intellectuals usually appear as _______.A. commentatorsB. observersC. villainsD. saviors20. Besides sketches, tales and essays, Washington Irving also published a book on ______, which is also considered an important part of his creative writing.A. poetic theoryB. French artC. history of New YorkD. life of George Washington21. In Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, there are detailed descriptions of big parties. The purpose of such descriptions is to show _______.A. emptiness of lifeB. the corruption of the upper classC. contrast of the rich and the poorD. the happy days of the Jazz Age22. In American literature, escaping from the society and returning to nature is a common subject. The following titles are all related, in one way or another, to the subject except _______.A. Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry FinnB. Dreiser’s Sister CarrieC. Copper’s Leather-Stocking TalesD. Thoreau’s Walden23. Which of the following novels can be regarded as typically belonging to the school of literary modernism?A. The Sound and the FuryB. Uncle To m’s Cabin.C. Daisy Miller.D. The Gilded Age.24. Emily Dickinson wrote many short poems on various aspects of life. Which of the following is not a usual subject of her poetic expression?A. Religion.B. Life and death.C. Love and marriage.D. War and peace.25. Most recognizable literary movement that gave rise to the twentieth-century American literature, or we may say, the second American Renaissance, is the _______ movement.A. transcendentalB. leftistC. expatriateD. expressionistic26. As an autobiographical play, O'Neill's _______ （1956）has gained its status as a world classic and simultaneously marks the climax of his literary career and the coming of age of American drama.A. The Iceman ComethB. Long Day's Journey Into NightC. The Hairy ApeD. Desire Under the Elms27. Apart from the dislocation （错位）of time and the modern stream-of-consciousness, the other narrative techniques Faulkner used to construct his stories include _______ , symbolism and mythological and biblical allusions.A. impressionismB. expressionismC. multiple points of viewD. first person point of view28. Stylistically, Henry James' fiction is characterized by _______ .A. short, clear sentencesB. abundance of local imagesC. ordinary American speechD. highly refined language29. Robert Frost combined traditional verse forms with a plain speech of _______ farmers .A. SouthernB. WesternC. New HampshireD. New England30. Henry David Thoreau's work, ________has always been regarded as a masterpiece of New England Transcendentalism.A. WaldenB. The pioneersC. NatureD. Song of Myself31. The famous 20-years sleep in “Rip Van Winkle” helps to construct the story in such a way that we are greatly affected by Irving's ___.A. concern with the passage of timeB. expression of transient (短暂的）beautyC. satire on laziness and corruptibility of human beingsD. idea about supernatural manipulation of man's life32.Walt Whitman was a pioneering figure of American poetry. His innovation first of all lies in his use of __, poetry without a fixed beat or regular rhyme scheme.A. blank verseB. heroic coupletC. free verseD. iambic pentameter33. In Moby-Dick, the white whale symbolizes _______ for Melville, for it is complex, unfathomable, malignant, and beautiful as well.A. natureB. human societyC. whaling industryD. truth34. Hester, Dimmsdale, Chillingworth and Pearl are most likely the names of the characters in ___.A. The Scarlet LetterB. The House of the Seven GablesC. The Portrait of a LadyD. The pioneers35. With Howells, James, and Mark Twain active on the literary scene, _______ became the major trend in American literature in the seventies and eighties of the 19thcentury.A. sentimentalismB. romanticismC. realismD. naturalism36. After The adventures of Tom Sawyer, Twain gives a literary independence to Tom's buddy Huck in a book entitled ___.A. Life on the MississippiB. The Gilded AgeC. The Adventures of Huckleberry FinnD. A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court37. Generally speaking, all those writers with a naturalistic approach to human reality tend to be _____.A. transcendentalistsB. idealistsC. pessimistsD. impressionists38.In the last chapter of Sister Carrie, there is a description about Hurstwood, one of the protagonists of the novel, “Now he began leisurely to take off his clothes, but stopped first with his coat, and tucked it along the crack under the door. His vest he arranged in the same place.” Why did he do this? Because ________.A. he wanted to commit suicideB. he wanted to keep the room warmC. he didn’t want to be found by othersD. he wanted to enjoy the peace of mind39.The Romantic writers would focus on all the following issues EXCEPT the ___ in the American literary history.A .individual feelingsB. idea of survival of the fittestC. strong imaginationD. return to nature40. Chinese poetry and philosophy have exerted great influence over ____.A. Ezra PoundB. Ralph Waldo EmersonC. Robert FrostD. Emily Dickinson41. The Hemingway Code heroes（硬汉形象）are best remembered for their __.A. indestructible spiritB. pessimistic view of lifeC. war experiencesD. masculinity (男性，男子气）42. IN The Emperor Jones and The Hairy Ape, O'Neill adopted the expressionist techniques to portray the _____ of human beings in a hostile universe.A. helpless situationB. uncertaintyC. profound religious faithD. courage and perseverance43. The high tide of Romanticism in American literature occurred around .[A]1820[B]1850[C]1880[D]192044.The subj ect matter of Robert Frost’s Poems focuses on .[A] ordinary country people and scenes[B]battle scenes of ancient Greek and Roman legends[C]struggling masses and crowded urban quarters[D]fantasies and mythical happenings45.Which group of writers are among those who may be called early pioneers of American literature?[A]Mark Twain and Henry James.[B]Fenimore Cooper and Washington lrving.[C]Ernest Hemingway and William Faulkner[D]Jack London and O’Henry.46.To Theodore Dreiser, life is “so sad, so strange, so mysterious and so inexplicable.” No wonder the characters in his books are often subject to the control of the natural forces, especially those of _____and heredity.[A]fate[B]morality[C]social conventions[D]environment47.Hawthorne generally concerns himself with such issues as in his fiction.[A]the evil in man’s heart[B]the material pursuit[C]the racial conflict[D]the social inequality48._______ provides the main source of influence on American naturalism.[A]The puritan heritage[B]Howells’ ideas of realism[C]Darwin’s theory of evolution[D]The pioneer spirit of the wild west49.In Mark Twain’s The Adventures of huckleberry Finn, Huck writes a letter to inform against Jim, the escaped slave, and then he tears the letter up. This fact reveals that______ .[A]Huck has a mixed feeling of love and hate[B]there is a conflict between society and conscience in Huck[C]Huck is always an indecisive person[D]Huck has very little education50.Which terms can best describe the modernists’ concern of the human situation in their fiction?[A]Fragmentation （崩溃）and alienation.[B]Courage and honor.[C]Tradition and faith.[D]Poverty and desperation.51.Whitman’s poems are characterized by all the following features except .[A]a strict poetic form[B]a simple and conversational language[C]a free and natural rhythmic pattern[D]an easy flow of feelings52.All his novels reveal that, as time went on, Mark Twain became increasingly ____.[A]prolific (多产的）[B]artistic.[C]optimistic[D]pessimistic53.Which of the following is NOT a typical feature of Henry James’s writing style?[A] exquisite and elaborate language[B]minute and detailed descriptions[C]lengthy psychological analyses[D]American colloquialism54.In the beginning paragraph of Chapter 3, The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald describes a big party by saying that “men and girls came and went like moths.” The author most likely indicates that______ .[A]there was a crowd of party-goers[B]such life does not have real meaning[C]these people were light-hearted[D]these were crazy and ignorant characters55.Which one of the following statements is NOT true of William Faulkner?[A]He is master of stream-of-consciousness narrative.[B]His writing is often complex and difficult to understand.[C]He often depicts slum life in New York and Chicago.[D]He represents a new group of Southern writers.56._________is generally regarded as the forerunner of the 20th century “stream-of-consciousness” novels and the founder of psychological realism.A. Theodore DreiserB. William FaulknerC. Henry JamesD. Mark Twain57.By the end of Sister Carrie, Dreiser writes, “It was forever to the pursuit of that radiance of delight which tints the distant hilltops of the world.” Dreiser implies that_____ .[A]there is a bright future lying ahead[B]there is no end to man’s desire[C]one should always be forward-looking[D]happiness is found in the end58. At the beginning of Faulkner’s A Rose For Emily, there is a detailed description of Emily’s old house. The purpose of such description is to imply that the person living in it ______.A. is a wealth ladyB. has good tasteC. is a prisoner of the pastD. is a conservative aristocrat59. ________ is often acclaimed literary spokesman of the Jazz Age.A. Carl SandburgB. Edwin Arlington RobinsonC. William FaulknerD. F. Scott Fitzgerald60.The theme of Washington Irving’s Rip Van Winkle is（）.A. the conflict of human psycheB. the fight against racial discriminationC. the familial conflictD. the nostalgia（怀旧之情）for the unrecoverable past61.Hemingway once described Mark Twain’s novel ______ the one book from which “all modern American literature comes.”A. The Adventures of Huckleberry FinnB. The Adventures of Tom SawyerC. The Gilded AgeD. The Man That Corrupted Hadleyburg。

2023年美国文学考试必备知识点

Romanticperiod1.Washington Irving2.Edgar Allan Poe3.Nathanial Hawthorne4.Walt Whitman5.Emily Dickinson6.II.Realist period7.Mark Twain8.Sherwood Anderson9.Stephen Crane10.Theodore Dreiser11.III.Modern period12. F.S.Fitzgerald13.Ernest Hemingway14.William Faulkner1.TranscendentalismTranscendentalism refers to the religious and philosophical doctrines of Ralph Waldo Emerson and others in New England in the middle 1800’s, which emphasized the importance of individual inspiration and intuition, the Oversoul, and Nature.Other concepts that accompanied Transcendentalism include the idea that nature is ennobling and the idea that the individual is divine and, therefore, self-reliant. New England Transcendentalism is the product of a combination of native American Puritanism and European Romanticism.2.NaturalismNaturalism, a more deliberate kind of realism, usually involves a view of human beings as passive victims of natural forces and social environment.As a literary movement, naturalism was initiated in France and it came to be led by Zola, who claimed at “scientific”status for his studies of impoverished characters miserably subjected to hunger, sexual obsession, and hereditary defects.Natural fiction aspired to a sociological objectivity, offering detailed and fully researched investigations intounexplored corners of modern society.The most significant work of naturalism in English being Dreiser’s Sister Carrie.3.American DreamThe American Dream is the faith held by many people in the United States of America that through hard work, courage and determination one can achieve a better life for oneself, usually through financial prosperity.These were values held by many early European settlers, and have been passed on to subsequent generations.4.The Lost GenerationThe term Lost Generation was coined by Gertrude Stein to refer to a group of American Literary notables who lived in Paris from the time period which saw the end of World War I to the beginning of the Great Depression.Significant members included Ernest Hemingway, F.Scott Fitzgerald, Ezra Pound, Sherwood Anderson, T.S.Eliot, and Gertrude Stein herself.Hemingway likely popularized the term, quoting Stein (“You are all a lost generation”) as epigraph to his novel The Sun Also Rises.More generally, the term is being used for the young adults of Europe and America during World War I.They were “lost”because after the war many of them were disillusioned with the world in general and unwilling to more into a settled life5. ModernismModern writing is marked by a strong and conscious break with traditional forms and techniques of expression; it believes that we create the world in the act of perceiving it.Modernism implies historical discontinuity, a sense of alienation, of loss, and of despair.It elevates the individual and his inner being over social man and prefers the unconscious to the self-conscious.6. Romanticism.7. Puritanism8.The principles and practices of puritans were popularly known asPuritanism.Puritanism accepted the doctrines of Calvinism: the sovereignty of God;the supreme authority of the Bible; the irresistibility of God’s will for man in every act of life from cradle to grave.These doctrines led the Puritans to examine their souls to find whether they were of the elect and to search the Bible to determine God’s will.9.Hemingway Heroes / Code Hero“Hemingway Heroes”refer to some protagonists in Hemingway’s works.Such a hero usually is an average man of decidedly masculine tastes, sensitive and intelligent.And usually he is a man of action and of a few words.He is such an individualist, alone even when with other people, somewhat an outsider, keeping emotions under control, stoic and self-disciplined in a dreadful place where one can not get happiness.The Hemingway heroes stand for a whole generation.In a world which is essentially chaotic and meaningless, a Hemingway hero fights a solitary struggle against a force he does not even understand.The awareness that it must end in defeat, no matter how hard he strives, engenders a sense of despair.But Hemingway heroes possess a kind of “despairing courage”as Bertrand Russell terms.It is this courage that enables a man to behave like a man, to assert his dignity in face of adversity.Surely Hemingway heroes differ, one from another, in their view of the world.The difference which comes gradually in view is an index to the subtle change which Hemingway’s outlook had undergone.ExpressionismExpressionism refers to a movement in Germany early in the 20th century, in which a number of painters sought to avoid the representation of external reality and, instead, to project a highly personal or subjective vision of the world.The main principle involved is that expression determines form, and therefore imagery, punctuation, syntax, and so forth.In brief, any of the formal rules and elements of writing can be bent or disjointed to suit the purpose.Theatrically, expressionism was a reaction against realism in that it tends to show inner psychological realities.O’Neill’s playsare some of the best examples.The Imagist Movement (Imagism)(1)Led by Ezra Pound and flourished from 1909 to 1917, the movement advanced modernism in arts which concentrated on reforming the medium of poetry as opposed to Romanticism, especially Tennyson' s wordiness and high-flown language in poetry.The three principles followed by the Imagists were:(2)"Direct treatment" (2) "Economy of Expression" (3) " Rhythm"symbolismSymbolism originates in France in the middle 19th century.The poetry collection The Flowers of Evil by the French poet Charles Baudelaire is a representative work of this genre.Symbolism tries to express the dreamy mysterious inner world of the writer. Stream-of-consciousnessStream-of-consciousness begins in the 1920’s in Britain.It is a psychological term indicating “the flux of conscious and subconscious thoughts and impressions moving in the mind at any given time independently of the person’s will”.In late 19th century, the literary device of “interior monologue”was originated in France as an application of modern psychological knowledge to literary creation.In the 20th century, under the influence of Freud’s theory of psychological analysis, a number of writers adopted the “stream of consciousness”method of novel writing.The striking feature of these novelists is their giving precedence to the depiction of the characters’mental and emotional reactions to external events, rather than the events themselves.(to be continued)Free verse:a form of poetry without rhyme, meter, regular line length, and regular stanzaic structure.It depends on natural speech for rhythm.Robert Frost compared it to“playing tennis with the net down.”Though much simpler and less restrictive than conventional poetry and blank verse, free verse does no mean “formlessness.”T.S.Eliot once said that “no verse is free for the man who wants to do a good job.”Though its origin is unknown, it was attempted by such early poets as Surrey, Milton, Blake, and Macpherson.It was Whitman who did the greatest contribution to the development and popularity of free verse.Whitman favored the simplicity and freedom of expression.According to him, “The art of art, the glory of expression and the sunshine of light of letters is simplicity.Noting is better than simplicity.”Jazz age:Jazz is a form of dance music that is derived from early Afro-American folk music, ragtime, and Negro blues.It is marked with exciting rhythm, pronounced syncopation, and constant improvisation.The musical instruments used are mainly drums, trumpets, and saxophones.Major composers of Jazz music include Irvin Berlin and W.C.Handy.The term Jazz Age was specifically employed by Fitzgerald to denote the 1920s, which was characterized by the loss of traditional moral standards, indulgence in romantic yearnings, and great social excitement.According to Malcolm Cowley, the Jazz Age was “a legend of glitter, of recklessness, and of talent in such profusion that it was sown broadcast like wild oats.”F.Scott Fitzgerald’s Tales of the Jazz Age, like Mark Twain’s The Gilded Age, was an epoch-making work.Black humor:a term frequently used in modern literary criticism.It is sometimes called ‘black comedy’or ‘tragic farce.’It is humor or laughter resulting from great pain, despair, horror and the absurdity of human existence.Black humor is a common quality of modern anti-novels and anti-dramas.Examples are Franz Kafka’s stories like “Metamorphosis”, “The Castle”and “The Trial”, Joseph Heller’s novel Catch-22and Albee’s The Zoo Story.Other writers who did much contribution to the popularity of black humor were Beckett, Camus, Ionesco, V onnegut, Pynchon and so on. Autobiography:a story a writer writes about his or her own life experiences.It is narrated from the first-person point of view.The term was probably first used by Southey.But the first important autobiography was Confessions written by Augustine of Hippo.Other examples include Franklin’s Autobiography, Adams’s The Education of Henry Adams, John Stuart Mill’s Autobiography, Carlyle’s Reminiscences, Henry David Thoreau’s Walden, and so on.Surprise Ending:Also called “O.Henry ending,”it is a completely unexpected turn or revelation of events at the conclusion of a story or play.An example is “The Necklace”by Guy de Maupassant.Another instance is O.Henry’s story “The Gift of the Magi.”Blank verse:poetry that does not rhyme but has iambic pentameter lines.Though not originated in England or America, it has been the most important and most widely used English verse form.Blank verse is popular because it is closest to the rhythm of daily English speech.Thus most English poems which are dramatic, reflective or narrative are in the form of blank verse.This verse was probably first used in England by Surrey who translated Aeneid, by Sackville and Norton who composed Gorboduc.It was developed and perfected by Marlowe, Shakespeare and Milton.In the 18th century, most poets favored heroic couplets.But Young and Thomson were able to write in the tradition of blank verse.The 19th century saw a renewed interest in this poetic form.Masters ofblank verse included Wordsworth, Coleridge and Bryant.The fact that blank verse is still practiced by writers like T.S.Eliot, Yeats, Frost and Stevens shows how influential and favorable it really is.Characteristics of Realism2.1 Realism aims at the description of the actualities of the life and free from subjective prejudice, idealism or romantic color.2.2 Realism focuses on commonness of the common people.The emphasis is on ordinary people, settings and events.2.3 Life is presented as it is.2.4 Use real characters, real incidents, real language and local dialects.2.5 In matters of style, diction and sentence structure tend toward a plain style.3.Representative writersWilliam Howells .Mark Twain .Henry JamesMajor features of Naturalism1.At the core of naturalism is determinism2.An individual’s course in life is wholly determined by some combination of animal instinct, heredity, and environment.Humans lack freedom of their own will.All of their actions are controlled, determined.3.The universe is cold, godless, indifferent and hostile to human desires.Life becomesa struggle for survival.Two of the naturalist’s recurrent concerns are: social systems that destroy and dehumanize, and individual experience of loss and failure.4.Naturalism is a harsher and extreme form of realism.The naturalists have a major difference from the realists.Themes of Hawthorne’s writing1.Explore the relationship between the past and the present2.Explore the hidden motivations of his characters.3.Examine the effect of hidden sin and secret guilt4.Moral or immoral, right or wrong is the question Hawthorne always talks about in his works.1.5.Style1.His style was soft, flowing and almost feminine.nguage: smooth, clear, beautiful in sound and meaning3.He also frequently uses symbols and settings to reveal the psychology of the characters.Appreciation of The Scarlet Letter1.Main Character:Hester Prynne., Roger Chillingworth., Arthur Dimmesdale3.Character AnalysisHester: brave, strong-minded, warm-hearted, intelligent, sacrificing, decisive Dimmesdale: timid, selfish, irresponsible, cowardly, weak-minded Chillingworth: cold-blooded, dehumanizedTheme of The Scarlet LetterTo escape the bondage of religion either on people’s spirit or on people’s natural desire4.Abundant use of symbolsA ---adultery angel ablePrison—the place that deprived people of spiritual freedomForest---the natureRose near the prison—Hester and her loveCap—sth controlling one’s beautyWalt Whitman(1819-1892)Leaves Of Grass“Song of myself”Analysis of the artistic features2.4.1.form: free verseOral and powerful lg: Although free verse, he wrote with repeated and parallel sentences to strengthen the feelings.He express what he wanted to express freely, smoothly, and heatedly.His poems are like waves of the sea that rushed to the beach violently, one after another.2.4.2 the first person narrator: direct and sympathetic to the reader2.4.3.topic: sex.To use his own expression, “he saw the world as a vision of love.”He believes that life is the source of poems, love and enthusiasm are the motives of creation.ments on the writer3.1.Subject: son of time, feels the pulse of the time.As a romanticist and transcendentalist, he broke the conventional poetic materials, no myth,no romance, no story of king and lords.He sings for self, common people, America, city life, nature, etc.3.2.Form: (Free verse) poetry without fixed beat or regular rhyme.Whitman is the first great American poet to use this form of poetry, he also used it more skillfully than any other poet.(1)One's Self I Sing1.What is the significance of singing about one's self?It is an exaltation of the individual spirit, which is typical of American people.2.What is the difference between physiology and physiognomy?Physiology is a science that deals with the functions and life process of human beings,whereas physiognomy refers to an art of judging character from contours of face itself or the appearance of a person.3.What does Whitman mean by the term of "the Modern Man"?He means that a man should be free from any prejudice and pride, totally different from the traditional one, that is full of bias.(3) O Captain! My Captain!1.Why is the word "Captain" capitalized throughout the poem?In this poem the word “Captain”specially refers to Abraham Lincoln, president of the United States.2.What overall metaphor does the poet employ in this poem?Life is a journey.3.Why do people on the shores exult and bells ring, while the speaker remains so sad?They welcome the ship returning from its hard trip, whereas the speaker is sad because the captain fails to receive his own honor.Mark Twain 马克·吐温The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras Count卡拉维拉斯县有名旳跳蛙(1865):a short storyThe Innocents Abroad国外旳无辜者(1869)Roughing It苦行记(1872): on his experience in the western America The Gilded Age (1873): his first novel, collaborated with Charles Dudley Warner The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876)The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn哈克贝利·费恩历险记(1884): masterpiece Life on the Mississippi (1883)A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court误闯亚瑟王宫(1889)The Man That Corrupted Hadleyburg败坏了哈德莱堡旳人(1900)The Mysterious Stranger (1916)e.The Adventures of Tom Sawyer1.It is "a boy's book" which sets 20 years before Civil War.2.themes:1)picaresque以流浪汉和无赖为题材旳(adventure story)2) moral growth of Tom3.techniques: verisimilitude, humor, colloquial styleMark Twain’s Style in Generalthe true father of American literatureFrequent use of sarcasm, slang and regional dialects.4.5.1.Subject Matter: came directly from American people’s life along the Mississippi River, less influenced by foreign cultures4.5.2.Genuine American style:a) Language: easy, informal, humorous and unaffected [free from affectation; sincere], wildb) He intentionally deviates from classical genteel and tends to use local dialects, colloquial language, even Black English, slang, clipped structures and ungrammatical sentencesMajor work : Huckleberry Finn《哈克贝利·费恩历险记》show escape to freedomTheodore Dreiser (1871-1945) 德莱赛Naturalism is a theory in literature emphasizing the role of heredity and environment upon human life and character development roughly between 1890’s and early 1900’s.There is no clear-cut chronological division between the American naturalists and the American realists.对比Realism Naturalismemphasis on the ordinary emphasis also on the extraordinarya mirror a lensthe observer the scientistmoral or rational the accidental and physiologicalMajor Writing Features6.3.1 As a naturalistic writer, Dreiser stressed determinism in his novels.·His characters can’t assert their will against natural and economic forces. ·Dreiser held that people are not entirely to blame for what they are and what they do.6.3.2.He developed the capacity for photographic and relentless observation, thereby truthfully reflecting the society and people of his time and making his novels very believable and convincing.·Almost all of his main characters are based on the real people.·Vivid description of environmental settings and social background6.3.3.His novels are full of tragedies, serious subjects and miserable side of the society.·Dreiser broke through the genteel tradition , revealed the life of the lower class people and dared to expose the vulgar and ugly side of the society.Style6.4.1. Language: very awkward, crude/on the bordering of line of grammar.6.4.2. Serious in tone: never satirical or comic6.4.3. Natural narrative method, free from artifice.His narrative is based on quantities of materials and detailed descriptions.作品Si ster Carrie 嘉莉妹妹(1900): the first novel, masterworkJannie Gerhardt (1911)The Fanancier (1912)The Titan (1914)The Stoic (1947)The Genius (1915)An American Tragedy美国悲剧(1925)Dreiser Looks at Russia (1928)c.Sister Carrietheme:the emptiness of Ameircan Dreami.jungle lawFamous actress bank manager(the unfit is bound to die) <——Country girl (able to follow her instinct) commit suicideii.chance and luckiii.criticism of American values: money and sex —the standards to see if a person is successfuliv.concern for the poorF.Scott Fitzgerald (1896-1940)an Irish-American Jazz Age novelist and short story writer.Theme of the American DreamFitzgerald’s favorite theme is the American Dream.In The Great Gatsby and other works, a general pattern can be found to fully demonstrate Fitzgerald’s enthusiasm and his disillusionment with the American Dream: formally, a poor young man from the West trying to make his fortune in the East, but thematically, the young man goes on a journey of discovery from dream, through disenchantment, and finally to a sense of failure and despair.In this general pattern of the protagonist’s personal experienceis incarnated the whole of American experience..Languagesmooth, sensitive, original, simple and gracefulJay Gatsby Nick Carraway Tom Buchanan Daisy BuchananThe Great GatsbyTheme:1.about reality and atmosphere of 1920s2.failure of American Dreamc.attitude towards the rich: paradoxicalHe is charmed by the rich.He is critical of the rich who are corrupted themselves and meanwhile corrupting others.d.attitude towards the Jazz Age: insider and outsider人物Jay Gatsby Nick Carraway Tom Buchanan Daisy Buchanan Gatsby, with all his freshness, his optimism, and his vitalityGatsby in the novel represents the newly rich upstart, vulgar in hisostentatious [showy] wealth.However, he becomes a kind of newAmerican Adam.He is “great”, because he is dignified and ennobledby his dream and his mythic vision of life.Tom Buchanan : He is vulgar, hypocritical racist and bigot [person who holds sth strongly].He is practical and non-idealistic, shallow and mistrustful of emotion.He never cares or takes responsibility.Daisy Buchanan: she also has an inner emptiness, marked by her boredom and cynicism and moral irresponsibility.She is afraid of being alone, as though she has no inner self.But she has the power to charm.Daisy represents material wealth to Gatsby,but it also connects with physical attraction.However, Daisy is unworthy of Gatsby’s love.She is incapable of living the fully imagined life that Gatsby has visualized.She is cowardly and selfish.Nick is both a narrator and a character in this novel.He leads us tothe dignity and depth of Gatsby’s character, and suggests the relationof his tragedy to the American situation.Ernest Hemingway 海明威style1.iceberg principle.The meaning here is that the writer should say only one eighth, in such a way that the remaining seven eighths be discerned and provided by the reader.nguage: short, common, fundamental words, simple sentence, structure.The effect of the language: clearness, cleanness and great care.3.dialogue: plays a very important part in his writings.Hemingway’s dialogue can show setting, development of plot, characters, even theme.4.cinematic way: he uses showing instead of telling.He likes to describes actions (kiss, withdraw hand) vividly instead of mental description.5.symbolisme of stream of consciousnesstraits for the Code Hero:(1) Measuring himself against the difficulties life throws in his way, realizing that we will all lose ultimately because we are mortals, but playing the game honestly and passionately in spite of that knowledge.(2) Facing death with dignity, enduring physical and emotional pain in silence(3) Never showing emotions(4) Maintaining free-will and individualism, never weakly allowing commitment toa single woman or social convention to prevent adventure, travel, and acts of bravery(5) Being completely honest, keeping one's word or promise(6) Being courageous and brave, daring to travel and have "beautiful adventures," as Hemingway would phrase it(7) Admitting the truth of Nada (Spanish, "nothing"), i.e., that no external source outside of oneself can provide meaning or purpose.This existential awareness also involves facing death without hope of an afterlife, which the Hemingway Code Hero considers more brave than "cowering" behind false religious hopesThemes nada, grace under pressure, code heroMagic realism 加西亚·马尔克斯《百年孤单》Garcia Marques Century Loneliness)Henry JamesThe American (1877): begins with international themeDaisy Miller (1878): brings the author first international fameThe Wings of the Dove (1902)The Ambassadors (1903)The Golden Bowl (1904)The Portrait of A Lady贵妇画像:masterpieceJack LondonThe People of the Abyss深渊居民(1903): about London's slumThe Iron Heel 铁蹄(1908): the first proletarian criterion novel which envisages the development of fascismThe Call of the Wild 野性旳呼唤(1903): the most widely read bookThe Sea Wolf 海狼(1904)These two novels reflect the ideas of the law of survival and the will to power Martin Eden马丁伊登Ezra Pound埃兹拉·庞德Imagism意象派Pound became the most important figure.Imagist poetry reached the peak of literature for three things appeared:i.a manifesto ii.three principles iii.a lot of writingsIn a Station of the Metro在地铁车站1.This is the much-quoted masterpiece of Pound and a representative of the Imagist poetry.2.Why does the poet call the faces of pedestrians "apparition"?These pedestrians are all walking in a hurry amidst the drizzling rain.3.What do "petals" and "bough" stand for? Petals refer to the faces while the bough stands for the floating crowd.Robert Frost⏹ b.Characteristics⏹ 1.not in the main stream of modern poetry, but with conventional form and plainlanguage.That’s why he’s the most popular poet in the 20th century.⏹ 2.a kind of a regionalist----New England, but not local colorism.He used New England asa metaphor for the whole world and universe.3.a plain poet using symbols from everyday country life.Simple symbols but express deep meanings.The Road Not Taken⏹ 1.The poem was written in very regular lines with iambic pentametre and rhyme schemeof abaab.⏹ 2.The symbolic meaning of the two divergent roads is rather clear.They represent anyimportant decisions in one's life.3.details:Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening⏹ 1.It is a lyric poem with iambic tetrametre and interlocking enclosed rhyme.2.It represents a moment of relaxation from the onerous journey of life, an almost aesthetic enjoyment and appreciation of natural beauty which is wholesome and retorative against the chaotic existence of modern man.William Faulkner (1897-1962)Sound and Fury: divided into 4 parts1.themes:a) downfall of the South.The south was in deterioration.It’s going from bad to worse.The present and the past form a contrast from Benjy’s eyes.He’s an idiot so his reactions were distinctive feeling.He felt strongly the loss of love.The downfall of Mr.Campson was not only a personal one but also a universal one---the society was in disorder.b) conflict between the old/young generationsFather of Southern American literatureNobel Prize for literature in 1950Special features2.1.Setting :Oxford is the model for his fictional Jefferson, the central place of his fictional Yoknapatawpha County2.2.Subjects :southern tradition, family, community, the land, history and the past,race, and the passions of ambition and love2.3.Characters:Typical of the historical growth and subsequent decadence of the South 写作技巧Multiple Points of View ：He always structure his stories in his own original fashion and is proficient in employing a distinctive narrative method of gradually fitting in and of withholding or even giving confusing information.Stream of consciousness, complex structures, epic style, symbolism William Faulkner威廉•福克纳1897-1962 1950年获诺贝尔文学奖, 普利策奖小说奖 1. 1929年《喧嚣与骚动》”The Sound and the Fury” 1930年《在我弥留之际》”As I Lay Dying” 1932年《八月之光》”Light in August”1936年《押沙龙, 押沙龙》”Absalom, Absalom”教材作品: 《给艾米莉小姐旳玫瑰》: “A Rose for Emily”南方文学特点:主题:作者获奖The Nobel Prize &The Pulitzer Prize: John Steinbeck约翰•斯坦贝克William Faulkner威廉•福克纳 Ernest Hemingway厄恩斯特•海明威The Nobel Prize: Thomas Stearns Eliot托马斯•斯特恩斯•爱略特The Pulitzer Prize: Wallace Stevens华莱士•斯蒂文斯 Robert Frost罗伯特•弗洛斯特 Edwin Arlington Robison埃德温•阿林顿•罗宾逊尤金.奥尼尔（Eugene O’Neill, 1888----1952）, 美国著名剧作家。

英国文学与美国文学的重点

英美文学重点English & American LiteratureOld English: 450-1066<Beowulf> the national epic of the Anglo-SaonsMedieval English： 1066 - middle 14th centuryGeoffrey Chaucer-the father of English poetry (wisdom, humor, humanity)<The Canterbury Tales> first time to use 'heroic couplet': 14th –mid 17th started in ItalyA series of historical events:1.rediscovery of ancient Roman & Greek culture2.new discoveries in geography & astrology(占星学)3.the religious reformation & economic expansionThe Renaissance - rebirth or revivalpresent lifeBest representatives: Thomas More, Christopher Marlowe, William ShakespeareThe Elizabethan drama: the real mainstream of English RenaissanceMost famous dramatists: Christopher Marlowe, William Shakespeare, Ben Jonson- the poets' poet5 quality: 1) a perfect melody 2)a rare sense of beauty 3)a splendid imagination4)a lofty(高尚的) moral purity and seriousness 5)a dedicated idealism<The Shepherdes Calender> lament(哀悼) over the loss of Rosalind<The Faerie Queene>主角：Arthur - who possess 12 virtuesGloriana – the Fairy QueenThe theme is not “Arms and the man,”but something more romantic –“Fierce warres and faithfull loves”READING: excerpt from The Faerie Queene仙后Content: Redcrosse Knight set out on his adventures.–Hyperbole(夸张)Marlowe’s achievement: 1) blank verse无韵诗歌It is Marlowe who brought vitality(活力) and grandeur(伟大) into the blank verse with his “mighty lines,” which carry strong emotions.2) his creation of the Renaissance hero for English drama.(not strong in dramatic construction.) → the pioneer of English drama3 tragedies: <Dr. Faustus> the human passion for knowledge, power and happiness<Tamburlaine> 帖木耳大帝 a play about an ambitious and pitiless overpowering king.<The Jew of Malta> 马尔他的犹太人non-drama <The Passionate Shepherd to His Love> pastoral(田园的) life ，the most beautiful lyrics(抒情诗)READING: 1. excerpt from Dr. Faustus浮士德博士的悲剧A play based on the German legendContent: Faustus is a scholar who has a strong desire to acquire knowledge. By conjuration(念咒文召唤) he call up Mephistophilis, the Devil’s servant. He make a bond(契约) to sell his soul to the Devil in return for 24 years of life in which Mephistophilis to give him everything he desires. Devil’s name is Lucifer.Dominant moral is human rather than religious2. The Passionate(热情的) Shepherd to His Lovethis short poem is considered to be one of the most beautiful lyrics(抒情诗) in English literature. The shepherd(牧羊人) enjoy an ideal country life, cherishing(珍爱) a pastoral(田园的) and pure affection for his love. Strong emotion is conveyed through the beauty of nature.–playwright & poet (above all writers in the past and in the present time)1.<Henry Ⅵ>, <Richard Ⅲ>…2.<Richard Ⅱ>, <Henry Ⅳ>, <Henry Ⅴ>, <King John>…Comedies: <A Mi dsummer Night’s Dream>, <The Merchant of Venice>, <Twelfth Night> …Tragedy: <Romeo and Juliet> romantic tragedy. To praise the faithfulness of love and thespirit of pursuing happiness.3.Four tragedies - <Hamlet>, <Othello>, <King Lear> & <Macbeth>4.tragicomedies：<The Tempest>Achievement:A. exploring the characters’s inner mind.– bring vividness to the charactersB. adroit（精巧的） plot constructionC. Irony is a good means of dramatic presentation. Disguise is an important device to create dramatic irony.D. the language.READING： 1. Sonnet 18 (14 line)<Sonnet 18> eternal or immortal（不朽的） beauty, have a faith in the permanence of poetry.A nice summer’s day is usually transient(短暂的), but the beauty in poetry can last for ever.2.excerpt from The Merchant of Venice<The Merchant of Venice> to praise the friendship between Antonio and Bassanio, to idealize Portia a heroine of great beauty, wit and loyalty, to expose the insatiable（不知足的） greed and brutality of the Jew.Double plot:(1) Bassanio ask Antonio for a loan so that he might marriage with Portia(2) Antonio borrow money from Shylock, the Jewish usurer. Shylock make a strange bond that requires Antonio to surrender a pound of his flesh if he fail to repay him within a certain period of time. Portia disguised as a young lawyer instructed to judge the case: Shylock can take his pound of flesh, but there is no mention of blood in the bond. Otherwise, his lands and goods will be confiscated(充公) according to he law of Venice.3．Excerpt from Hamlet<Hamlet> hesitate between fact and fiction, language and action, too sophisticated（复杂的）to degrade his nature to the conventional role of a stage revengercontent: Hamlet, the prince, appearing in a mood of world-weariness（厌世） occasioned by his father’s death and his mother’s hasty remarriage with Claudius, his father’s brother.Hamlet is informed that Claudius has murdered his father and then taken over both his father’s throne and widow. Thus Hamlet is urged to seek revenge.Note: To be, or not to be - to live on in this world or to die; to suffer or to take action–Bacon’s essays are famous for their brevity, compactness & powerfulness, well-arranging and enriching by Biblical allusions（典故）, metaphors（隐喻） and cadence（韵律）.<The Advancement of Learning>man’s understanding consists of three parts: history to man’s memory, poetry to man’s imagination and creation, and philosophy to man’s reason.<Novum Organum> written in Latin on methodology方法论Bacon suggests the inductive reasoning 归纳法 ( i.e. proceeding from the particular to the general)in place of Aristotelian method, the deductive reasoning 演绎法( i.e. proceeding from the general to the particular)READING: Of Studies<Of Studies> uses and benefits of study –studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Studies perfect nature, and are perfected by experience. Different ways adopted by different people to pursue studies - studies and experience are complementary (互补) to each other. The correct attitude to reading books - to weigh and consider. How studies exert influence over human character - reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and writing an exact man.- break away from love poetry, the diction(用语) is simple, the imagery is from the actual, the form is frequently an argument with the poet’s beloved, with God, or with himself.A)conceits B)syllogism (三段论)Poetry 早期:<The Songs and Sonnets> holds that the nature of love is the union of soul and body.晚期:<Holy Sonnets> <A Hymn to God the Father> religious poemProse: his sermons, which are both rich and imaginativeREADING: 1. The Sun Rising 2. Death, Be Not Proud ( a sonnet,14 lines)<The Sun Rising> the busy sun is always ready to interfere with other things and everywhere <Death, Be Not Proud> whatever you are, you can not escape from death. When you are living, you are always in the shadow of death. Death only lasts a moment, our life after death is eternal. The more pleasure the death gives people, not only the pleasure of the rest & the sleep, because 'whom the gods love die young'. Though death is usually considered powerful, it actually provides a rest for a man's body and a birth for his soul.Achievement: 1)the early poetic works 2) the middle prose(散文Elegy(挽歌) -<lycidas>利西达斯 (his early work)Epic(史诗) - <Paradise Lost> <Paradise Regained>Dramatic poem(诗剧) - <Samson Agonistes>力士参孙 the most perfect example of the verse dramaafter the Greek style in English. READING: excerpt from Paradise Lost<Paradise Lost> the only generally acknowledged epic in English literature since Beowulf. The conflict is between human love and spiritual duty. The freedom of the will is the keystone of Milton’s creed(纲领).Take from the Old Testament, the theme is the “Fall of Man”: Satan rebel against God and are driven from Heaven. He determined to revenge by seduce(引诱) Adam and Eve to eat the fruit fromthe Tree of Knowledge against God’s instructions. So, Adam and Eve are exiled by God from the paradise.1660-1798 with the publication of Lyrical ballads by Wordsworth and Coleridge-the Age of Enlightenment/Reason– the movement was a furtherance of the Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centries,a progressive intellectual movement, reason (rationality), equality & science (the 18th century)modern English novel–newly rising literary form现实主义小说诞生（the mid-century）Gothic novel(哥特式小说) - mystery, horror & castles (from middle part to the end of century)REAING: The Vanity Fair名利场 an excerpt form The Pilgrim’s Progress (天路历程)<The Pilgrim's Progress寓言), its purpose is to urge people to abide by Christian doctrines and seek salvation(拯救) through constant struggles with their own weaknesses and all kinds of social evils. Its predominant metaphor –life as a journeyone of the first to introduce rationalism to England, for him the supreme value was order. READING: excerpt from A n Essay on Criticism(论批评)<An Essay on Criticism> a poem written 对句), criticize the present poem lack of true taste & call on people to turn to the old Greek and Roman writers for guidance, true wit which is best set in a plain (simple & clear) style.- the first writer study of the lower-class people, his language is smooth, easy, colloquial and mostly vernacular(方言).READING: excerpt from Robinson crusoe<Robinson Crusoe> praise the human labor and the Puritan fortitude (清教徒坚韧).→ an adventure story, Robinson, narrates how he goes to sea, gets shipwrecked and marooned(放逐) on a lonely island, struggles to live for 24-years there and finally gets relieved and returns to England.→Robinson grew from a naïve and artless youth into a shrewd and hardened man, tempered by numerous trials in his eventful life.In his opinion, human nature is seriously and permanently flawed (缺点)Achievement: 1)a master satirist. <A Modest Proposal> <Gulliver's Travels>2) one of the greatest of English prose, he defined a good style asREADING: excerpt from Gulliver’s Travels(格列佛游记)<Gulliver's Travels> fictional work, four parts – Lilliput, Brobdingnag, Flying Island & Houyhnhnm(小人国) (大人国) (飞岛) (有人类理性的马)→ the book is one of the most effective and devastating criticisms and satires of all aspects in the then English and European life.(散文体史诗), the first to give the modern novel its structure and style. He adopted “the third-person narration”.<The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews…> (约瑟夫·安德鲁)<The History of Jonathan Wild the Great> (伟大的乔纳森·怀尔德)<The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling> a masterpiece on the subject of human nature<The History of Amelia> the unfortunate life of an idealized woman, a maudlin(伤感的) picture of the social life at the time.READING: excerpt from Tom JonesBrings the author the name of the “Prose Homer”In a way, Tom and Sophia, stands for a wayfaring(旅行的) Everyman, who is expelled from the paradise and has to go through hard experience to gain a knowledge of himself and finally to approach perfectness.– the author of the first English dictionary by an Englishman, the last neoclassicist enlightener.<A Dictionary of the English Language> 英语大词典READING: To the Right Honorable the Earl of Chesterfield<To the Right Honorable the Earl of Chesterfield> the letter is written in a refined and very polite language, with a bitter undertone of defiance and anger. The seemingly peaceful retrospection, reasoning and questioning express, to the best satiric effect, the author’s strong indignation at the lord’s fame-fishing.<The Rivals> and <The School for Scandal> are regarded as important links between the masterpieces of Shakespeare and those of Bernard Shaw.READING: excerpt from The School for ScandalA story about two brothers: Joseph Surface and Charles Surface. Charles in love with Maria, Sir Peter Teazle is loved by Lady Sneerwell. The lady instigates(教唆) Joseph to pursue Maria For her Money. Joseph secretly seduce(引诱) Lady Teazle, Sir Peter’s young wife. The play ends with great disgrace for Joseph and Charles wins his loves and the inheritance of his rich uncle. It is a sharp satire on the moral degeneracy(堕落) of the aristocratic-bourgeois society in the 18th England.the leader of the sentimental(悲情的) poetry of the day ,especially “The Graveyard School”READING:Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard<Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard> reflects on death, the sorrows of life, and the mysteries of human life with a touch of his personal melancholy. He sympathized for the poor and the unknown, but mocks the great ones who despise the poor and bring havoc(破坏) on them.△ Romantic - emotion over reason, spontaneous (自发)emotion, a change from the outer world of social civilization to the inner world of the human spirit, poetry should be free from all rules, imagination, nature, commonplace△ The romantic emphasized the special qualities of each individual’s mind.△ The romantic period began with： in 1798the publication of Wordsworth and Coleridge's <Lyrical Ballads>end in 1832with Sir Walter Scott’s death△ two major novelists of the Romantic period are Jane Austen (realistic) and Walter Scott (romantic).雕刻家)<Songs of Innocence>: a happy and innocent world from children's eye<Songs of Experience> : a world of misery, poverty, disease, war and repression with a melancholy(忧郁的<Marriage of Heaven and Hell> marks his entry into maturity.<The book of Urizen>(先知书) prophetic(预言的) book in his later periodHe presents his view in visual images. Symbolism is also a distinctive feature of his poetry. READING: 1. The Chimney Sweeper (from Songs of Innocence)2. The Chimney Sweeper (from Songs of Experience)3. The Tyger(from Songs of Experience)- the leading figure of the English romantic poetry, simple, spontaneous(自发的), “worshipper of natur e”- He defines the poet as a 'man speaking to men', and poetry as 'the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings, which originates in 'emotion recollected in tranquillity'.“Lake Poets”: William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge & Robert Southey<The Prelude>(序曲) his masterpiece<To a Skylark> <Tintern Abbey>READING: 1. I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud<I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud> the poet is very cheerful with recalling the beautiful sights. In the poem on the beauty of nature, the reader is presented a vivid picture of lively and lovely daffodils (水仙) and poet's philosophical ideas and mystical thoughts.2. Composed upon Westminster Bridge, September 3, 1802<Composed upon Westminster Bridge, September 3, 1802> the sonnet describes a vivid picture of a beautiful morning in London, silent, bright, glittering（闪烁的）, smokeless & mildly（柔和的）. It is so touching a sight that the poet expressed his religion piety （虔诚）for nature.3. She Dwelt Among the Untrodden Ways4. The Solitary Reaper<The Solitary Reaper> thanks to poet's rich imagination, the mass of associations, this commonplace happening becomes a striking event, the poet succeeds in making the reader's share his emotion. The poem also shows the poet's passionate love of nature.William Wordsworth and Coleridge: <Lyrical Ballads>Poet can be divided into two groups - the demonic 恶魔的(supernatural) & the conversational - The demonic group includes 3 masterpieces: <The Rime of the Ancient Mariner>, <Chrisabel>, <Kubla Khan>老水手之行克丽斯塔贝尔忽必烈汗Feature: mysticism, demonism with strong imagination, a strange territory- Conversational poem: <Frost at Midnight> <The Nightingale>READING: Kubla Khan'Byronic hero': is a proud, mysterious rebel figure of noble origin, against tyrannical（暴君的） rules or moral principles. Such a hero appears first in <Childe Harold's Pilgrimage> 怀尔德·哈罗德游记<Don Juan> （唐璜）(the masterpiece of Byron, a long satirical poem, comic epic) by make use of Juan’s adventures, to present a panoramic（全面） view of different types of society. READING: 1.Song for the Luddites<Song for the Luddites> 'will die fighting, or live free' Byron show his support of the Luddites who destroyed the machines in their protest against unemployment. The poet's great sympathy of the workers in their struggle against the capitalists is clearly shown.2. The Isles of Greece (from Don Juan)<The Isles of Greece> song by a Greek singer at the wedding of Don Juan and Haidee. 'Fill high the bowl with Samian wine'? By contrasting the freedom of ancient Greece and the present enslavement, the poet appealed to people to struggle for liberty.1) Lyrics（抒情诗）<The Cloud> <Ode to the West Wind> <To a Skylark>云雀颂 the bird, suspended between reality and poetic image2) poetic drama （诗剧）<Prometheus Unbound> 解放了的米罗普修斯READING: 1. A Song: Men of England<Men of England> It is not only a war cry calling upon all working people of England to rise up against their political oppressors, but also an address to point out to them the intolerable injustice of economic exploitation.2.Ode to the West Wind<Ode to the West Wind> terza rima, destructive-constructive potential, hopeful, 'I fall upon the thorns of life! I bleed!', 'If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?' The author express his eagerness to enjoy the boundless freedom from the reality.4 great odes : <Ode on Melancholy>, <Ode on a Grecian Urn>, <Ode to a Nightingale>, <Ode to Psyche>希腊古瓮颂夜莺颂READING: Ode on a Grecian Urn<Ode on a Grecian Urn> the contrast between the permanence of art and the transience (短暂)of human passion, 'Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard are sweeter', 'Beauty is truth, truth beauty'6 novels: <Sense and Sensibility> <Pride and Prejudice> <Northanger Abbey> <Mansfield Park> <Emma> <Persuasion>诺桑觉寺蔓斯菲尔德公园→ Story of love and marriage provide the major themes in all her novels.→ 3 types of attitudes in pursuit of marriage:A)who would marry for material wealth and social positionB)who would marry just for beauty and passionC)who would marry for true love with a consideration of the partner’s personal merit andhis economical and social status.→concerning 3 or 4 landed gentry families with their daily routine life: relationships with members of their own family and with their friends, dancing parties, tea parties, picnics, and gossips.READING: excerpt from Pride and prejudice1.Elizabeth Bennet & Darcy : in the end false pride is humbled and prejudice dissolved.2.Collins & Charlotte Lucas: see the reality of marriage as a necessary step if a woman is toavoid the wretchedness(不幸) of aging spinsterhood（未婚妇女身份）.3.Lydia & Wickham: shown the dangers of feckless（不负责任的） relationships unsupported bymoney.4.Mr. & Mrs. Bennet, Mr. Collins, Lady Catherine de Burgh: comic characters＊ Common sense and moral propriety（规矩）, again became the predominant preoccupation. Critical realists were all concerned about the fate of the common people.＊ Darwin's <The Origin of Species> and <The Descent of Man> shook the traditional faith, everything is created by God＊ George Eliot, the pioneering woman, was the first novelist that “started putting all the actions inside”＊ Thomas Hardy, that Wessex man who not only expose and criticize all sorts of social iniquities, but finally came to question and attack the Victorian conventions and morals.＊ Robert Browning, created the verse novel, revel and study characters’ inner world (psycho-analytical)- one of the greatest critical realist writers of the Victorian Age- Character-portrayal is the most distinguishing feature of his works1) child characters 2) horrible and grotesque（可笑的） characters 3) broadly humorous or comical characters- characterized by a mingling(混合) of humor and pathos (悲伤)pathos: little Nell <The Old Curiosity Shop> , little Paul <Dombey and Son><A Tale of Two Cities>READING: excerpt from Oliver Twist雾都孤儿<Oliver Twist> is a boy brought up in the workhouse. One day, as Oliver asked for more food, he was sent to work as an apprentice and then ran away … The novel is famous for its vivid descriptions of the workhouse and life of the underworld（下层社会） in 19th London.The Bronte Sisters - Charlotte, Emily & AnneEmily, a rather reserved and simple girl, was very much a child of nature.Charlotte, is a writer of realism combined with romanticism. Her works are famous for the depiction of the life of the middle-class working women, particularly governesses（家庭女教师）. READING: 1. excerpt from Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte<Jane Eyre> 简·爱 Jane Eyre, a plain little orphan, was sent to Lowood, a charity school. There she suffer a lot and 8 years later she left school and became a governess at Thornfield Hall. There she falls in love with the master, Mr. Rochester.- It is noted for its sharp criticism of the existing society, e.g. charity institution such as Lowood School- successful introduction to the English novel the first governess heroine, whom represents those middle-class working women struggling for recognition of their basic rights and equality asa human being.2. excerpt from Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte<Wuthering Heights> 呼啸山庄 a story about 2 families and an intruding(闯入的) stranger. The Earnshaw family (Mr. Earnshaw, his wife, the son Hindley, the daughter Catherine) - Heathcliff The Linton family ( Mr. Linton, his wife son Edgar, daughter Isabella- invents dramatic monologue(独脚戏), Poet Laureate 桂冠诗人, a real artist He has the natural power of linking visual pictures with musical expressions, and with the feelings.<In Memoriam> 悼念<Ldylls of the King> 国王叙事诗 represent a cyclic history of western civilization, which, in Tennyson’s mind, is going on a spiritual decline and will end in destruction.READING: 1. Break, Break, Break 2. Crossing the Bar 3.ULysses<Break, Break, Break> in memory of the death of his best friend, his sadness feeling are contrasted with the carefree, innocent joys of the children and the unfeeling movement of the ship and the sea waves<Crossing the Bar>过沙洲 we can feel his fearlessness towards death, his faith in God and an afterlife. 'Crossing the bar' means leaving this world and entering the next world<Ulysses> 尤利西斯 not endure the peaceful commonplace everyday life, old as he is, he persuades his old followers to go with him and to set sail again to pursue a new world and new knowledge, dramatic monologue, 'Myself not least, but honour'd of them all' means I am not the least important, buthonoured by all of them- the most original poet, who improve and mature the dramatic monologue（戏剧独白）<The Ring and the Book> 指环与书his masterpiece. Its symbolic meaning, the “ring ”– the goldsmith’s（金匠的） technique of alloying gold（合金）in making rings. The “book” –the hard truthREADING:1. My Last Duchess 2. Meeting at Night 3. Parting at Morning<My Last Duchess> 我逝去的公爵夫人this dramatic monologue is the duke's speech addressed to the agent who comes to negotiate the marriage, the duke is a self-conceited, cruel and tyrannical （残暴的） man<Meeting at Night> 黑夜相会 the man, a lover, describes the whereabouts of their meeting place. <Parting at Morning> 晨别 here describe the sun-rise, the poet unconsciously expresses his helplessness in having to face up his duty as a man.（特有的）intelligence and life experience, she shows a particular concern for the destiny of women. She shows that the need of the individual for expansion and growth has to be brought into harmony with a sense of social responsibility.（人与社会的关系）Naturalistic and psychological novel心理分析READING: excerpt from Middlemarch<Middlemarch>米德尔马契 a sharp contrast is set between the cold, lifeless, dull house and Dorothea who is full of youthful life and vigorDorothea Brooke (a beautiful, intelligent young lady) and Lydgate( a proud, ambitious young doctor), both fail in achieving their goals owing to the social environment as well as their own vulnerabilities.（易受伤）both a naturalistic and a critical realist writerLocal-colored, Wessex, 'novels of character and environment' :the fictional（虚构的） primitive and crude rural region which is really the home place he both loves and hates.<Tess of the D'Urbervilles> 德伯家的苔丝 experience is as to intensity, and not as to duration （持续）Tess, as a pure woman brought up with the traditional idea of womanly virtues, is abused and destroyed by both Alec and Angel, agents of the destructive force of the society.The writer concentrated on the private than on the public, more on the subjective than on the objective. They are mainly concerned with the inner being of an individual.The three trilogies（三部曲） of Galsworthy’s Forsyte novels are masterpieces of critical realism in the early 20th century.“the Angry Young Men” with lower-middle-class or working class background. Kingsley Amis, John Wain, John Braine and Alan Sillitoe were the major novelists in this group. Osborne, the first “Angry Young Man”James Joyce is the most outstanding stream-of-consciousness novelist; <Ulysses>Bernad Shaw, is considered to be the best-known English dramatist since Shakespeare.Yeats, the leader of the Irish National Theater Movement.dramatist (leading playwright)早期 <Widowers’ Houses> 鳏夫的房产 <Candida> 康蒂坦 <Mrs. Warren’s Profession>华伦夫人的职业<Caesar and Cleopatra>凯撒和克莉奥佩特拉中期 <Man and Superman>人与超人晚期 <Back to Methuselah>回到麦修色拉 <The Apple Cart>苹果车Feature: 1.he makes the trick of showing up one character vividly at the expense of another.2. Shaw’s characters are the representatives of ideas, points of view, that shift and alter, for he is interested in doctrines.3．he inversion（倒装）, a device found in Shaw form beginning to end.4.Action is reduced to a minimum, while the dialogue and the interplay of the minds maintainthe interest of the audience.READING: excerpt from Mrs. Warren’s Profession about the economic oppression of womenA conventional writer, having inherited the traditions of Victorian novelists of the critical realismPlay: <The Silver Box> 银盒Novels: <The Forsyte Saga>福赛特世家(trilogy三部曲:<The Man of Property>有产业的人<In Chancery>骑虎<To Let>出租) <A Modern Comedy>现代喜剧READING: excerpt from The Man of Property<The Man of Property> Soames Forsyte, wealth is the sole aim of life. Irene, his wife, loves art and cherishes. Aoames asks Bosinney, a young architect, to build a country house for them. Later, Irene and Bosinney fall in love with each other.The novel show the human relationships of the contemporary English society are merely an extension of property relationships.<The Lake Isle of Innisfree>茵尼斯弗利岛 <The Man Who Dreamed of Faeryland>梦见仙境的人<Sailing to Byzantium>驶向拜古廷 explored the problems of death, love, old age and art. READING: 1. The Lake Isle of Innisfree 2. Down by the Salley Gardens<The Lake Isle of Innisfree> Tired of life of his day, Yeats sought to escape into an ideal “fairyland” where he could love calmly as a hermit(隐士) and enjoy the beauty of nature. Here Innisfree is referring to a place for hermitage.<Down by the Salley Gardens>reconstruct an old song from 3 lines imperfectly(不完整地) remembered by an old peasant womanone of the important verse dramatists<The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock> 普鲁弗洛克的情歌<The Waste Land> 荒原the most famous poem，is a poem concerned with the spiritual breakup of a modern civilization in which human life has lost its meaning, significance and purpose.<Ash Wednesday>灰星期三 <Four Quartets>四个四重奏READING: The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock。

介绍西方情人节的作文英语

Valentines Day,celebrated on February14th each year,is a significant occasion in Western culture,deeply rooted in the traditions of love and affection.The holiday is named after Saint Valentine,a Christian martyr who is said to have performed weddings for soldiers who were forbidden to marry.The day is now widely recognized as an opportunity to express love and appreciation for significant others,friends,and family members.Origins and HistoryThe origins of Valentines Day can be traced back to the Roman festival of Lupercalia, which was celebrated on February15th.However,it was Pope Gelasius I who declared February14th as St.Valentines Day in the5th century.Over time,the day evolved from a religious celebration to a day of romantic love.Traditions and Customs1.Exchanging Cards and Gifts:One of the most popular traditions is the exchange of Valentines cards and gifts.People often send cards with heartfelt messages to their loved ones,expressing their feelings and affection.2.Flowers and Chocolates:Red roses,chocolates,and other gifts are commonly given as symbols of love and devotion.The color red is associated with strong feelings and passion,making it a popular choice for Valentines Day.3.Dining Out:Many couples choose to celebrate the day with a romantic dinner at a restaurant.Its a time to enjoy each others company and share a special meal.4.Proposals and Weddings:Valentines Day is also a popular day for marriage proposals and weddings,as it is seen as a day of love and commitment.5.Singles Awareness Day:For those who are not in a relationship,Valentines Day can bea day to celebrate being single.Some may refer to it as Singles Awareness Day and spend the day with friends or treat themselves to something special.Cultural ImpactValentines Day has a significant impact on the economy,particularly in the retail sector. Businesses often capitalize on the holiday by offering special deals and promotions on romantic gifts,flowers,and chocolates.It also influences the media,with movies,songs, and books often themed around love and romance.Criticisms and AlternativesWhile many enjoy the celebration,some criticize Valentines Day as being overlycommercialized.Critics argue that the holiday puts undue pressure on individuals to express their love in material ways.As an alternative,some people choose to celebrate love in more personal and meaningful ways,such as through acts of kindness or spending quality time with loved ones.ConclusionValentines Day is a day that brings people together,whether its through romantic gestures,acts of friendship,or family bonding.It serves as a reminder of the importance of love and appreciation in our lives.Despite the commercial aspects,the essence of the day remains to celebrate the love we have for one another.。

美国文学题库(选择题网上合集)

1. For Melville, as well as for the reader and _________, the narrator, Moby Dick is still a mystery, an ultimate mystery of the universe.A. AhabB. IshmaelC. StubbD. Starbuck2. Naturalism is evolved from re alism when the author’s tone in writing becomes less serious and less sympathetic but more ironic and more_____________.A. rationalB. humorousC. optimisticD. pessimistic3. Dreiser’s Trilogy of Desire includes th ree novels. They are The Financier, The Titan and_____ .A. The GeniusB. The TycoonC. The StoicD. The Giant4. The impact of Darwin’s evolutionary theory on the American thought and the influence of the nineteenth-century French literature on the American men of letters gave rise to yet another school of realism: American___________ .A. local colorismB. vernacularismC. modernismD. naturalism5. Robert Frost combined traditional verse forms -the sonnet, rhyming couplets, blank verse -with a clear American local speech rhythm, the speech of _______farmers with its idiosyncratic diction and syntax.A. SouthernB. WesternC. New HampshireD. New England6. As an autobiographical play, O’Neill’s ___________(1956) has gained its status asa world classic and simultaneously marks the climax of his literary career and the coming of age of American drama.A. The Iceman ComethB. Long Day’s Journey Into NightC. The Hairy ApeD. Desire Under the Elms7. Apart from the dislocation of time and the modern stream-of-consciousness, the other narrative techniques Faulkner used to construct his stories include_________, symbolism and mythological and biblical allusions.A. impressionismB. expressionismC. multiple points of viewD. first person point of view8. Stylistically, Henry James’ fiction is characterized by____________.A. short, clear sentencesB. abundance of local imagesC. ordinary American speechD. highly refined language9. One of the characteristics that have made Mark Twain a major literary figure in the 19th century America is his use of____________ .A. vernacularB. interior monologueC. point of viewD. photographic description10. It is on his____________ that Washington Irving’s fame mainly rested.A. childhood recollectionsB. sketches about his European toursC. early poetryD. tales about America11. At the middle of 19th century, America witnessed a cultural flowering which is called “____________________”.A. the English RenaissanceB. the Second RenaissanceC. the American RenaissanceD. the Salem Renaissance12. As a philosophical and literary movement, the main issues involved in the debate of Transcendentalism are generally concerning ____________________.A. nature, man and the universeB. the relationship between man and womanC. the development of Romanticism in American literatureD. the cold, rigid rationalism of Unitarianism13. About the novel The Scarlet Letter, which of the following statements is NOT right?A. It’s very hard to say that it is a love story or a story of sin.B. It’s a highly symbolic story and the author is a master of symbolism.C. It’s mainly about the moral, emotional and psychological effects of the sinupon the main characters and the people in general.D. In it the letter A takes the same symbolic meaning throughout the novel.14. The great sea adventure story Moby-Dick is usually considered____________.A. a symbolic voyage of the mind in quest of the truth and knowledge of the universe.B. an adventurous exploration into man’s relationship with natureC. a simple whaling tale or sea adventureD. a symbolic voyage of the mind in quest of the artistic truth and beauty15. In his poems, Walt Whitman is innovative in the terms of the form of his poetry, which is called “____________________.”A. free verseB. blank verseC. alliterationD. end rhyming16. After the Civil War America was transformed from ______ to _________.A. an agrarian community …an industrialized and commercialized societyB. an agrarian community …a society of freedom and equalityC. a poor and backward society …an industrialized and commercialized societyD. an industrialized and commercialized society …a highly developed society17. Which of the following is said of the American naturalism?A. They preferred to have their own region and people at the forefront of the stories.B. Their characteristic setting is usually an isolated town.C. Humans should be united because they had to adapt themselves to changing harshenvironment.D. Their characters were conceived more or less complex combinations of inheritedattributes, their habits conditioned by social and economic forces.18. Which of the following is not right about Mark Twain’s style of language?A. His sentence structures are long, ungrammatical and difficult to read.B. His words are colloquial, concrete and direct in effect.C. His humor is remarkable and characterized by puns, straight-faced exaggeration，repetition and anti-climax.D. His style of language had exerted rather deep influence on the contemporary writers.19. The impact of Darwin’s evolutionary theory on the American thought and the influence of the 19th century French literature on the American men of letters gave rise to another school of realism: American ______.A. RomanticismB. TranscendentalismC. RealismD. Naturalism20. Which of the following is not written by Henry James?A. The Portrait of A Lady and The Europeans.B. The Wings of the Dove and The Ambassadors.C. What Maisie Knows and The Bostonians.D.The Genius and The Gilded Age.21. More than five hundred poems Dickinson wrote are about nature, in which hergeneral Skepticism about the relationship between ______ is well-expressed.A. man and manB. men and womenC. man and natureD. men and God22. Which of the following is right about Emily Dickinson’s poems about nature?A. In them, she expressed her general affirmation about the relationship betweenman and nature.B. Some of them showed her disbelief that there existed a mythical bondbetween man and nature.C. Her poems reflected her feeling that nature is restorative to human beings.D. Many of them showed her feeling of nature’s inscrutability and indifference tothe life and interests of human beings.23. As a great innovator in American literature, Walt Whitman wrote his poetry in anunconventional style which is now called free verse, that is _________.A. lyrical poetry with chanting refrainsB. poetry without a fixed beat or regular rhyme schemeC. poetry without rhymes at the end of the lines but with a fixed beatD. poetry in an irregular metric form and expressing noble feelings24. In the first part of the 20th century，apart from Darwinism, there were two thinkers-______，whose ideas had the greatest impact on the period.A. the German Karl Marx and the Austrian Sigmund FreudB. the German Karl Marx and the American Sigmund FreudC. the Swiss Carl Jung and the American William JamesD. the Austrian Karl Marx and the German Sigmund Freud25. Which of the following can be said about Eugene O’Neill plays?A. Most of his plays are concerned about the root, the truth of human desires andhuman frustrations.B. His tragic view of life is reflected in many of his works.C. His plays are concerned about the relationship between man and nature aswell as man and woman.D. Both A and B.26. Most of O’Neill’s plays are concerned about the following except______.A. success and failure in man’s literary careerB. life and death, illusion and disillusion, dream and realityC. alienation and communication, self and society, desire and frustrationD. the basic issues of human existence and predicament27. Which of the following can be said about a typical modern literary work?A. It is a record of sequence and coherence of the history and the world.B. It is a juxtaposition of the past and present, of the history and the memory.C. It is a book of integrity drawn from diverse areas of experience.D. Its perspective is shifted from the internal to the external, from the private to the public.28. As to the great American poet Ezra Pound, which of the following is not right?A. His language is usually oblique yet marvelously compressed and his poetry isdense with personal, literary, and historical allusions.B. His artistic talents are on full display in the history of the Imagist Movement.C. From his analysis of the Chinese ideogram Pound learned to anchor his poeticlanguage in concrete, perceptual reality, and to organize images into largerpatterns through juxtaposition.D.For he was politically controversial and notorious for what he did in thewartime, his literary achievement and influence are somewhat reduced.29. In his poetry, Robert Frost made the colloquial ______ speech into a poetic expression.A. EnglandB. New EnglandC. PlymouthD. Boston30. Which of the following statements is right about Robert Frost’s poetry?A. He combined traditional verse forms with the difficult and highly ornamental language.B. He combined traditional verse forms with the pastoral language of the Southern area.C. He combined traditional verse forms with a simple spoken language-the speech ofNew England farmers.D. He combined traditional verse forms with the experimental.31. Which of the following statements can be said about the works of Scott Fitzgerald,a spokesman of the “Roaring 20s”?A. Many of them portrayed the hollowness of the American worship of riches and theunending American dream of fulfillment.B. They are symbolic of the psychological journey of the modern man and hishelplessness in the modern world.C. They show the primitive struggle of individuals in the context of irresistible natural forces.D. They penetrate into the problems of the human heart in conflict with itself.32. Which of the following is not written by Ernest Hemingway, one of the best-known American authors of the 20th century?A. The Sun Also Rises.B. The Old Man and the Sea.C. Mosses From the Old Manse.D. The Green Hills of Africa.33. Which of the following statements is right about the novel A Farewell to Arms?A. The author favored the idea of nature as an expression of either god’s designor his beneficence.B. The author attempted to write the epitaph to a decade and to the wholegeneration in the 1930s.C.The author emphasizes his belief that man is trapped both physically andmentally and suggests that man is doomed to be entrapped.D. It tells a story about the tragic love affair of a wounded American soldier withan Italian nurse.34. Which of the following is depicted as the mythical county in William Faulkner’s novels?A. Cambridge.B. Oxford.C. Mississippi.D. Yoknapatawpha.35. To Faulkner, the primary duty of a writer was to explore and represent the infinite possibilities inherent in human life. Therefore a writer should ______.A. observe with no judgment whatsoever.B. reduce authorial intrusion to the lowest minimum.C. observe at a great distance and sometimes participate in the events.D. both A and B.36. Which of the following is right about American fiction from 1945 onwards?A. A group of new writers who survived the war wrote about their ideals withinthe artistic field.B. There appeared a significant group of Jewish-American writers whose workswere set against the Jewish experience and tradition.C. Black fiction began to attract critical attention during the 1950s.D. American fiction in the 1950s and 1960s proves to be a harvest which derivedfrom its predecessors.37. Which of the following is not a work of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s?A. The House of the Seven Gables.B. The Blithedale Romance.C. The Marble Faun.D.White Jacket.38. In Hawthorne’s novels and short stories, intellectuals usually appear as ______________.A. commentatorsB. observersC. villainsD. saviors39. Besides sketches, tales and essays, Washington Irving also published a book on ______, which is also considered an important part of his creative writing.A. poetic theoryB. French artC. history of New YorkD. life of George Washington40. In Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, there are detailed descriptions of big parties. The purpose of such descriptions is so show _______.A. emptiness of lifeB. the corruption of the upper classC. contrast of the rich and the poorD. the happy days of the Jazz Age41. In American literature, escaping from the society and returning to nature is a common subject. The following titles are all related, in one way or another, to the subject except _________.A. Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry FinnB. Dreiser’s Si ster CarrieC. Copper’s Leather-Stocking TalesD. Thoreau’s Walden42. Which of the following novels can be regarded as typically belonging to theschool of literary modernism?A. The Sound and the FuryB. Uncle Tom’s Cabin.C. Daisy Miller.D. The Gilded Age.43. Emily Dickinson wrote many short poems on various aspects of life. Which of the following is not a usual subject of her poetic expression?A. Religion.B. Life and death.C. Love and marriage.D. War and peace.44. In 1837, Ralph Waldo Emerson made a speech entitled _______ at Harvard, which was hailed by Oliver Wendell Holmes as "Our intellectual Declaration of Independence."A. "Nature"B. "Self-Reliance"C. "Divinity School Address"D. "The American Scholar"45. Which of the following statements about writers in 1920s is true?A. Mark Twain published his last and most important novel.B. F. Scott Fitzgerald received the Nobel Prize.C. Freudian psychology influenced many modern writers.D. Most writers were politically radical.46. In American literature the first important writer who earned an international fameon both sides of the Atlantic Ocean is_______________.A. Washington IrvingB. Ralph Waldo EmersonC. Nathaniel HawthorneD. Walt Whitman47. The American novelist Nathaniel Hawthorne is known for his“black vision．”TheTerm “black vision” refers to______________.A. Hawthorne's observation that every man faces a black WallB. Hawthorne's belief that all men are by nature evilC. that Hawthorne employed a dream vision to tell his storyD. that Puritans of Hawthorne's time usually wore black clothes48. Theodore Dreiser was once criticized for his____________ in Style，but as a true artist his strength just lies in that his style is very serious and well calculated to achieve the thematic ends he sought.A. crudenessB. eleganceC. concisenessD. subtlety49. Almost all Faulkner’s heroes turned out to be tragic because_____________.A. all enjoyed living in the declining American SouthB. none of them was conditioned by the civilization and Social institutionsC. most of them were prisoners of the pastD. none were successful in their attempt to explain the inexplicable50. Yank, the protagonist of Eugene O’Neill’s play The Hairy Ape,talked to the gorilla and set it free because____.A. he was mad，mistaking a beast for a humanB. he was told by the white young lady that he was like a beast and he wanted tosee how closely he resembled the gorillaC. he was caged with the gorilla after he insulted an aristocratic strollerD. he could feel the kinship only with the beast51. In__________, Robert Frost compares life to a journey, and he is doubtful whether he will regret his choice or not when he is old, because the choice has made all the difference.A. “After Apple-Picking”B. “The Road NOt Taken”C. “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening”D. “Fire and Ice”52. Though Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson were romantic poets in theme and technique, they differ from each other in a variety of ways. For one thing, whereas Whitman likes to keep his eye on human Society at large, Dickinson often addresses such issues as_______, immortality, religion, love and nature.A. progressB. freedomC. beautyD. death53. The Romantic writers would focus on all the following issues EXCEPT the_______in the American literary history．A. individual feelingB. survival of the fittestC. strong imaginationD. return to nature54. Generally speaking，all those writers with a naturalistic approach to human realitytend to be_____________.A. transcendentalistsB. optimistsC. pessimistsD. idealists55. With Howells, James, and Mark Twain active on the literary scene, ______becamethe major trend in American literature in the seventies and eighties of the 19th century．A. SentimentalismB. RomanticismC. RealismD. Naturalism56. American writers after World War I self-consciously acknowledged that they were(a)“_______,” devoid of faith and alienated from the Western civilization．A. Lost GenerationB. Beat GenerationC. Sons of LibertyD. Angry Young Men57. Hester Prynne, Dimmesdale, Chillingworth and Pearl are most likely Characters in_______.A. The House of the Seven GablesB. The Scarlet LetterC. The Portrait of a LadyD. The pioneers58. In his realistic fiction, Henry James's primary concern is to present the_________.A. inner life of human beingsB. American Civil War and its effectsC. life on the Mississippi RiverD. Calvinistic view of original Sin59. Which of the following statements about E. Grierson, the protagonist in Faulkner'sStory “A Rose for Emily,” is NOT true?A. She has a distorted personality.B. She is physically deformed and paralyzed.C. She is the symbol of the old values of the South.D. She is the victim of the past glory.60. Which of the following is NOT the virtue that Franklin enumerated in his The Autobiography?A. TemperanceB. Humanity (Humility)C. FrugalityD. Immoderation61. American Romanticism stretches from the end of the ________ century through the outbreak of ______.A. 18th, the Civil WarB. 18th, the War of IndependenceC. 19th, WWID. 19th, WWII62. _________ be lieves that the chief aim of literary creation is beauty, and “the death of a beautiful woman is, unquestionably, the most poetical topic in the world.”A. Walt Whitman B. Edgar Allen PoeC. Anne BradstreetD. Ralph Waldo Emerson63. In Emily Dickinson’s Because I Could Not Stop for Death, ______________.A. death is personified as a devilB. death is described as the tragic end of a person’s lifeC. death is a stage of life and it leads people to the Heaven of immortalityD. death is described as a beautiful girl who couldn’t find her final destination64. Which is generally regarded as the manifesto and the Bible of American Transcendentalism?A. Thoreau’s WaldenB.Emerson’s NatureC. Poe’s Poetic PrincipleD. Thoreau’s Nature65. Henry David Thoreau’s work, ________, has always been regarded as amasterpiece of the New England Transcendental Movement.A. WaldenB. The PioneersC. NatureD. "Song of Myself"66. ‘Leaves of Grass’ commands great attention because of its uniquely poeticembodiment of________, which are written in the founding documents of both the Revolutionary War and the American Civil War.A. the democratic idealsB. the romantic idealsC. the self-reliance spiritsD. the religious ideals67. ________is the author of the work “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow”.A. Washington IrvingB. James JoyceC. Walt WhitmanD. William Butler Yeats68. After "The Adventure of Tom Sawyer", Twain gives a literary independence to Tom’s buddy Huck in a book called_________, and the book from which "all modern American literature comes".A. Life on the Mississippi RiverB. The Gilded AgeC. Adventures of Huckleberry FinnD. The Sun Also Rises69. The greatest work written by Theodore Dreiser is__________.A. Sister CarrieB. An American TragedyC. The FinancierD. The Titan70. We can perhaps summarize that Walt Whitman’s poems are characterized by all the following features except that they are _______________.A. conversational and crudeB. lyrical and well-structuredC. simple and rather crudeD. free-flowing71. Who exerts the single most important influence on literary naturalism, of which Theodore Dreiser and Jack London are among the best representative writers?A. FreudB. Darwin.C. W.D. Howells. D. Emerson72. Mark Twain, one of the greatest 19th century American writers, is well known for his ____.A. international themeB. waste-land imageryC. local colorD. symbolism73. At the beginning of Faulkner’s A Rose For Emily, there is a detailed description of Emily’s old house. The purpose of such description is to imply that the person living in it ____________.A. is a wealth ladyB. has good tasteC. is a prisoner of the pastD. is a conservative aristocrat74. Most of Herman Melville’s novels are based on sea voyages and sea adventures. Which of the following is not the case?A. Typee.B. Moby-Dick.C. Omoo.D. The Confidence-Man75. In Henry James’ Daisy Miller, the author tries to portray the young woman as an embodiment of _______________.A. the force of conventionB. the free spirit of the New WorldC. the decline of aristocracyD. the corruption of the newly rich76. "Two roads diverged in a yellow woodAnd sorry I could not travel both ..."In the above two lines of Robert Frost’s The Road Not Taken, the poet, by implication, was referring to _______.A. a travel experienceB. a marriage decisionC. a middle-age crisisD. one’s course of life77. The Transcendentalists believe that, first, nature is ennobling, and second, the individual is ____________.A. insignificantB. vicious by natureC. divineD. forward-looking78. The Publication of ______established Emerson as the most eloquent spokesman of New England Transcendentalism.A. NatureB. Self-RelianceC. The American ScholarD. The Over-Soul79. In Robert Frost’s famous poem "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening", thereare four lines like these: “The woods are lovely, dark and deep, / But I have promises to keep, / And miles to go before I sleep,/ And miles to go before I sleep”. The second sleep refers to______.A. dieB. calm downC. fall into sleepD. stop walking。

DNA去甲基化试剂处理对青花菜春化作用的影...

关键词 DNA 去甲基化青花菜春化作用 52azaC
青花菜 (B rassica oleracea L. var. ita lica Plenck) 又名西兰花 ,其春化作用及花芽分化是获得产品器官 ———花球的前提。近 10 a的研究发现植物春化作用与 DNA 甲基化关系密切 ,春化促进植物开花是通过 DNA 甲基化水平的降低而发挥作用的。 5 - 氮胞苷 ( 5 2azaC ) 是一种去甲基化试剂 , 可以引起植物 DNA 甲基化水平降低。 B u rn 等〔1〕发现 52azaC 可以部分代替低温 , 促进拟南芥开花。 Finnegan等〔2〕研究发现植物开花的早晚与甲基化水平相关 , DNA 甲基化水平越低 ,则开花越早。后来的试验还证实去甲基化和低温促进开花的效果具有加成性〔3 - 5〕,说明春化作用促进植物开花可能是由于对诱导开花非常重要的基因或其启动子的去甲基化引起的 , DNA 去甲基化和低温春化似乎激活的是同一条开花途径。因此 ,本试验采用叶面喷施和根施 52azaC 处理青花菜幼苗 ,探讨 DNA 去甲基化对青花菜春化作用及春化过程中植株体内 C /N 的影响 , 为青花菜高产优质栽培提供理论依据。
参考文献〔1〕 Burn J E, B agnall D J, M etzger J D , Dennis E S, Peacock W J.
DNA methylation, ernalization and the initiation of flowering〔J〕.
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA , 1993, 90: 287 - 291. 〔2〕 Finnegan E J, Genger R K. DNA methylation and the p romotion

英语改良文艺复兴作文

英语改良文艺复兴作文Title: The Evolution of the Renaissance: A Modern Perspective。

The Renaissance, a pivotal period in European history, marked a significant shift in cultural, artistic, and intellectual pursuits. Originating in Italy during the 14th century, its influence reverberated across Europe, shaping the course of history for centuries to come. In this essay, we will explore the Renaissance from a contemporary lens, examining its impact and legacy in today's world.Firstly, it is essential to acknowledge the fundamental ideals that underpinned the Renaissance. The revival of interest in classical learning, humanism, and the pursuit of knowledge were central to this era. These principles continue to resonate in modern society, emphasizing the importance of education, critical thinking, and the exploration of diverse perspectives.One of the most enduring legacies of the Renaissance is its profound influence on the arts. The period witnessed a flourishing of creativity in painting, sculpture, architecture, literature, and music. Masters such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael produced timeless works that continue to inspire artists and audiences alike. The emphasis on realism, perspective, and emotional expression pioneered during the Renaissance laid the groundwork for many artistic movements that followed, shaping the aesthetics of contemporary art.Moreover, the Renaissance was a catalyst for scientific and technological advancements. The spirit of inquiry and experimentation championed by figures like Galileo Galilei and Johannes Gutenberg revolutionized our understanding of the natural world and transformed the way information was disseminated. The invention of the printing press, in particular, democratized knowledge, paving the way for the spread of ideas and the rise of literacy—a legacy that is evident in the digital age with the proliferation of information accessible via the internet.Furthermore, the Renaissance fostered a renewed appreciation for individualism and the human experience. Humanist thinkers like Erasmus emphasized the dignity and potential of every individual, advocating for human rights, equality, and social justice. These values continue to shape contemporary discourse on human rights, identity, and societal progress, serving as a reminder of the enduring relevance of Renaissance ideals in today's world.However, it is crucial to recognize that the Renaissance was not without its limitations and contradictions. While it celebrated the achievements of humanity, it also perpetuated systems of power andprivilege that marginalized certain groups, particularly women and people of color. The legacy of colonialism, slavery, and inequality that emerged during this period continues to impact global society, underscoring the ongoing need for social change and inclusivity.In conclusion, the Renaissance remains a pivotal chapter in human history, whose influence reverberates through the centuries. Its legacy is evident in the arts,sciences, philosophy, and politics of today, reminding usof the enduring power of human creativity, ingenuity, and resilience. By reflecting on the lessons of the Renaissance, we can glean insights into our own society and inspirefuture generations to continue the pursuit of knowledge, beauty, and progress.。

English Literature 4

William Wordsworth (1770—1850)
Life experience Poet Laureate (1843)
The preface to Lyrical Ballads:
1. A poet should write about the life of of the common people, especially the humble rustic people.
Shelley’s poems are noted for:
1. Highly imaginative
2. Metaphorical
3. Full of implications
4. Rhythmical
Percy Bysshe Shelley:
Points of View
1. Politically Shelley was a revolutionary and a democrat against cruelty, injustice, authority, institutional religion and the formal shams of respectable society.
9. The glory of the Romantic period lies in the novels, especially historical novels.
10. The active romantic poets of the period are also called “Lake Poets”.
2. Literarily, he makes a triumphant praise of the imagination, highly exalts the role of poetry:

植物的成花生理

(a) and (b) Natural 24-hour light/dark cycles must have short nights any time the days are long (summer) and long nights when days are short (winter), so plants could detect season by measuring either day or night. When photoperiodism was first discovered, it was assumed that day length wag important, so all our terminology was based on that.
02
9.1春化作用(vernalization)
9.1.1发现和概念：Cold may affect the flowering response. For example, if winter rye (Secale cereale) is planted in the autumn, it germinates during the winter and flowers the following summer, 7 weeks after growth resumes. If it is planted in the spring, it does not flower for 14 weeks. In 1915, the plant physiologist Gustav Gassner discovered that he could influence the flowering of winter rye and other cereal plants by controlling the temperature of the germinating seeds. He found that if the seeds of the winter strain are kept at near-freezing (1 ℃) temperatures during germination, the winter rye, even when planted in late spring, will flower the same summer it is planted. This procedure, which came to be known as vernalization (from the Latin vernus, meaning "spring"), is now a common practice in agriculture. 低温诱导促使植物开花的作用，称为春化作用。成花受低温影响的植物，主要是一些二年生植物(如芹菜、胡萝卜、萝卜、葱、蒜、白菜、荠莱、百合、鸢尾、甜菜和天仙子等)和一些冬性一年生植物(如冬小麦、冬黑麦等)。在自然条件下，冬小麦等是在头一年秋季萌发，以营养体过冬，第二年夏初开花和结实。对这类植物来说，秋末冬初的低温就成为花诱导所必需的条件。冬小麦经低温处理后，即使在春季播种也能在夏初抽穗开花。

文艺复兴影响英文文章

文艺复兴影响英文文章Title: The Influence of the RenaissanceThe Renaissance, a period of cultural, artistic, and intellectual rebirth in Europe, had a profound impact on Western civilization. It marked a transition from the Middle Ages to the modern era, characterized by a renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman culture, humanism, and the celebration of the individual.The Renaissance began in Italy and quickly spread to other parts of Europe. Its influence was felt in the fields of art, architecture, literature, science, and philosophy. Artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael created masterpieces that broke away from the traditional Gothic style and introduced a new realism and naturalism. Architecture also saw a change, with the development of Renaissance styles like the Palladian and Mannerist.Humanism, a key aspect of theRenaissance,individualism and humanism are emphasized。

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Journal of Experimental Botany,Vol.60,No.7,pp.2169–2178,2009 doi:10.1093/jxb/erp098Advance Access publication8April,2009This paper is available online free of all access charges(see /open_access.html for further details)RESEARCH PAPERThe inﬂuence of vernalization and daylength on expression of ﬂowering-time genes in the shoot apex and leaves of barley (Hordeum vulgare).Shahryar Sasani1,2,3,Megan N.Hemming1,Sandra N.Oliver1,Aaron Greenup1,Reza Tavakkol-Afshari2,Siroos Mahfoozi3,Kazem Poustini2,Hamid-Reza Shariﬁ3,Elizabeth S.Dennis1,W.James Peacock1andBen Trevaskis1,*1CSIRO,Division of Plant Industry,GPO Box1600,Canberra,ACT,2601,Australia2Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding,University College of Agriculture and Natural Resources,University of Tehran,Karaj, Tehran,Iran3Department of Cereals Research,Seed and Plant Improvement Institute,PO Box31585–4119,Karaj,Tehran,IranReceived16January2009;Revised3March2009;Accepted3March2009AbstractResponses to prolonged low-temperature treatment of imbibed seeds(vernalization)were examined in barley (Hordeum vulgare).These occurred in two phases:the perception of prolonged cold,which occurred gradually at low temperatures,and the acceleration of reproductive development,which occurred after vernalization.Expression of the VERNALIZATION1gene(HvVRN1)increased gradually in germinating seedlings during vernalization,both at the shoot apex and in the developing leaves.This occurred in darkness,independently of VERNALIZATION2(HvVRN2), consistent with the hypothesis that expression of HvVRN1is induced by prolonged cold independently of daylength ﬂowering-response pathways.After vernalization,expression of HvVRN1was maintained in the shoot apex and leaves. This was associated with accelerated inﬂorescence initiation and with down-regulation of HvVRN2in the leaves.The largest determinant of HvVRN1expression levels in vernalized plants was the length of seed vernalization treatment. Daylength did not inﬂuence HvVRN1expression levels in shoot apices and typically did not affect expression in leaves. In the leaves of plants that had experienced a saturating seed vernalization treatment,expression of HvVRN1was higher in long days,however.HvFT1was expressed in the leaves of these plants in long days,which might account for the elevated HvVRN1expression.Long-day up-regulation of HvVRN1was not required for inﬂorescence initiation,but might accelerate subsequent stages of inﬂorescence development.Similar responses to seed vernalization were also observed in wheat(Triticum aestivum).These data support the hypothesis that VRN1is induced by cold during winter to promote springﬂowering in vernalization-responsive cereals.Key words:Barley,ﬂoral development,FT,MADS box gene,photoperiod,vernalization,VRN1,VRT2,VRN2,wheat. IntroductionProlonged cold treatment of imbibed seeds,or vernalization, promotesﬂowering of many temperate cereals,including varieties of wheat,barley,oat,and rye.When grown without cold pre-treatment,the same varieties grow vegetatively for extended periods and often fail toﬂower altogether.Thus, these cereal varieties have a‘Kaltbedurfnis’,or cold re-quirement,that must be met for rapid transition to re-productive growth(Gassner1918).Although originally deﬁned as prolonged cold treatment of seeds,vernalization also acceleratesﬂowering when applied to plants during the vegetative growth phase(Gott,1957;Flood and Halloran, 1984).Flowering of temperate cereals is also accelerated by long days(see Purvis,1934).Studies in Arabidopsis have shown*To whom correspondence should be addressed.E-mail:ben.trevaskis@csiro.auª2009The Author(s).This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License(/licenses/by-nc/2.0/uk/)which permits unrestricted non-commercial use,distribution,and reproduction in any medium,provided the original work is properly cited.that the long-dayﬂowering response is controlled by FLOWERING LOCUS T(FT)(Kardailsky et al.,1999; Kobayashi et al.,1999).The FT protein is produced in leaves in long days and transported to the shoot apex to promote reproductive development(Corbesier et al.,2007). FT-like1(TaFT1in wheat or HvFT1in barley)is an orthologue of FT likely to fulﬁl a similar role in temperate cereals(Turner et al.,2005).The requirement for vernalization suppresses the long-dayﬂowering response(Hemming et al.,2008).This ensures thatﬂowering is delayed before winter,reducing the risk of frost damage(Mahfoozi et al.,2001;Limin and Fowler, 2006).Many varietiesﬂower rapidly without vernalization, however,and this natural variation in vernalization re-quirement has been useful to adapt varieties to warmer growing conditions.Genes controlling natural variation in vernalization requirement have been identiﬁed in temperate cereals:VERNALIZATION1(VRN1),VRN2,and VRN3 (reviewed in Trevaskis et al.,2007a;Distalfeld et al.,2009). VRN1is a FRUITFULL-like MADS box transcription factor that is essential forﬂowering in temperate cereals (Danyluk et al.,2003;Murai et al.,2003;Trevaskis et al., 2003;Yan et al.,2003;Preston and Kellog,2006;Shitsukawa et al.,2007).In varieties that require vernalization,VRN1is activated by prolonged exposure to low temperatures(Danyluk et al.,2003;Trevaskis et al.,2003;Yan et al.,2003).In other varieties,VRN1is expressed without vernalization,reducing or removing the requirement for vernalization(Danyluk et al.,2003;Trevaskis et al.,2003;Yan et al.,2003). Mutations in the promoter or deletions within theﬁrst intron of the VRN1gene are associated with increased VRN1expression in these varieties(Yan et al.,2003;Fu et al.,2005).VRN2,or HvVRN2in barley,is aﬂoral repressor (Takahashi and Yasuda,1971;Dubcovsky et al.,1998;Yan et al.,2004).VRN2is active in long days(Karsai et al.,2005; Dubcovsky et al.,2006;Trevaskis et al.,2006),where it represses FT1to delay the long-dayﬂowering response until plants are vernalized(Hemming et al.,2008).VRN1represses expression of VRN2(Loukoianov et al.,2005;Trevaskis et al.,2006;Hemming et al.,2008),so when plants are vernalized VRN1is likely to repress VRN2to allow long-day induction of FT1(Trevaskis et al.,2007a;Hemming et al., 2008).Loss-of-function mutations at the VRN2locus allow expression of FT1without prior vernalization,causing rapid ﬂowering in long days(Yan et al.,2004;Karsai et al.,2005; Hemming et al.,2008).This requires an active PHOTOPE-RIOD1gene(Hemming et al.,2008),which promotes long-day induction of HvFT1(Turner et al.,2005).Similarly, dominant alleles of VRN3elevate FT1expression levels to accelerateﬂowering and bypass the vernalization require-ment(Yan et al.,2006;Faure et al.,2007).VRN3has been mapped to the FT1sequence,suggesting that FT1is the VRN3gene(Yan et al.,2006).Dominant VRN3alleles in wheat are associated with an insertion in the promoter of the TaFT1gene(Yan et al.,2006)and,although there is an association between polymorphisms in the HvFT1gene and dominant alleles of VRN3in barley(Yan et al.,2006),the molecular basis for the increased expression of HvFT1 associated with dominant VRN3alleles in barley is not clear (Hemming et al.,2008;Stracke et al.,2009).In barley plants that lack HvVRN2,expression of HvVRN1 is induced in long days without prior cold treatment(Yan et al.,2003;Trevaskis et al.,2006;Hemming et al.,2008). HvVRN1is also expressed without cold treatment in barleys plants with dominant alleles of VRN3(Yan et al.,2006).In these genotypes,HvFT1is expressed without prior cold treatment and the FT1protein might activate VRN1through interactions with FD-like proteins(Li and Dubcovsky,2008). It is unclear whether this is a feature of vernalization-induced ﬂowering,where low-temperature induction of VRN1pre-cedes long days(Hemming et al.,2008).Furthermore,the potential for low-temperature and long-day activation of VRN1complicates analysis of the vernalization response in cereals.For example,although expression of VRN1increases in leaves when wheat plants are vernalized in long days(Yan et al.,2003;Preston and Kellog2008),it is unclear whether this is a response to low temperatures or to the combined effects of low temperatures and long days.Analysis of gene expression in plants vernalized in short days has been useful to determine the discrete effects of low temperature on expression of the vernalization genes in cereals(von Zitzewitz et al.,2005;Dubcovsky et al.,2006;Trevaskis et al.,2006;Fu et al.,2007;Hemming et al.,2008),but such studies have not yet examined responses to cold in speciﬁc organs.The seed vernalization responseﬁrst investigated by Gassner(1918)provides an ideal experimental system to resolve the effects of low temperature and daylength cues on expression ofﬂowering-time genes during vernalization-inducedﬂowering.Seeds can be exposed to long cold treat-ments in darkness then sown in different daylengths.In this study the molecular responses to seed vernalization are examined by assaying the expression ofﬂowering-time genes in different organs during and after seed vernaliza-tion.Materials and methodsSeeds of the winter barley(Hordeum vulgare)variety cv. Sonja,or the winter wheat cv.Norstar,were imbibed, planted in foil-covered pots,and exposed to cold treatments of different durations(e.g.0,1,2,3,4,5,7,and9weeks)at 261°C.After9weeks in these conditions,plants reached an average coleoptile length of4cm.At each time point, embryos or germinating seedlings were harvested for RNA extraction and apex dissection.The developing roots and leaves were also isolated after4weeks cold treatment. Following cold treatment,seedlings were transferred to glasshouses(temperature at1862°C)and grown in either short(8h light/16h dark)or long(16h light/8h dark) days.Supplementary light was provided when natural levels dropped below200l E.Plants were harvested at the third leaf stage(Z¼13,21,Zadoks et al.,1974),;2weeks after the end of the cold treatment,and leaves and shoot apices were harvested for RNA extraction.Final leaf number2170|Sasani et al.(FLN),and days to heading were recorded for each treatment.Similarly,seeds of a barley which lacks HvVRN2 (Line347,D HvVRN2/HvVRN1/PPD-H1;Hemming et al. 2008)were imbibed and exposed to cold for9weeks,then transferred to glasshouse temperatures in short days.Plants were harvested for apex dissection and RNA extraction after9weeks of cold treatment,and from glasshouses at the third leaf stage,;2weeks after the end of the cold treatment.Apex dissection andﬂowering time measurements Apices were isolated under a binocular dissecting micro-scope and then digitally photographed on a Leica M8 digital camera.Apex samples included the apex,the base of the apex,and any leaf primordia<0.2mm in length.Leaves were numbered sequentially and plants were grown until the ﬂag leaf emerged to determine FLN.Heading date was measured as the day when the headﬁrst emerged from the sheath on the main shoot.FLN and heading date were measured for9–18plants for each data point.Average FLN and days to heading are presented,and error bars show the standard error(SE).Gene expression analysisTotal RNA was extracted using the method of Chang et al. (1993).An oligo(T)primer(T18[G/C/A])was used to prime ﬁrst-strand cDNA synthesis from5l g of total RNA using the SuperScript III reverse transcriptase enzyme(Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer’s instructions.A single reverse transcription reaction was performed for each RNA sample. Quantitative reverse transcription-PCR(qRT-PCR)was per-formed on a Rotor-Gene3000real-time cycler(Corbett Research).The primers used for HvVRN1,HvVRN2 (HvZCCTb),HvFT1,Barley MADS1(BM1),BM10,Hor-deum vulgare VEGETATIVE to REPRODUCTIVE TRAN-SITION2(HvVRT2),and ACTIN have been described previously(Trevaskis et al.,2006,2007b).For analysis of VRN1and VRN2expression in wheat(cv.Norstar),the primer sets described above,which are predicted to amplify all three genomes from wheat,were used.The following primers were used for other MADS box genes:BM3 5#-GCCGTCACCAGCACAAGCAA-3#and5#-CCCCAT-TCACCCTGTAGCAAAGA-3#;BM75#-GCTTGACCAG-ATAGAGAACCAAATAG-3#and5#-GCTGGTGGTGG-TGGTGTCTTGC3#;BM85#-CGCACAGCAGCCGA-CACCTA-3#and5#-TGCCTTTGGGGGAGAAGACG-3#;and BM95#-TCGTCCTTGAAGCACATTAGAAC-3# and5#-GGGTTCACCAGCAGCATCAAGGG-3#.Primer pairs amplify cDNA-speciﬁc DNA products.qRT-PCR was performed using Platinum Taq DNA polymerase(Invitro-gen).Cycling conditions were4min at94°C,50cycles of 10s at95°C,15s at60°C,and20s at72°C.This was followed by a melting curve program(72–95°C with a5s hold at each temperature).Fluorescence data were acquired at the72°C step and during the melting curve program. Expression levels of genes of interest were calculated relative to ACTIN using the comparative quantiﬁcation analysis method(Rotogene-5;Corbett Research),which takes into account the ampliﬁcation efﬁciency of each primer set.Quantiﬁcation for each primer set and cDNA template combination was performed in quadruplicate,and included a no-template control,to ensure results were not inﬂuenced by primer–dimer formation or DNA contamina-tion.Data presented are the average and SE from four RT-PCR quantiﬁcations(gene of interest versus ACTIN)for each RNA sample;each sample was extracted from30–50 apices,3–5leaves or3–5seedlings.Similar results were obtained in a second set of samples from the same experi-ments.Where Student’s t-tests show that expression levels for a gene of interest differed signiﬁcantly between two treatments(Figs2F and6A,B),differences of similar signiﬁcance levels were found in both sample sets. ResultsProlonged cold treatment of imbibed seeds promotesﬂowering by accelerating inﬂorescence initiation Flowering time,as indicated by FLN and days to heading, was assayed in plants grown from seeds germinated with or without cold treatment.In short days,control plants(no cold treatment)did notﬂower within150d(FLN>25),but plants grown from seeds that had experienced>4weeks of cold during germinationﬂowered within130d(FLN¼14). Longer cold treatments caused no further reduction in FLN in short days and little further reduction in the days to heading(Fig.1A,B).In long days,control plants(no cold treatment)ﬂowered within120d(FLN¼20).Plants grown from cold-treated seedsﬂowered earlier than control plants.Short-term cold treatments acceleratedﬂowering.One week cold treatment reduced FLN to18,for example,and longer cold treat-ments further reducedﬂowering time and FLN.The9week cold treatment had the greatest impact onﬂowering time, reducing the time taken toﬂower to47d(FLN¼10)(Fig. 1A,B).Beyond9weeks,longer cold treatments had no additional impact onﬂowering time or FLN(FLN¼10for plants subjected to11weeks cold treatment).Thus,9weeks cold treatment of seeds completely fulﬁls the vernalization requirement of this barley(vernalization saturation point). Cold treatment of imbibed seeds acceleratedﬂowering by promoting early stages of shoot apex development(Fig. 1C),consistent with the reduced FLN of plants grown from cold-treated seeds.The shoot apex remained vegetative at the end of even the longest vernalization treatments(Fig. 1C),so acceleratedﬂoral development occurred after vernalization during growth at normal glasshouse temper-atures.Shoot apex development was accelerated to a greater extent when vernalized plants were grown in long days(Fig. 1A,C).Stem elongation and post-initiation(double ridge stage,whenﬂoral primordia develop at the shoot apex) inﬂorescence development also occurred rapidly when vernalized plants were grown in long days(Fig.1C).InVRN1controls the seed vernalization response of cereals.|2171short days,the shoot apex elongated more than in control plants and the apex developed to the double ridge stage,but further inﬂorescence development and stem elongation occurred slowly.Consequently ﬂowering (head emergence)was delayed in short days in comparison with plants grown in long days,after equivalent vernalization treatment.Cold treatment induces expression of HvVRN1in germinating seedsExpression of HvVRN1was assayed during germination at low temperatures (seed vernalization).HvVRN1expression was ﬁrst detected after 4weeks cold treatment and was induced to higher levels with longer cold treatments (Fig.2A).Expression of HvVRN1increased in the developing leaves,roots,and the shoot apex (Fig.2B).Elevated HvVRN1transcript levels were maintained during subsequent develop-ment at normal glasshouse temperatures.At the third leaf stage,;2weeks after the end of cold treatment,HvVRN1was expressed in both shoot apices and leaves (Fig.2C,D).In both tissue types,HvVRN1transcript levels correlated with the length of cold treatment applied during germination (Fig.2C,D).Daylength did not inﬂuence expression of HvVRN1in the shoot apex of vernalized plants (Fig.2E).Similarly,day-length did not inﬂuence expression of HvVRN1in the leaves of plants grown from seeds vernalized for 5or 7weeks.In plants grown from seeds subjected to 9weeks of seed vernalization,expression of HvVRN1was ;2-fold higher in the leaves in long days than in short days (Fig.2F).HvVRN2is down-regulated in the leaves of vernalized plants but is not required for the low-temperature ﬂowering responseExpression of the ﬂoral repressor HvVRN2was not detected in seeds germinating in the dark,regardless of temperature (Fig.3A).HvVRN2was expressed in the leaves of plants in long days (Fig.3B)and,although HvVRN2expression did not change during vernalization,expression of HvVRN2was lower in the leaves of plants grown from cold-treated seeds.The extent to which HvVRN2was down-regulated correlated with the length of cold treatment applied (Fig.3C).There was an inverse relationship between HvVRN1and HvVRN2expression levels in leaves in plants grown in long days (compare Figs 2C and 3C),consistent withtheFig.1.The effect of seed vernalization treatment on ﬂowering time of a winter barley.(A)Final leaf number (FLN),in short or long days,of non-vernalized (0)plants of a winter barley (cv.Sonja)versus plants subjected to seed vernalization treatments of different durations (1–9weeks).NF denotes no ﬂowering observed.(B)Days to ﬂowering (heading)for the same treatments.(C)Images of representative shoot apices (503magniﬁcation)from:imbibed seeds (0seed),cold-treated seeds (9W seed),and plants at the third leaf stage in either short day or long day conditions (+SD or +LD),;2weeks after the end of seed vernalization treatments of different durations (0,5,7,or 9weeks).For example,5W+SD refers to plants that were vernalized for 5weeks in darkness then grown in short days.2172|Sasani et al.suggestion that HvVRN1down-regulates HvVRN2in ver-nalized plants (Trevaskis et al.,2006,2007a ).This relation-ship was not observed in short days,where HvVRN2was expressed at uniformly low levels in leaves irrespective of cold treatment or HvVRN1expression levels (Fig.3D).The inﬂuence of seed vernalization on HvVRN1tran-script levels and shoot apex development was assayed in a barley which lacks HvVRN2.In this barley,expression of HvVRN1was low during germination but was induced by prolonged cold treatment (Fig.4A).Cold treatment also accelerated inﬂorescence initiation during subsequent de-velopment at normal glasshouse temperatures,and at the third leaf stage the shoot apex of cold-treated plants hadprogressed to the double ridge stage whereas the apices of control plants remained vegetative (Fig.4B).Seed vernalization allows long-day induction of HvFT1in leavesExpression of HvFT1was assayed during and after seed vernalization treatments of different durations and in non-vernalized control plants at the same stage of development.HvFT1expression was not detected in seedlings germinating in darkness,regardless of temperature.Following germina-tion,at the third leaf stage,HvFT1was not expressed in plants grown from seeds germinated without coldtreatmentFig.2.The effect of seed vernalization treatment on expression of HvVRN1.(A)Expression of HvVRN1in seedlings at different time points (weeks)during seed vernalization.(B)RT-PCR analysis of HvVRN1expression (35cycles)in different organs during seedvernalization.Expression of ACTIN (25cycles)is shown as a positive control,and two biological repeats are shown for each data point.NV refers to samples from non-vernalized plants and V refers to samples from vernalized plants.(C)Expression of HvVRN1in the shoot apex at the third leaf stage,in non-vernalized plants (0)compared with plants that received seed vernalization treatments of different durations (1–9weeks).(D)Expression of HvVRN1in leaves (fully expanded second leaf)at the third leaf stage in the same experiment.(E)HvVRN1expression in shoot apex in short versus long days at the third leaf stage,in non-vernalized plants (0)or after seed vernalization treatments of different durations (5,7,or 9weeks).(F)Comparison of HvVRN1expression in leaves (fully expanded second leaf)in the same experiment.Expression of HvVRN1was assayed by quantitative RT-PCR and is shown relative to ACTIN .ND denotes no expression detected.Asterisks indicate P -values of Student’s t -test:***P <0.001.VRN1controls the seed vernalization response of cereals.|2173but was expressed in the leaves of plants grown in long days from seeds that were vernalized for 9weeks (Fig.5).No expression of HvFT1was detected in plants grown in short days,as has been reported previously for this barley variety (Hemming et al.,2008).The inﬂuence of low-temperature treatment on expression of other MADS box genes in barleyIt has been suggested that the SHORT VEGETATIVE PHASE-like gene HvVRT2is repressed by cold and that this allows expression of HvVRN1to increase during vernalization (Kane et al.,2005).Expression of HvVRT2increased slightly in vernalized seeds,as did the related gene BM10(Fig.6A,B).Transcript levels of a third SVP -like MADS box gene,BM1,did not change during seed vernalization (Fig.6C).In addition to HvVRN1,there are two other FRUIT-FULL -like MADS box genes in barley:BM3and BM8.Expression of these genes was assayed before and after seed vernalization to determine whether these genes play a similar role to HvVRN1in the low-temperature ﬂowering response.No expression of either BM3or BM8was detected ingerminating seeds,and neither gene was activated by low-temperature treatment (Supplementary Fig.S1available at JXB online).Similarly,no expression of the SEPALLATA -like MADS box genes BM7and BM9(Schmitz et al.,2000)was detected in germinating seeds irrespective of tempera-ture (Supplementary Fig.S1).The seed vernalization response is similar in wheat and barley.To determine whether low temperature and long day cues regulate expression of ﬂowering-time genes in a similar manner in other temperate cereals,expression of VRN1and VRN2was examined in the winter wheat cultivar Norstar during and after seed vernalization treatments.For these experiments,primers predicted to amplify all three copies (A,B,and D genomes)of the target genes were used,to assay the sum expression levels of VRN1or VRN2.Seed vernalization promoted ﬂowering in this wheat (Supplemen-tary Fig.S2at JXB online).Prolonged cold treatment induced expression of VRN1in imbibed wheat seeds,and expression of VRN1was maintained in the shoot apex and leaves of wheat plants after vernalization treatment(Fig.Fig.3.The effect of seed vernalization treatment on HvVRN2expression.(A)HvVRN2expression in non-vernalized seedlings (control)versus seedlings germinated at low temperature for 7weeks (cold).(B)Expression of HvVRN2in the shoot apex or second leaf for non-vernalized plants at the third leaf stage,in short versus long days.(C)Relative expression of HvVRN2in leaves (fully expanded second leaf)at the third leaf stage in long days,in non-vernalized plants (0),or after seed vernalization for different durations (1–9weeks).(D)Relative expression levels of HvVRN2in leaves (fully expanded second leaf)from plants at the third leaf stage in short or long days.The comparison shows non-vernalized plants (0)versus plants grown from seeds vernalized for 5,7,or 9weeks.Expression of HvVRN2was assayed by quantitative RT-PCR and is shown relative to ACTIN .ND denotes no expression detected.2174|Sasani et al.7A–C).VRN2was expressed in leaves in long days,but in vernalized plants expression of VRN2in the leaves was lower than in control plants that had not experienced cold (Fig.7D).The extent to which VRN2was down-regulated in the leaves of vernalized plants correlated with the length of cold treatment during germination (Fig.7D).Thus,the molecular responses to seed vernalization appear to be similar in barley and wheat.DiscussionThe molecular responses to seed vernalization parallel those observed in plants vernalized in short days;HvVRN1is activated by low temperatures to a degree that correlates with the length of cold treatment,while HvVRN2and HvFT1are not expressed (Fig.2;von Zitzewitz et al.,2005;Trevaskis et al.,2006;Hemming et al.,2008).This suggests that the pathways controlling perception of cold in germi-nating seeds are similar to those in growing plants,and support the hypothesis that activation of VRN1mediates the low-temperature ﬂowering response in cereals (see Trevaskis et al.,2007a ).Compared with previous studies using plants vernalized in short days (von Zitzewitz et al.,2005;Trevaskis et al.,2006),analysis of the vernalization response in seeds has further clariﬁed how HvVRN1is regulated.Induction of HvVRN1in seeds occurred in darkness,demonstrating that a low-temperature response pathway can activate expres-sion of HvVRN1independently of light or daylength.This pathway is unlikely to involve HvVRN2,which is not expressed in seeds during vernalization (Fig.3)and is not required for low-temperature induction of HvVRN1(Hemming et al.,2008;Fig.4).Similarly,induction of HvVRN1is unlikely to involve HvFT1,which is not expressed in seeds during vernalization.Low-temperature induction of HvVRN1is not limited to any particular organ type in barley seeds/seedlings (Fig.2B).Low-temperature induction of HvVRN1at the shoot apex precedes changes in shoot apex morphology (Fig.1C),and so cannot be a consequence of ﬂoral develop-ment.Similar observations have been made by Yan et al.(2003)in einkorn wheat plants (Triticum monococcum )vernalized in long days.Preston and Kellog (2008)found that in oat (Avena sativa )induction of VRN1at the shoot apex occurs after vernalization,at the same time asﬂoralFig.4.The response to seed vernalization in a barley that lacks HvVRN2.(A)Expression of HvVRN1in seedlings of barley lacking HvVRN2(HvVRN1,D HvVRN2/PPD-H1),exposed to low-temperature treatment for 9weeks during germination (cold)versus seedlings at the same stage of development that were germinated at normal growth temperatures (control).Expression of HvVRN1was assayed by quantitative RT-PCR and is shown relative to ACTIN .(B)The morphology of the shoot apex after 9weeks of seed vernalization treatment (I),at the third leaf stage in either non-vernalized plants (II)or plants grown from seeds that werevernalized for 9weeks (III)(350magniﬁcation).As this barley lacks HvVRN2,plants were grown in short days to prevent activation of ﬂowering by the long-dayresponse.Fig.5.The effect of seed vernalization treatment on expression of HvFT1.(A)Plants subjected to different vernalization treatments were grown in long days until the third leaf stage when different organs were isolated for gene expression analysis.Expression of HvFT1was assayed in the apex,second leaf,third leaf,or the sheath and compared with expression in whole plants.Thecomparison shows HvFT1expression in control (non-vernalized)versus vernalized plants (9weeks seed vernalization).Expression of HvFT1was assayed by quantitative RT-PCR and is shown relative to ACTIN .ND denotes no expression detected.VRN1controls the seed vernalization response of cereals.|2175。