英语语言学
一、语言和语言学
1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language
任意性 arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系
二重性 duality 指语言由两层结构组成
创造性 creativity 指语言可以被创造
移位性 displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点
2、语言的功能（不是很重要）
信息功能 informative
人际功能 interpersonal
施为功能 performative
感情功能 emotive function
寒暄功能 phatic communication
娱乐功能 recreational function
元语言功能 metalingual function
3、语言学主要分支
语音学 phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音
音位学 phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列
形态学 morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则
句法学 syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则
语义学 semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。如语素和句子的意义
语用学 pragmatics 在语境中研究意义
4、宏观语言学 macrolingustics
心理语言学 psycholinguistics 社会语言学 sociolinguistics 人类语言学 anthropological linguistics 计算机语言学 computational linguistics
5 语言学中的重要区别
规定式和描写式：规定式：prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的
描写式：descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的
共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言
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历时：diachronic 研究语言发展规律
语言和言语：语言：langue指语言系统的整体
言语：parole指具体实际运用的语言
语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)
能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备
运用：performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用
二、语音学
1、语音学分支
发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生
声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性
听觉语音学 auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知
2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的
三、音位学
1、最小对立体minimal pairs
2、音位 phoneme
3 音位变体 allophones
4 互补分布 complementary distribution
5 自由变体 free variation
6 区别特征 distinctive features
7 超音段特征 suprasegmental feature
音节 syllable 重音stress 语调tone 声调intonation
四 形态学
1 词的构成
语素morpheme 自由语素free morpheme 粘着语素bound morpheme
Root 词根 词缀affix 词干stem
屈折词汇和派生词汇 inflectional affix and derivational affix 2 特有的词汇变化lexical change proper
新创词语invention 混拼词blending 缩写词abbreviation
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首字母缩写词 acronym 逆构词汇back-formation例：editor—edit
类推构词analogiacal creation 例：work-worked,,slay-slayed
外来词 borrowing
五 句法学
1 范畴category 数number 性gender 格case 时tense 体aspect
一致关系concord 支配关系govenrment
2 结构主义学派the structure approach
组合关系 syntagmatic relation词和词组合在一起
聚合关系 paradigmatic 具有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起
结构和成分 construction and constituents :句子不仅是线性结构liner structure还是层级结构hierarchical structure (句子或短语被称为结构体，而构成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分)
3 直接成分分析法 immediate constitutional analysis
指把句子分成直接成分－短语，再把这些短语依次切分，得到下一集直接成分，这样层层切分，直到不能再分
4 向心结构和离心结构endocentric and exocentric constructions
向心：指一个结构中有中心词，例an old man ,中心为man
离心：指结构中没有明显的中心词。例：on the shelf
5 生成学派the generative approach
深层结构deep structure指机构关系中的潜在层面underlying level
表层结构surface structure指结构形成的最后结果阶段final stage
6 功能学派the functional approach
主位与述位 theme and rheme
主位：谈话中已知的信息,说话者从它谈起known，
述位：与说话者内容有关的内容what the speaker states about
7 交际力communicative and dynamism简称CD
指句子成分对交际发展所作的贡献的程度
六、语义学
1 利奇的意义七分法Leech and his 7 types of meaning
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概念意义conceptual meaning 字面意义
内涵意义connotative meaning 实际交往过程中所指的事物
社会意义
情感意义 affective meaning
反射意义 reflective meaning 由一个词语联想起来的另外一种意义
搭配意义 collocative meaning
主位意义 thematic meaning 通过调整信息的顺序和强调内容所表达的意义
2 指称论 referential theory
指将词的意义和他所指的食物联系起来的意义理论
3 语义三角semantic triangle 奥格登和理查兹提出
Symbol或form 指语言要素（如词和语素），the linguistic elements
能指thought指概念concept
所指reference 指经验世界中的物体the object in the word of experience
涵义sense语言形式的意义
4 主要涵义关系
○同义关系synonymy
地域同义词dialectal synonymy
风格同义词 stylistic synonyms
感情同义词 synonymys that differ in connotation意义相同，但内涵不同，有褒有贬○反义关系antonymy
等级反义关系gradable antonymy 例cool-warm ;hot-cold
互补反义关系 complementary antonymy,肯定A就否定B，否定B 就肯定A，例dead-alive 反向反义关系converse antonymy .reversal of a relationship between 2 entities.例 husband-wife; teacher-student
○上下义关系hyponymy 意义包含关系。例：花－水仙、玫瑰、百合
补充：同音同形异义关系homonymy
一词多义 polysemy
七、语用学
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1 言语行为理论speech act theory奥斯汀提出John Langshaw Austin
认为人在说话的同时也在进行一定的行为动作
○施为句和叙事句performative and constative
施为句：实施某种行为。
叙事句：描述说话人在说话时所作的动作。
○行事行为理论a theory of the illocutionary act
言内行为：locutionnary act表述字面意思
言外行为：illoutionary act 因为言语本身的习惯力量随之产生的其他一些行为
言后行为：perlocutionnary act 话语在听者身上产生的效果
2 会话含义理论 the theory of conversational implicature
格赖斯提出Herbert Paul Grice
○合作原则:说话人和听话人为达一定的交际目的，都有一种默契，一种都遵循的原则
○ 四个准则four categories of maxims
数量、质量、关系、方式(manner)准则
3 后格赖斯时期的发展
○关联理论：relevance theory:交际应被看做一种表明自身说话意图的行为every act of ostensive(直接表明的) communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance
○数量关系和关系原则the Q-and R-principles
由霍恩Laurence Horn 提出
八 现代语言学理论和流派
1 索绪尔Saussure瑞士语言学家，“现代语言学之父”或者“使语言学科走向现代的大师”
2 布拉格学派Prague School
贡献:共时语言学研究，从“功能”角度看待语言，强调语言的系统性，把语言看做一种功能
突出贡献：语音学说，及其划分语音学和音位学
突出：Trubetzkoy特鲁别茨柯依：提出语音学属于言语，音位学属于语言，提出音位概念
4 伦敦学派 the Lundon School:系统语言学和功能语言学
创始人：弗斯Firth.人物：弗斯受马林诺夫斯基影响。韩礼德为新弗斯派领袖三人都强调语
第 5 页
言环境和语言系统的重要性
韩礼德和系统功能语法：由系统语法和功能语法构成。把实际使用的语言现象作为研究对象5 美国结构主义American Structuralism
共时语言学分支，由博厄斯提出F.Bos.
○撒皮尔-沃尔夫假说Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
语言相对论-语言决定论
○布隆菲尔德Bloomfield《语言论》－20世纪被大西洋两岸同时奉为科学的方法论典范和语言学领域的杰出代表。描述语言学的代表人物
6 转换生成语法transformational–generative grammar
乔姆斯基提出Chomsky.
认为语言是某种天赋，语言习得机制Language Acquisition device
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英语语言学讲解
《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲 一、课程说明: 《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。 《语言学概论》研究始于20 世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。 对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。 本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第6学期和第7 学期开设。其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为选修。 二、教学目的及要求: 本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。 本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。 本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。应鼓 励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。
三、教学重点与难点: 本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。 本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。 四、与其它课程的关系: 本课程是一门主干性课程。与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。 五、学时与学分: 学时：72学时 学分：4学分 六、教学内容： 第一章绪论 本章主要教学内容: 1．语言学习的意义 2．语言的定义。 3．语言的定义特征 4．语言的起源。 5．语言的功能。 6．语言学的定义。 7．语言学的核心内容。 8．宏观语言学的定义及分支。
英语语言文学专业基础
英语语言文学专业基础 本科目包括英语语言学基础、英美文学基础知识、英语国家概况、英汉互译四部分内容，总分150分，其中英语语言学基础15分，英美文学基础知识70分，英语国家概况15分，英汉互译50分。 I、英语语言学基础（15分） 一、考试要求和内容 该部分主要考查普通语言学的基本概念和基本理论。 二、考试题型 填空题、选择题、判断题、名词解释题。 三、参考书 《新编简明英语语言学教程》，戴炜栋、何兆熊主编，上海外语教育出版社，2002。 II、英美文学基础知识（70分） 一、考试要求 本部分考试旨在考查考生对有关英美文学的基本概念、主要流派、基础知识的理解和掌握情况，以及运用所学的基础理论知识分析、评论简单的文学文本。 二、考试内容 1、英国文学部分 1）古英语诗歌的形成、发展及主要文本。 2）英国中世纪文学的形成和发展、主要诗人及其作品。 3）英国文艺复兴时期的文学：“文艺复兴”产生的历史背景、定义及其主要特征、对英国文学的影响、主要作家及其作品。 4）新古典主义时期（十八世纪）英国文学：启蒙运动形成的原因、启蒙运动的定义、特征及其对英国文学的影响、这一时期主要的作家及其作品。 5）浪漫主义时期（十九世纪早期）英国文学：英国浪漫主义文学形成的历史背景、浪漫主义诗歌的主要作家及其作品、浪漫主义小说的主要作家及其作家品、浪漫主义散文的主要作家及其作品。 6）维多利亚时期（十九世纪中后期）英国文学：英国现实主义文学形成发展的历史背景、这一时期主要的作家及其作品。 7）现代时期（二十世纪）英国文学：英国现代主义文学形成的历史背景、现代主义文学的主要流派、这一时期主要作家及其作品。 2、美国文学部分 1）早期的美国文学：清教主义文学形成与发展、早期美国文学的主要作家及其作品。 2）浪漫主义时期的美国文学：早期浪漫主义文学的主要作家及作品、超验主义时期的主要作家几作品、后期浪漫主义文学的主要作家及作品。 3）现实主义时期的美国文学：美国现实主义文学的形成与发展及主要流派、美国现实主义文学与自然主义文学的异同、这一时期主要的作家及作品。 4）现代时期的美国文学：美国现代主义文学的形成与发展及主要流派、战后美国文学的形成与发展、现代时期美国文学的主要作家及作品。 三、考试题型 填空题、单项选择题、匹配题、名词解释题、文本分析题。 四、参考书 《英国文学简史》（新增订本），刘炳善，河南人民出版社，2007； 《美国文学简史》（第2版），常耀信，南开大学出版社，2003 III、英语国家概况（15分） 一、考试要求 本部分考试旨在考查考生对英美国家的地理、历史、政治、文化、社会习俗、宗教群体、价值观念以及该国人民的思想态度和生活方式的掌握情况。 二、考试题型 填空题、判断题、名词解释题。 三、参考书 《英美概况》（上、下册），张奎武主编，吉林科学技术出版社，2003 IV、英汉互译（50分）
2016-英语语言学期末试题练习-+答案
英语语言学练习题 Ⅰ. Matching Match each of the following terms in Column A with one of the appropriate definitions in Column B. Column A 1.displacement https://www.360docs.net/doc/3a17610422.html,ngue 3.suprasegmental feature 4.deep structure 5.predication analysis 6.idiolect 7.pidgin 8.mistakes 9.interlanguage 10.motivation 11.arbitrariness https://www.360docs.net/doc/3a17610422.html,petence 13.broad transcription 14.morphology 15.category 16.errors https://www.360docs.net/doc/3a17610422.html,ponential analysis 18.context 19.blending 20.culture 21.learning strategies 22.selectional restrictions 23.phrase structure rules 24.culture diffusion Column B A.Learners’ independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language. 9 B.Learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive, having a strong impact on his efforts n learning a second language. 21 C.The rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories. 23 D.Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B. 24 E. A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. 6 F. A special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. 7 G.The kind of analysis which involves the breaking down of predications into their constituents- ---- arguments and predicates. 5 H.They refer to constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 22 I.The structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties. 4 J.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. 3 K.The study of the internal structure of words, and the rules that govern the rule of word formation. 14 L.The abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 2 https://www.360docs.net/doc/3a17610422.html,nguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. It is one of the distinctive features of human language. 1 N.Learner’s conscious, goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency. 10 O.The total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. 20 P.The common knowledge shared by both the speaker and hearer. 18
《英语语言学》答案完整版
《英语语言学概论》答案完整版 考核方法：闭卷考试 时间：100分钟 题型： I. 单项选择(15×1?=15?) II．判断(15×1?=15?) III．填空(10×1?=10?) IV．术语解释(5×2? =10?) V．简答题(4×5? =20?) VI. 分析题（30’） 重点掌握的术语： 1. Linguistics语言学 The study of the nature, structure, and variation of language, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. 2. design features设计特点 They are a series of features which are uniquely a part of human language and unlikely to be found in the communication system of other creatures. They are displacement, productivity, cultural transmission, arbitrariness, discreteness and duality. 3. Displacement移位 Language can be used to refer to things which are in the past, present or future, real or imagined,or in far-away places. 4. Duality二元性 It is generally the case that language is organized at two levels or layers which is known as the physical level and meaningful level simultaneously. 5. Arbitrariness任意性 It is generally the case that there is no …natural? connection between a linguistic form and its meaning. 6. Manner of articulation发音方法 It is the case that we describe the consonant sounds in terms of how they are articulated. 7. Place of articulation发音部位 It focuses on describing consonant sounds in terms of where they are articulated. 8. articulatory phonetics发音语言学 The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds is called phonetics. And the study of how speech sounds are made, or …articulated? is articulatory phonetics. 9. Phonology音系学 The description of the systems and patterns of the speech sounds in a language. 10. Assimilation同化 It is the process when two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or …copied? by the other. For example, the word …can? in the sentence …I can go.?may pronounce as [k??] instead of [k?n] because of the influence of the following sound [g]. 11. Back-formation逆构法，逆序构词 A word of one type is reduced to form another word of different type. For example, the word …donation? first came into use and then the verb …donate? was created from it.
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结.docx
英语语言学 一、名词解释 第一课 l.Synchronic 共时性：Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “poinL in timeA A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind? 2>Langue 语言：The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community? 3>Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. ^Arbitrariness 任意性：One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课 1.Phoneme 音位：Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning? The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 2
英语语言学概论--整理
Chapter 1 Language语言 1.Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 2.Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language. 3.arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. 4.symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention. 5.discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct. 6.displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users. 7.duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure. 8.culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance. 9.interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 1.★What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language. First, language is a system. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense. The third feature of language is symbolic nature. 2.★What are the design features of language? Language has seven design features as following: 1) Productivity. 2) Discreteness. 3) Displacement 4) Arbitrariness. 5) Cultural transmission 6) Duality of structure. 7) Interchangeability. 3.Why do we say language is a system? Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other. 4.★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language? I.Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language: 1) Instrumental function. 工具功能 2) Regulatory function. 调节功能 3) Representational function. 表现功能 4) Interactional function. 互动功能 5) Personal function. 自指性功能 6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h] 7) Imaginative function. 想象功能 II.Adult language has three functional components as following: 1) Interpersonal components. 人际 2) Ideational components.概念 3) Textual components.语篇
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《英语常用学术词汇表》是由一些应用语言学家统计出来，最常用的有570个词目(headwords)，每一个词目下面还列出了该词目的相关变化形式。其中斜体字，analysis，在学术英语中最为常见。 Sublist 1 of the Academic Word List analyse analysed analyser analysers analyses analysing analysis analyst analysts analytic analytical analytically analyze analyzed analyzes analyzing economy economic economical economically economics economies economist economists uneconomical environment environmental environmentalist environmentalists environmentally environments establish legislate legislated legislates legislating legislation legislative legislator legislators legislature major majorities majority method methodical methodological methodologies
approach approachable approached approaches approaching unapproachable area areas assess assessable assessed assesses assessing assessment assessments reassess reassessed reassessing reassessment unassessed assume assumed assumes disestablish disestablished disestablishes disestablishing disestablishment established establishes establishing establishment establishments estimate estimated estimates estimating estimation estimations over-estimate overestimate overestimated overestimates overestimating underestimate underestimated methodology methods occur occurred occurrence occurrences occurring occurs reoccur reoccurred reoccurring reoccurs percent percentage percentages period periodic periodical periodically periodicals periods policy policies
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英语语言学期末考试试卷 第一部分选择题 I.Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets. (2%X10=20%) 1. Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, but they differ in that ____________. A. Saussure took a sociological view of language while Chomsky took a psychological point of view B. Saussure took a psychological view of language while Chomsky took a sociological point of view C. Saussure took a pragmatic view of language while Chomsky took a semantic point of view D. Saussure took a structural view of language while Chomsky took a pragmatic point of view 2. Language is a system of ____________ vocal symbols used for human communication. A. unnatural B. artificial C. superficial D. arbitrary 3. We are born with the ability to acquire language, _______________. A. and the details of any language system are genetically transmitted B. therefore, we needn’t learn the details of our mother tongue C. but the details of language have to be learnt. D. and the details are acquired by instinct 4. A(n)________ is a phonological unit of distinctive value. It is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. A. phone B. allophone C. phoneme D. sound 5. The morpheme –ed in the word “worked” is a(n) __________ morpheme. A. derivational B. inflectional C. free D. word-forming 6. WH-movement is __________ in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative. A. obligatory B. optional C. selectional D. arbitrary 7. Naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, was proposed by _________. A. Grice B. Plato C. Saussure D. Ogden and Richards 8. “John married a blond heiress.”__________ “John married a blond.” A. is synonymous with B. is inconsistent with C. entails D. presupposes 9. In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called _______, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A. utterance B. reference C. predication D. morpheme 10. In Austin’s speech act theory, ___________ is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A. a perlocutionary act B. a locutionary act
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1. 英语语言研究参考书目 语言学 牛津语言学入门丛书上海外语教育出版社 Linguistics H.G. Widdowson Second Language Acquisition Rod Ellis Language and Culture Claire Kramsch Psychololinguistics Thomas Scovel Sociolinguistics Bernard Spolsky Pragmatics George Yule 程雨民《语言系统及其运作》，上海外语教育出版社，1997。 程雨民《英语语体学》，上海外语教育出版社，1989。 桂诗春《应用语言学》，湖南教育出版社，1988。 桂诗春《心理语言学》，上海外语教育出版社，1985。 桂诗春、宁春岩主编《语言学方法论》，外语教学与研究出版社，1997。何自然《语用学概论》，湖南教育出版社，1998. 《语用学与英语学习》，何自然，上海外语教育出版社，1997 《语篇分析概要》，黄国文，湖南教育出版社，1988 《语言学入门》，刘润清等，人民教育出版社，1990 刘辰诞《教学篇章语言学》，上海外语教育出版社，1999。 刘润清《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社，1995。 戚雨村《语言学引论》，上海外语教育出版社，1985。 戚雨村《现代语言学的特点和发展趋势》，上海外语教育出版社，1997。秦秀白《文体学概论》，湖南教育出版社，1988. 赵世开《美国语言学简史》上海外语教育出版社，1989。 王德春《语言学概论》，上海外语教育出版社，1997。 王钢《普通语言学基础》，湖南教育出版社，1988。
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结.doc
英语语言学一、名词解释 第一课 共时性 : Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical“point\A kind”inoftimedescription. which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. 语言 : The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. 任意性 : One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课 音位 : Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 音位变体 : The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. pair 最小对立体 : When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 第三课 形态学 : Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed . morphemes派生词素: Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words are ca lled morphemes 曲折词素 : Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. 第四课 语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. categories 句法范畴 : Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories. structure 深层结构 : Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ s subcategorizationrties,iscalledprope deep structure or D- structure. structure 表层结构 : Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure. 第五课 指称 : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 同音异义 : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, . different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 上下义关系 : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 第六课 语用学 : Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 话语 : a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication. meaning 话语意义 : Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. act 言外行为 : An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker it is the’acts performedintention; in saying something.