Morpheme(词素或语素)
《语言学morpheme》课件
汇报4
05
06
Morpheme是语言学中的基本单位，用于表示词的构成和变化。 Morpheme可以分为自由morpheme和粘附morpheme。 自由morpheme可以独立存在，如英语中的dog、cat等。 粘附morpheme不能独立存在，需要依附于其他morpheme，如英语中的-ed、-ing等。
前缀可以改变词根的词性， 如名词变为形容词
前缀可以改变词根的词义，如 “un-”表示否定，“re-”表
示重复
词根是构成词 的基本单位， 是词的核心部
分
词根可以单独 使用，也可以 与其他词根或 词缀组合成新
词
词根可以分为自 由词根和黏着词 根，自由词根可 以独立存在，黏 着词根需要与其 他词根或词缀组
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自由 morpheme： 可以独立存在的 morpheme，
如英语中的 "dog"
粘附morpheme： 不能独立存在， 需要依附于其他 morpheme的 morpheme，如 英语中的"-less"
复合morpheme： 由两个或多个
morpheme组成 的morpheme，
教学目标：让学生理解morpheme的概念 和作用
教学方法：通过实例讲解和练习，让学生 掌握morpheme的分析方法
教学案例：分析英语单词 "unfriendly"中的morpheme，让学 生理解morpheme在单词中的作用
教学反馈：通过课堂讨论和作业，了解学 生对morpheme的理解和掌握情况，及时 调整教学方法和进度。
词汇学复习
Chapter 1 A general survey of English vocabularyLexicology: the study of words/ to study the science of words.a word is the smallest significant unit of a speech.词是语言的最小的有意义结构单位。
the smallest significant unit of a speech is morpheme(词素/语素/形位)Word defined: a fundamental（基本的）unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning (both lexical and grammatical meaning) capable of performing a given syntactic function.Sound the naturalists 自然派Meaning the conventionalists 习惯派Three periods of EV1.Old English/Anglo-Saxon Period(449-1100AD)2.Middle English Period (1150-1500)3.Modern English Period (1500-present)Some characteristics of Old English1、The vocabulary is of Germanic characteristic, an exclusively Germanic vocabulary (few borrowings from non-Germanic languages), distinguished by compounding.（复合词）2、An ability to develop new words out of the existing Germanic word-stock instead of borrowing foreign words.3、Old English was an inflected language. It had a complete system of declension with five cases and conjugations.Middle English periodSome features of this period:1)Much borrowed French words;2)The inflectional system of OE decayed rapidly during the ME period and hadvanished almost entirely by the end of this period.3)The appearance of natural gender.Some characteristics of Modern English1、It was divided into two parts: early modern English(1500-1700) and latemodern English(1700--present)2、Expansion3、New words*Newest Development of EV（the rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary and its causes）1、Marked progress of science and technology;cybernetics, bionics, chain reaction, radioactivity, neutron bomb, medium-range ballistic missile, cosmonaut中程导弹, countdown倒数, space shuttle, launching pad, maglev train…2、Socio-Economic, political and cultural changes;Credit card; fringe benefit 额外福利pension 退休金Teach-in 宣讲游说roller-hockey 曲棍球surf-riding 冲浪3. The influence of other cultures and languagesombudsman: 调查官员舞弊情况的官员apartheid: 种族隔离制sputnik: 人造地球卫星autostrada: 高速公路(Italian）autopista: 高速公路（Spanish）Classification of EV1.By origin2.By level of usage:3.By notion4.By time1、By origin:native and loan words 本族语和外来语Fundamental features of basic word stock:1.National character;2.Stability3.Word-forming ability;4.Ability to form collocations.2. By level of usage 使用的程度来分类Common words (standard word) 普通词汇literary words Archaic words 古体语书面语Obsolete wordsPoetical words: traditionally used in poetry. E.g. the deep (the sea), steed (horse), thou, thee (you, sing.), ye (you, plur.), thy (your), thine (yours), yon (over there), aught (anything), naught (nothing).Colloquial words 口语词汇are described as everyday words which have been around for a long time and are often used in informal speeches.Slang words 俚语are ever-changing set of colloquial words generally considered distinct from and socially lower than the standard to describe language that is new and fresh, including argot/cant (secret vocabulary of underworld groups). Technical words 术语include formal specialized language (terminologies) and informal specialized language (jargon) to a trade, job, or group.3. By notionFunction words功能词：determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries（助词），and so forthContent words 实意词: diagnosis 诊断prescription 处方injection 注射space walk ; space opera 太空剧apartheid 种族隔离Chapter 2 Morphological structure of English wordsMorpheme(语素，词素): the morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.one morpheme：nationtwo morphemes: nationalthree: morphemes: nation +al +izeAllomorphemes :语素变体，形位变体：Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. E.g. the morpheme of plurality (-s) has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context, e.g. in cats/s/, in bags/z/, in matches/iz/.有些词素根据其在词中的特殊位置而产生的变体叫词素变体。
2022英语专业《英语语法教程(章振邦)》专有名词汇总最新版
morpheme词素free morpheme自由词素（用法use alone as simple word简单词充当root词根＋affix词缀（为derivational affix）＝derivative派生词free morpheme＋other free morpheme＝compound word复合词）bound morpheme粘附词素（分类＝词缀affix＋组合形式combining form）（①用法inflectional affix屈折词缀；derivational affix派生词缀（prefix前缀suffix 后缀）＋root＝derivative②充当root即bound root粘附词根＋affix＝primitive derivative原始派生词；＋word＝compound word；＋combining form＝neo-classical compound新古典复合词）Δallomorph词素变体word单词（构词法simple word、derivation、compound word（compound noun/adjective/verb/adverb/pronoun/conjun ction连词/preposition介词）（语法功能closed class封闭词类→function word功能词（preposition、pronoun、determiner限定词、conjunction、auxiliary 助动词）、open class开放词类→content word 实义词（noun、adjective、adverb、main verb 主动词、cardinal numeral基数词、ordinal numeral序数词）interjection感叹词介于两者之间transitional word过渡词phrase词组（head或headword中心词）noun/adjective/adverb/verb/prepositional phraseclause分句independent clause独立分句dependent/subordinate clause从属分句（从句）main clause主句simple clause简单分句simple sentence简单句complex clause复杂分句complex sentence复杂句finite clause限定分句non-finite clause非限定分句（infinitive clause 不定式分句、-ing participle clause-ing分词分句、-ed participle clause-ed分词分句）verbless clause无动词分句nominal clause名词性分句clause element分句成分（central element中心成分→subject、predicate verb/predicator 谓语动词、object、complement（subject complement＋object complement）、adverbial（adjunct/depictive adverbial））peripheral element外围成分→stance adverbial/disjunct评注性状语、linking adverbial/conjunct连接性状语……parenthesis插入语）basic clause type分句基本类型subject主语predicate谓语double predicate双重谓语complementation补足成分Δnotional subject实义主语（real subject真主语）logical subject逻辑主语sentence句子full sentence完全句（simple sentence、compound sentence并列句、complex sentence、compound-complex sentence并列复杂句）minor sentence不完全句主谓一致（主-动-致subject-verb concord）concord/agreement一致grammatical concord语法一致notional concord意义一致principle of proximity就近原则coordinate subject并列结构做主语noun phrase of amount or quantity表示数量概念的名词词组noun→noun phrase→complex noun phrase 词汇意义proper noun专有名词、commonnoun（individual noun、collective noun、mass noun/material noun、abstract noun）语法特征count/countable noun、non-count/uncountable nounnumber数→语法范畴singular number单数plural number复数（regular plural、irregular plural）partitive单位词（unit noun单位名词）case格→语法术语nominative case主格、genitive/possessive case属格/所有格、dative case与格、accusation case宾格→old English古英语genitive/possessive case、common case通格→modern English现代英语independent genitive独立属格double genitive双重属格determinerreferential meaning所指意义→specific reference特指、generic reference类指definite quantity确定数量indefinite quantity非确定数量分类：predeterminer前位限定词、central determiner、postdeterminerarticle冠词definite article定冠词indefinite article不定冠词zero article 零冠词definite specific reference确定特指（anaphoric specific reference后照应特指、cataphoric specific reference前照应特指、situational reference语境特指）indefinite specific reference非确定特指adjective形容词（open class）词的构成→one-word adjective单词形容词、compound adjective复合形容词句法功能→central adjective中心形容词、peripheral adjective外围形容词词汇意义→dynamic adjective动态形容词、stative adjective静态形容词词汇意义→gradable adjective等级形容词、non-gradable adjective非等级形容词modifier修饰语premodifier前置修饰语postmodifier后置修饰语subject complement、object complementΔcausative construction使役结构adverb→adverb phrase词的构成→simple adverb简单副词、derivative adverb派生副词词汇意义→adverb of mannar方式副词、adverb of degree程度副词、adverb of frequency频度副词、adverb of time时间副词、conjunctive adverb连接副词（the head/headword of the verb phrase when used as a linking adverbial/conjunct）usage①modifier②adverbial （adjunct/depictive adverbial修饰性状语、disjunct/stance adverbial评注性状语、conjunct/linking adverbial连接性状语）比较等级和比较结构比较等级：当adjective和adverb用于比较结构时采取的特殊的语法形式比较结构：形容词和副词比较等级用于句子当中便形成了比较结构gradable可等级的positive/absolute degree原级comparative degree比较级superlative degree最高级comparative degree and superlative degree both have two forms→regular form and irregular formregular form has two expressions①synthetic form综合形式（add suffixes-er or-est to the positive/absolute degree）②analytic form分析形式（add more or most before positive/absolute degree）comparative construction比较结构gradable noun可等级名词Δnucleus调核代词pronoun（closed class封闭词类）personal pronoun人称代词（person人称形式→first/second/third第一/二/三人称）possessive pronoun物主代词＝genitivepronoun属格代词（按语法功能分类→nominal genitive pronoun名词性属格代词、determiner genitive pronoun限定词性属格代词词）possessive determiner物主限定词（my、your 等）reflexive form反身形式reflexive pronoun反身代词（9个）（用法→emphatic use强调性用法、unemphatic use 非强调性用法）reciprocal pronoun相互代词demonstrative pronoun指示代词demonstrative determiner指示限定词demonstrative指示词interrogative pronoun疑问代词relative pronoun关系代词indefinite pronoun不定代词（分类→numeral 数次和quantifier量词、compound pronoun 复合代词）referent对象＝antecedent先行项pronoun reference代词照应（anaphoric reference前照应、cataphoric reference后照应、situational reference情景照应；personal reference人称照应、demonstrative reference 指示照应）Δnoun of common gender通性名词、pro-verb代动词介词prepositionsimple/complex preposition简单/复杂介词、two-word/three-word/four-word preposition 双词/三词/四词介词Δanalytic language分析性语言、word order 词序（nomal order正常词序＝natural order 自然词序）动词与动词词组verb动词（main verb主动词、auxiliary助动词→primary auxiliary基本主动词、modal auxiliary情态助动词、semi-auxiliary半助动词＝semi-modal半情态助动词）Δmarginal modal auxiliary边际情态助动词（need、dare 等）verb phrase动词词组（simple verb phrase简单动词词组、complex verb phrase复杂动词词组、finite verb phrase限定动词词组、non-finite verb phrase非限定动词词组）notional verb实义动词contracted form缩略形式transitive verb及物动词（monotransitive verb 单宾语及物动词、ditransitive verb双宾语及物动词、complex-transitive verb复杂及物动词）intransitive verb不及物动词、linking verb 连系动词dynamic verb动态动词、stative verb静态动词single-word verb单词动词、phrasal verb词组动词（verbal idiom成语动词）regular verb规则动词、irregular verb不规则动词finite verb限定动词、non-finite verb非限定动词finite form限定形式、non-finite form非限定形式base form原形grammatical form语法形式（5种）Δmodal idiom情态成语时tense、体aspectpresent tense现在时、past tense过去时progressive aspect进行体、perfective aspect 完成体simple present/past一般现在时/过去时present/past progressive现在/过去进行体present/past perfective现在/过去完成体present/past perfective progressive现在/过去完成进行体future tense将来时pure future单纯将来语态voiceactive/passive voice主动/被动态active/passive sentence主动/被动句BE-passive be-型被动态GET-passive get-型被动态mood式（语气）subjunctive mood虚拟语气、indicative mood 陈述语气、imperative mood祈使语气hypothetical meaning假设意义＝non-factual meaning非事实意义BE-subjunctive be-型虚拟、were-subjunctive were-型虚拟情态意义表示法ability能力、possibility可能、permission许可、obligation义务、necessity必然、prediction 预见、assumption推测、willingness意愿、intention意图、determination决心epistemic推测性、non-epistemic非推测性Δparaphrase意译非限定形式non-finite form①infinitive不定式to-infinitive带to不定式、bare infinitive不带to不定式Δsplit infinitive分裂不定式②-ing participle-ing分词（present participle 现在分词、gerund动名词）③-ed participle-ed分词（past participle过去分词）dangling participle悬垂分词（unattached participle无依着分词）attachment rule依着法则Δabsolute construction独立结构relative clause关系分句（restrictive relative clause限制性关系分句、non-restrictive relative clause非限制性关系分句）double relative clause双重关系分句embedded relative clause/pushdown relative clause嵌入式关系分句relative word关系词（relative pronoun关系代词、relative adverb关系副词、relative determiner关系限定词）attributive clause定语从句antecedent先行项、old information旧信息、given/known information已知信息register语域style语体statement陈述句（declarative sentence）emphasizer强调词、reinforcement tag强调附加结构、double negative双重否定、rhetorical question修辞疑问句、operator操作词、intonation pattern调型（low fall低降调、high fall高降调、low rise低升调、fall rise 降升调）question疑问句（interrogative sentence）（分类→general/special/alternative/tag一般＝yes-no question是非问句/特殊＝wh-question wh问句/选择/附加疑问句）command祈使句（imperative sentence）、exclamation感叹句（exclamatory sentence）interrogative exclamation问句型感叹句、echo exclamation重复感叹句existential sentence存在句complex existential sentence复杂存在句finite existential sentence限定存在句non-finite existential sentence非限定存在句locative adverbial地点状语temporal adverbial时间状语Δrheme述位IT-句型和否定结构non-referring it非指代性itassertive word肯定词non-assertive word非肯定词negative word否定词semi-negative半否定词scope of negation否定范围focus of negation否定焦点transferred negation转移否定double negation双重否定local negation局部否定pleonastic/superfluous negation多余否定并列结构coordinate structure coordinator并列连词correlative coordinator关联并列连词quasi-coordinator近似并列连词compound sentence并列句asyndetic coordination不带连词的并列结构syndetic coordinate带连词的并列结构predication述谓成分parallelism排比（作为修辞手法的并列结构）、parallel construction排比结构climax高潮从属结构subordinate construction subordination从属subordinator从属连词simple subordinator简单从属连词（one-word subordinator单词从属连词）complex subordinator复杂从属连词correlative subordinator关联从属连词marginal subordinator边际从属连词same time同时性earlier time先时性later time后时性nominal relative clause名词性关系分句nominal that-clause名词性that分句nominal wh-clause名词性wh-分句adverbial clause of time/place/manner/cause/result/purpose/co ndition/concession/accompanying circumstances时间/地点/方式/原因/结果/目的/条件/让步/伴随状语分句条件句conditionalreal conditional真实条件句unreal conditional非真实条件句implied conditional含蓄条件句basic form基本形式variant form变体形式alternative form替换形式直接引语和间接引语direct speech直接引语indirect speech间接引语reporting word引述动词free direct speech自由直接引语free indirect speech自由间接引语修饰modificationsquinting modification偏斜修饰、discontinuous modification分隔修饰、transferred modification转移修饰、partial modification局部修饰、multiple modification 多重修饰premodifier前置修饰语、postmodifier后置修饰语、restrictive modifier限制性修饰语、non-restrictive modifier非限制性修饰语、transferred modifier/epithet转移修饰语、squinting modifier偏斜修饰语contrastive meaning对比意义替代substitutionnominal/verbal/clausal名词性/动词性/分句性替代substitute替代词（nominal/verbal/clausal substitute名词/动词/分句替代词）省略ellipsis、situational ellipsis情景省略强调emphasis、rhetorical repetition修辞重复postponement后置、end focus句尾焦点、end weight句尾重心、periodic sentence尾重句、loose sentence松散句、trailing sentence 拖沓句fronting前置、inversion倒装（full inversion 完全倒装、partial inversion部分倒装cleft sentence分裂句、pseudo-cleft sentence 假分裂句focus element中心成分morphology词法、syntax句法、text语篇（＝discourse口语中）、sentence group句群（语段）、paragraph段落、correctness正确性、appropriacy适合性、unity统一性、coherence连贯性、cohesion 粘着性、mobility流动性、clearness清晰性logical connector逻辑纽带、grammatical connector语法纽带、lexical connector词汇纽带literary language文学语言、textual rhetoric 语篇修辞标点符号punctuationperiod/full stop/stop句号、question mark问号、exclamation mark感叹号、comma逗号、semicolon分号、colon冒号、ellipsis省略号、dash破折号、brackets/parentheses括号、quotation mark引号、hyphen连字号、apostrophe撇号、slant斜线、italics斜体、underlining下划线、。
现代汉语教案
现代汉语教案（词汇部分1·语素）一、语素1.语素（morpheme）：语素是语言中最小的音义结合体。
是构词单位。
如“民、息、大、沙发、巧克力、克隆”等。
2.语速的鉴定：一个多音节的单位是一个语素还是几个语素需要鉴定，具体方法是替换法。
具体操作方法是：（1）有双音节单位AB，若A可替换，则说明B是一个语素。
以“学习”为例：学习练习复习预习…习“学”被成功替换，说明“习”是一个语素。
（2）若双音节单AB中，B可替换，则说明A是语素：学习学话学徒学艺学…能进行以上两种替换，说明AB是两个语素。
（3）若双音节单AB中，A可替换，B不可替换，则说明B是语素，AB也是语素。
以“蝴蝶”为例：对“蝴”进行替换以鉴定“蝶”是否为语素：蝴蝶粉蝶幼蝶彩蝶“蝴”成功被替换，说明“蝶”是语素。
下面对“蝶”进行替换以鉴定“蝴”是不是语素：蝴蝶蝴？蝴？蝴？“蝶”不能被替换，说明“蝴”不是语素，同时说明“蝴蝶”是一个语素。
一个语素加上一个非语素音节是一个语素。
超过两个音节的单位也按照这个操作程序判断。
替换试验中要注意的是：未替换的成分的意义要基本一致。
下列替换都不成立：沙发坦克巧克力理发坦荡吸引力练习题：○1判断“骆驼”是几个语素。
骆驼骆驼长颈驼骆？单峰驼骆？“骆”可被替换，说明“驼”是一个语素。
“骆”不能被替换说明“骆驼”虽然是两个音节，但只是一个语素，当然，“驼”也是一个语素。
另外，语素是构词的，我们考察“骆”与“驼”的构词能力，也发现“驼”有构词能力（驼绒，驼铃，驼羔），而“骆”只能出现在“骆驼”中，没有构词能力。
这也能说明“驼”确实是一个语素。
练习题：○2判断“苹果”是几个语素。
苹果苹果水果苹？瓜果苹？替换结果说明“果”是语素，“苹果”也是语素。
3.音节、汉字、语素之间的关系汉语语素的语音形式是音节（单音节的、多音节的），书面形式是汉字，一个汉字表示一个音节。
“羊”——一个音节，一个汉字，一个语素。
“克隆”——两个音节，两个汉字，一个语素。
Morphology词法学
词缀词素(аффиксальные морфемы)又称词缀 (affixes,аффиксы) ，分布于词根的外围，在 词的结构中处于边缘位置，不是词必不可少 的组成成分。 e.g. книга—книж - н - ый,чита ющ-ий. 前缀(prefix,префикс或приставка)在词的结构 中处于词根或“词根 + 前缀”前，用来构成 新词。e.g.вы-нести,с-делать,по-на-вещать. 后缀(suffix,суффикс) 在词的结构中位于词根 或“词根 + 后缀”后，用来构成新词或同一 词的不同语法形式。 e.g. вод - н - ый,твор ец,чита-л.
8.缩略法e.g.вуз/высшее учебное заведение. 混 合 构 词 法 ( с м е ш а н н ы й способ словообразования)包括： 1.前缀后缀法e.g.город/при-город-н-ый. 2.前缀尾缀法e.g.считать/про-считать-ся. 3.后缀尾缀法e.g.присесть/присаж-ива-ть-ся. 4. 前缀后缀尾缀法 e.g. шептать/пере - шепт ыва-ть-ся. 5.前缀复合法e.g.у-мир-о-тво-рить. 6.后缀复合法e.g.мор-е-плава-тель. 7.前缀后缀复合法e.g.в-пол-голос-а.
词尾(флексия或окончание) 位于词根或“词 根 + 后缀”之后，表达语法意义，是词的主 要变化部分。e.g.лѐгк-ий,задач-а,прове-л-и. 间缀 (infix,интерфикс) 位于复合词中，用来 连接构成复合词干的简单词干，是复合词干 的组成部分。e.g.верт-о-лѐт,огн-е-опасный. 尾缀 (постфикс) 在词的结构中位于词尾或构 形后缀之后，用来构成新词或词的语法形式。 e.g.как-ой-то,чь-и-либо,чт-о-нибудь.
词素和词
语法篇导论语法层次语言（Language）是社会交际的工具，是音义结合的词汇和语法体系。
语法（Grammar）是语言的组织规律，它赋予语言以结构系统，而词汇(Vocabulary)则是语言的建筑材料。
它通过语法而赋予语言以意义内容。
在语言的结构系统、语音系统和语义系统中，结构系统（即语法）是中心成分，是结合语音系统和语义系统的枢纽。
英语的语法结构具有层次性。
它可以分为五个不同的层次，即句子（Sentence ）、分句（Clause）、词组（Phrase）、词（Word）和词素（Morpheme）。
句子是语法的最高层次，由一个或一个以上的分句构成；分句是由一个或一个以上的词组构成；词组是由一个或一个以上的词构成；词是由一个或一个以上的词素构成。
我们要学习语法，所以必须从英语语法的最小组成部分——词素学起。
第一节词素一、词素的定义：词素（Morpheme）是最小的语法单位，也是最小的语义单位。
二、词素的分类：词素分为两大类：自由词素（Free Morpheme）和粘附词素（Bound Morpheme）（一）自由词素自由词素指本身具有完整的意义，并能作为“简单词”（Simple Word）而单独使用的词素。
如：boy 男孩 girl 女孩 desk 书桌 chair 椅子 kind 仁慈的 cruel 残酷的 give给take 拿自由词素可以充当词根（Root），加上词缀（Affix）构成派生词（Derivative）。
如：kind: kindness unkind unkindness kindlyfriend: friendly friendship friendless unfriendly unfriendliness自由词素还可以和其他词素相结合，构成复合词（Compound Word）。
如：book: bookmark bookworm bookshop bookstalltake: intake take-home take-over takeaway undertake（二）粘附词素粘附词素指本身没有完整的意义，不能单独使用，而必须粘附在自由词素或其他形式上才能表示出意义的词素。
morpheme
Morphemes⏹Morpheme (词素): morph (=form) + -eme⏹the smallest meaningful unit of a language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms⏹What is considered a single word in English may be composed of one or moremorphemes⏹Stockwell (2001: 58-61): Properties of morphemes⏹(1) A morpheme is the smallest unit associated with a meaning.Compare care in the two groups of words:☐care, caress, scare☐care, careless, careful, caring, uncaring, caregiver⏹(2) Morphemes are recyclable units.☐One of the most important properties of the morpheme is that it can be used again and again to form many words.⏹care, careless, careful, caring, uncaring, caregiver⏹(3) Morphemes must not be confused with syllables.☐ A morpheme may be represented by any number of syllables, though typically only one or two, sometimes three or four.Disagreeable: five syllables & three morphemes☐Syllables have nothing to do with meaning.⏹(4) One and the same morpheme may take phonetically different shapes.☐-(e)s: three phonological forms:⏹books, pigs, horses /s/ /z/ /iz/⏹The three forms are variants of the same morpheme -s. They arecalled allomorphs.☐An allomorph（词素变体）is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.⏹(5) Two different morphemes may have the same shape☐-s⏹Marking plural meaning: cats, dogs, workers, students⏹Marking present tense: works, sings, runs, jumps…Classification of Morphemes☐Two main types of classification☐A: free v.s. bound⏹Free morphemes（自由词素）: morphemes which occur independentlyas words⏹Bound morphemes（粘着词素）: morphemes which occur only as partof a word which could not stand on its own☐B: roots v.s. affixes (non-root)⏹Roots or root morphemes（词根）☐ A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word and it conveysthe main lexical meaning of the word☐Every word has at least one root. Roots are at the centre ofword-derivational processes.Roots : free roots & bound roots☐Free roots (自由词根)⏹Free roots: In English, many roots are free morphemes: man, sun, run,milk, black⏹ A word consisting of one free root is a simple word⏹Free roots provide the English language with a basis for the formationof new words☐Bound roots (粘着词根)⏹Most bound roots found in English today are of classical origin, i.e.they were borrowed into English from Latin and Greek during theRenaissance, or through French.☐tain from Latin: to hold –contain, detain, retain☐To be completed, bound roots require that another morphemebe attached to them.Affixes: inflectional & derivational☐Affixes (词缀)⏹Affix is a collective term for the type of formative that can be usedonly when added to another morpheme. So affixes are boundmorphemes.⏹Affixes have two quite different functions and can be divided into twomore types:☐a: derivational (派生) affixes: affixes that have the function ofderiving new words☐b: inflectional (屈折) affixes: affixes that do not participate inword formation at alla. Inflectional affixes (inflectional morphemes)⏹to express meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree☐Plural marker☐The present particle☐The past tense and past participle☐The comparative/superlative☐not to form a new word with new lexical meaning⏹not to change the word-class of the wordb. Derivational affixes (derivational morphemes)☐They are added to another morpheme and derive a new word.⏹rewrite, minicar, supermarket, worker, modernize, meanness☐Many have a specific lexical meaning⏹-ism: doctrine or point of view⏹pro-: on the side of☐Some have more than one meaningAffixesAffixes are subdivided into prefixes and suffixesThey can be grouped according to Linguistic origin and ProductivityMorphologyMorphology: the study of the internal structure of words, and of the rules by which words are formed.Fields of morphology: the study of inflections (inflectional morphology) and the study of word formation (lexical or derivational morphology).。
词素解析
词素及词的构成词素语言中最小的字义单位词素/语素是最小的音义结合体，其最大的特点是不能再被分割为更小的音义结合体。
意思或语法功能的最小单位。
（Morpheme:the smallest meani ngful unit of language./the smallest unit of meaning that a word can be divided into）词素与词的关系那就是“词素的功能是构成词”。
词是由语素组成的最小的造句单位。
letter(字母)-morpheme(词素)-word（单词）-phrase-（短语）-expressi on（措辞，表达方式）-sentence（句子）Morphemeroot词根: [C]the part of a word that has the main meaning and t hat its other forms are based on；a word that other words are fo rmed from. <linguistics 语言学〉词根是最小意义的语言单位，去掉所有的词缀后，词所剩下的那部分就是词根。
词根分为自由词根和粘着词根。
affix: prefix、suffix（postfix）词缀：前缀、后缀词干：stem (grammar 语法) the main part of a word that stays the same when endings are added to it.词干是指能加上曲折词缀的语素或语素的组合。
词基：base 词基是可添加词缀的一种词的形式。
词根是最小的语义单位，是一个词的中心含义。
传统观点认为词干只和曲折变化有关，也就是说只有添加曲折变化词缀的形式才能叫做词干，而添加派生词缀的形式职能就称作词基了。
曲折：是指根据语法规则给一个词添加词缀或进行其他改变的过程。
英语中的曲折词缀通常都是后缀。