最新英语语言学期末考试重点
英语语言学概论期末复习【通用】.docx
第一章绪论1.1什么是语言1.2语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。
（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。
这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。
1.3语言的起源1.4语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。
将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。
法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。
汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。
1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。
汉语是典型的孤立语。
（2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。
在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。
日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。
（3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。
英语是不太典型的屈折语。
（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。
因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。
根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等1.5语言的功能1.5.1 一般功能1.5.2元功能（metafunction）1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）1.7语言学中的重要区分（1）语言（langue）和言语（parole/langage）索绪尔对语言和言语作出了区分。
语言学概论期末考试范围
语言学概论期末考试范围语言学概论期末复习1. diachronic linguisticsLinguistics that studies language over a period of time, also known as historical linguistics, study of the Chinese language since the end of the Qing dynasty up to the present.2. arbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary for the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning. The link between the linguistic signs and their meanings is a matter of convention, and conventions differ radically across languages.3. langueAccording to Saussure, langue refers to the abstract linguistic systems shared by all the members of a speech community. It can be thought of as the generalized rules of the language that members of a speech community seem to abide by.4. competenceChomsky defines competence as the abst ract ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. According to him, anyone who knows a language has internalized a set of rules about the sequences permitted in his language. This internalized set of rules is termed as a person’s competence.5. morphemeThe most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme. The “morpheme’ is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which can not be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.6. MorphologyMorphology studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they combine in word formation. So it refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed7. Semantic triangleAccording to Ogden an d Richard’s semantic triangle, there is no direct link between language and the world, or between the symbol ( the linguistic elements, the word, the sentence) and referent ( the object in the world of experience). The link is via thought or reference, the concepts of our minds.8. Lingua francaLingua franca is the general term for a language that serves as a means of communication between different groups of speakers.9. componential analysisComponential analysis is a way to analyze lexical meaning, and it defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.10. Cooperative PrincipleCooperative Principle (CP) was proposed by Paul Grice, under which there are four maxims: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner. It means in communication, both parties involved will normally seek to cooperate with each other to establish agreed meaning.11. acquisitionThe term “acquisition” is used to refer to picking up a language through exposure. It refers to the subconscious or conscious processes. It is learned in a natural or a tutored settings.12. interlanguageIt refers to the learner’s independent system of th e secondlanguage which is neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from native language to the target language.I.Students should be able to answer the following questions:1) Explain the three kinds of intersentential sematic relations: entailment, presupposition and implicature.Entailment is a relation of inclusion , If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.. X: I have been to Shanghai. Y: I have been to Chinaif x is true, then y is also true, If Y is false, then X is also X entails Y.X presupposes Y. ( Y is a pre-requisite of X).X: John’s brother has got married. Y: John has a brother.Implicature: The speaker may use implied meaning but not the literal meaning.2)According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performingwhile making an utterance Give an example.According to Austin, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking. They are locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act. For example: You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of all the words. “you” , “have”, “door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by ,asking such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, that is , asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance .If the then hearer g ets the speaker’s message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, then the speaker goes to close the door for the speaker.3) What are the major differences between acquisition and language learningRod (1985) and Krashen (1981) regard acquisition as the spontaneous internalization of rules and formulas. The term acquisition is often used to refer to first language acquisition and second language acquisition. First language acquisition is also called mother tongue acquisition.Acquisition takes place in the speech community where one's first language or second language is spoken. It is often natural, without much focus on form. Thelearning of English by speakers of other languages in the United States is an example of second language acquisition.Foreign language learning usually takes place in the speech community where one's first language is spoken. It is a conscious process through formal school-like settings and requires time for processing, with focus on linguistic form in addition to knowledge of the rules of language use. For example, the learning of English in China.4) What are the similarities and differences between Semantics and Pragmatics Semantics focuses on the meaning that comes from linguistic knowledge without considering the context. Pragmatics studies the meaning in a certain context taking our knowledge about the physical and social world into account. Semantic analysis look for rules which are black and white, . you are either right or wrong. Pragmatic analysis look for principles. You can obey them to some extent and violate them to some extent.5) Why do we say Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication Explain it in details.a. Language is systematic. Language must be a system since elements in the language are arranged according to certain rules. Each human language is organized into two basic systems: a system of sounds and a system of meanings.b. Language is symbolic. People use signs to communicate, which means that language involves signs.c. Language is arbitrary. Language is arbitrary for the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning.d. Language is primarily vocal. Language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed their writing systems.e. Language is human specific. There are certain characteristics of human language that are not found in the communication systems of any other species.f. Language is used for communication.6) What is the Sapir –Whorf hypothesisThe hypothesis assumes that people’s habitual thoug ht patterns and ways of perceiving the world are conditioned to a certain extent by the categories and distinctions that are available to them in their native language. Speakers of different languages may therefore have rather different world-views, depending on how different the languages are from one another semantically and grammatically. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis can be broken down into two basic principles: Linguistic Determinism and Linguistic Relativity.II.Students should be able to draw the tree diagrams for common simple sentences and complex sentences.III.Students should be able to analyze the formation of words.IV.Students should be able to identify errors in given sentences and be able to explain the causes for errors.1. He speaked to T om yesterday.This intralingual error is due to the overgeneralization of the rule about the English v erb’s past tense form.2. There were some people came to watch the football match.The relative pronoun at the beginning of the attributive clause is missing. The learner has made an inter-lingual error because of the influence of his mother tongue, that is the Chinese grammatical pattern.3. They are loving basketball very much.This sentence should be corrected as: They love basketball very much. The learner has made an intra-lingual error caused by the over-generation of the target language grammatical rule. The learner failed to realize that in English some verbs never appear in the continuous tense including the verb: love.。
语言学期末复习资料整理版
语言学期末复习资料整理版Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
英语语言学期末复习
Chapter5Semantics1. Definition1.命名论The naming theoryProposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.(缺点：仅限于名词)2.意念论The conceptualist view Ogden and RichardsIt holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, intheinterpretationof meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3.语境论ConceptualismIt’sbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaning fromorreducemea ningtoobservablecontexts.Herearetwokindsofcontext:thesituationalandt helinguisticcontext.4.行为主义论BehaviorismIt refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. This theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.2.Lexicalmeaning:Sense:itisconcernedwithinherentmeaningoflinguisticform;itisthecollectionofallfeaturesoflinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized. Reference:itmeansthelinguisticformreferstothereal,physicalworld.Itdeals withtherelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticwo rldofexperience.3. Main sense relations1.同义词Synonymy Itreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningorwecansaythatwordsa recloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.(1)Dialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects（方言）British Americaautumnfallflatapartment(2)Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style（文体）Old man daddy father male parent(3)Synonyms that different intheiremotive or evaluative meaning（情感）Collaborator VS Accomplice(4)Collocational synonyms（搭配）Accuse VS Charge（accuse…of; charge…with）Rotten tomatoes VS Addled eggs(5)Semantically different synonyms（语义）AmazeVSAstoundItreferstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilar meaning;thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Ball:1. anroundobjectusedingame.2.alargeformalsocialeventatwhichpeopledance.3.同音(形)异义HomonymyIt refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.1). Homophones同音异义It refers to two words are identical in sound. E.g. rain/reign.2).Homographs同形异义It refers to two words are identical in form.E.g. tear v. /tear n.3). Complete homonyms同形同音Itreferstowordsthatarebothidenticalinsoundandspelling.E.g.tearv./tearn.4.上下义关系HyponymyItreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusive wordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningis calledsuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms. Superordinate:animalSubordinate:cat,dog,tiger,lion,wolf,elephant,fox,bear,It is the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.a) gradable:等级反义词old-youngb) complementary：互补反义词male-femalec) relational:关系反义词father-son buy-sell4.Sentencesenserelations:1）.X is synonymous with Y（同义）E.g. He is a bachelor all his life.He never married all his life.2）. X is inconsistent with Y（不一致/反义）E.g. John is marriedJohn is a bachelor.3）.X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X)（包含于）E.g. He has been to France.He has been to Europe.4）. X presuppose Y（Y是X的先决条件）E.g.John’s bike needs repairing.John has a bike.5）. X is a contradiction（X是一个矛盾句）E.g. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.6). X is semantically anomalous.（语义异常）E.g. The table has bad intensions.5.Analysisofmeaning1. Componential Analysis成分分析法----分析词汇抽象意义It’s awayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmea ning.Thisapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatmeaningofawordcanbedis sectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.E.g.Man=Adult+Male+Animate+Human2. Predication Analysis述谓结构分析(由British Linguist G.Leech提出)It’s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands etc.(通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种.)3.先设前提PresuppositionIt’s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B.4.蕴涵EntailmentEntailmentcanbeillustratedbythefollowingtwosentencesinwhichsent enceAentailssentenceB.A:Markmarriedablondeheiress.B:Markmarriedablonde.第6章pragmatics本章要点：1.speech act theory言语行为的理论2. cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则3.Grice an theory of conventional implicature格莱斯会话含义理论本章考点：语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（发话行为、行事行为和取效行为）；合作原则。
语言学期末考试重点
What is language?“ Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.”System: linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly.Arbitrary: e.g. bookSymbolic: people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.V ocal: language is primarily vocal, rather than writtenHuman-specific:Design features of language语言的本质特征Arbitrariness （任意性）Saussure: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪”in Chinese. Onomatopoeia: words that sound like the sounds they describeDuality （二重性）Language consists of two levels of structures. The lower (secondary) level is a definite set of meaningless sounds which combine to form meaningful units (morphemes, words, such as he, left) which constitute a higher (primary) level.Productivity or Creativity （创造性）Because of duality the human speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before.Displacement（移位性）One can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future.Our language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist.e.g. A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days.Cultural transmission（文化传递性）Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity.e.g. a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system.e.g. a Chinese baby born and brought up in Londonan English child brought up in BeijingInterchangeability（互换性）It refers to that man can both produce and receive message.One can be a speaker or a hearerSpecialization （专门性）It refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communicationFunction of language(语言功能)Phatic function/communion（寒暄功能）Language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact between the speaker and the hearer.e.g. Greetings, farewell and commentsDirective function （指令功能Language is used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences are of this function.e.g. open the doorInformative function（信息功能）Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out.Declarative sentences:e.g. I saw her yesterday on the streetInterrogative function （疑问功能）Language is used to ask for information from others.All questions expecting replies serve this function.e.g. what’s your name?what time is it now?Expressive function（表达功能）Language is used to reveal the speaker’s attitudes and feelings.e.g. Oh, my God!Evocative function（唤起功能）Language is used to create certain feelings in the hearers.e.g. Jokes, advertising, and propagandaPerfomative function（施为功能）Language is used to do things or to perform acts.e.g. I now pronounce you husband and wife.Descriptive and prescriptive grammars （描写式和规定式语法）Descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language.As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. Most modern linguistics is descriptive.e.g. A: who is that?B: It’s me. / It’s I.Synchronic and diachronic linguistics （共时与历时语言学）When we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics.Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.Langue and parole （语言与言语F. de Saussure make an important distinction between langue and parole.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue.Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech.Competence and performance （语言能力和语言应用）According to Chomsky, competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations, while performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is, the actual use of this knowledge.Chapter 2 The Sounds of LanguagePhoneticsThe study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages is called phonetics. The study of sounds can be divided into three main areas: Articulatory Phonetics; Acoustic Phonetics; Perceptual or Auditory PhoneticsClassification of English speech soundsSpeech sounds of all languages are broadly classified into vowels and consonants.V owels: there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips.Consonants: we are making it difficult or impossible for the air to pass through the mouth.ConsonantsEnglish consonant can be classified according to the manner of articulation and the place of articulation.The manner of articulation: it refers to the type of stricture involved in the production of a consonant (the particular way the airstream is obstructed).The place of articulation: it refers to the involvement of the articulators in the production of a particular consonant (where the airstream is most obstructed).The manner of articulationPlosives /stops (爆破音)——/p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/Fricatives （摩擦音）——/f/, /v/, /s/, /z/, /θ/, /ð/, /∫/, /ʒ/, /h/Affricates (破擦音) —— /t∫/, /dʒ/Liquids （流音）——/l/, /r/Nasals （鼻音）——/m/, /n/, /ŋ/Glides (median approximants) （滑音）——/j/, /w/The place of articulationBilabials （双唇音）: /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/ Labiodentals （唇齿音）: /f/, /v/Dentals （齿音）: /θ/, /ð/Alveolars （齿龈音）:/t/, /d/, /n/, /s/, /z/, /r/, /l/Palatals （上颚音）: /j/, /∫/, /ʒ/, /dʒ/, /t∫/Velars （软腭音）: /k/, /g/, /ŋ/Glottal （声门音，喉音）: /h/Phonology （音系学/音位学）Phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.Minimal pairs 最小对立体Minimal pairs: are pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound (occurs in the same place).Minimal sets 最小对立体集Minimal sets: when a group of words can be differentiated each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then we have a minimal set.On the vowel phonemese.g. feat, fit, fate, fat, fought, footOn the consonantse.g. big, pig, rig, fig, dig, wigSuprasegmentals （超语段音位学）Suprasegmental features refers to the phonemic features that occur above the level of sound segment. The major suprasegmental features in english include word stress, sentence stress, tone, and intonation. STRESS TONE INTONATION。
英语语言学概论期末复习
英语语言学概论期末复习English Linguistics Overview Final ReviewIntroduction:1. Phonetics:Phonetics deals with the physical sounds of human speech. It examines speech sounds, their production, transmission, and perception. It includes articulatory phonetics (how sounds are produced), acoustic phonetics (how sounds are transmitted), and auditory phonetics (how sounds are perceived).2. Phonology:Phonology focuses on the systematic organization of sounds in a particular language. It studies phonemes—the smallest unit of sound that can distinguish meaning—and phonological rules, which determine how sounds interact in a language. It also explores the distribution of sounds, syllable structures, and phonological processes like assimilation and vowel harmony.3. Morphology:4. Syntax:Syntax explores the structure of sentences and the rulesthat govern their formation. It analyzes the arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses to create well-formed sentences.Syntax also investigates sentence constituents, grammatical relations, word order, and sentence types.5. Semantics:6. Pragmatics:7. Sociolinguistics:Sociolinguistics explores the relationship between language and society. It investigates how language varies and changes based on social factors such as gender, age, social class, and geographical location. Sociolinguistics also examines language attitudes, language variation, language contact, and dialectology.8. Psycholinguistics:Conclusion:。
英语语言学概论期末复习
英语语言学概论期末复习第一章绪论1.1什么是语言语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。
（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。
这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。
语言的起源语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。
将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。
法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。
汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。
1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。
汉语是典型的孤立语。
（2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。
在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。
日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。
（3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。
英语是不太典型的屈折语。
（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。
因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。
根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等语言的功能1.5.1 一般功能1.5.2元功能（metafunction）什么是语言学（linguistics）语言学中的重要区分（1）语言（langue）和言语（parole/langage）索绪尔对语言和言语作出了区分。
语言学考试要点考试重点
语言学考试要点考试重点Pleasure Group Office【T985AB-B866SYT-B182C-BS682T-STT18】Chapter 1 Introduction1.What is linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study oflanguage.2.The scope of linguistics:(1 ). phonetics 语音学；phonology 音位学；morphology 形态学；syntax 句法学；pragmatics 语用学(2). sociolinguistics 社会语言学；psycholinguistics 心理语言学；applied linguistics应用语言学3.Some important distinction in linguistics(1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性与规定性①If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use,it is said to be descriptive;②If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for” correct and standard” behaviorin using language, . to tell people what they should say and what they should notsay, it is said to be prescriptive.(2)Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性①A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but notnecessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammarsare of this kind.②Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.(2)L angue & parole 语言与会话①Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all themembers of a speech community.②Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.(4)Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用①A language user's unconscious knowledge about the system of rules iscalled his linguistic competence.②Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.(5)speech and writing 语言与文字Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.(6)traditional grammar and modern linguistic 传统语法与现代语言学4.Definition of language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system, ., elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistics symbol and what the symbol stands.Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.5.Design features of language6.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性 refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationshipto their meaning. (sounds and meanings)(2) Productivity(creativity)能产性Language is productive in that it makes possible theconstruction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) duality双重性The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of theprimary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(4) displacement移位性 Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, eventsand concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.(5)cultural transmission 文化传承性7.Functions of language(1) referential (to convey message and information),(2) poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),(4) conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),(5) phatic (to establish communion with others)(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).① Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)② Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex,language, background, accent, status)③ Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions.(name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establisha comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factualcontent. (health, weather)⑥ Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.8.9.Chapter 2 Phonology1.Phonetics（语音学） is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with allthe sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Phonetics studies how speech sounds areproduced, transmitted, and perceived.2.Orthographic representation of speech sounds：broad transcription（宽式标音）and narrow transcription（严式标音）A broad transcription（宽式标音）is the transcription with letter-symbols only.A narrow transcription（严式标音）is a transcription with letter symbols together withdiacritics.3.Phonology（音位学）is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.4.The differences between phonetics and phonology:（语音的正字表征）①Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But theydiffer in their approach and focus.②Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all humanlanguages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.③Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.5.Phone（音素）, phoneme（音位）, allophone（音位变体）A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce duringlinguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not aparticular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context6.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.（音位对立，互补分布，最小对立体）7.Some rules of phonology（音位学规则）Sequential rules 序列规则Assimilation rule 同化规则Deletion rule省略规则8.Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）：stress重音，tone音调，intonation语调9.10.Chapter 3 Morphology1.Classification of words（1）Variable vs. invariable words:可变词类和不可变词类Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, matsInvariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.（2） Grammatical words vs. lexical words:语法词类和词汇词类Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronounsLexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.（3）Closed-class words vs. open-class words:封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbsGrammatical---lexical words closed-class---open-class words2.Morphere(词素)： the minimal meaningful unit of language.3.Linguistics use the term morphology to refer the part of the grammar that is concerned withword formation and word structure.4.Free morpheme & bound morpheme(自由语素和黏着语素)A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme; a morpheme thatmust be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.5.The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.(词素变体)6.Inflectional affix & derivational affix(屈折词缀和派生词缀)pound: those words that consist of more than one free morphemes, the way to join twoseparate words to produce a single form.In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.pounds can be further divided into two kinds:the endocentric compound (向心复合词) the exocentric compound(离心复合词)9.Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg self-control:a kind of control armchair: a kind of chair10.Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, eg scarecrow:not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neck11.Chapter 4 Syntax1.What is Syntax （句法）Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences. 句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2.Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:relations of position 位置关系relations of substitutability 替代关系relations of co-occurrence 同现关系3.4.5.Chapter 5 Semantics1. What is SemanticsSemantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2.The conceptualist view①The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form andwhat it refers to . between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.②This is illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested byOgden and Richard.Thought/reference/conceptSymbol/form referencentword/phrase/sentence③The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words and phrases);Thereferent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with theform of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from thispoint of view is the meaning of the word.3.The contextualismMeaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linkedwith language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:Situational context: spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.4.BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it andthe response it calls forth in the hearer”.5.Lexical meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are tworelated but different aspects of meaning.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection ofall the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect ofmeaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with therelationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.6.Major sense relations（1）Synonymy 同义词①Dialect synonymy 方言同义词②Stylistic synonymy 文体同义词③Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning④Collocational synonyms⑤Semantically different synonyms（2）Antonym 反义词①Gradable antonyms 等级反义词②Complementary antonyms 互补反义词③Relational opposites 关系反义词（3）Polysemy 一词多义（4）Homonymy 同形异义词（5）Hyponymy 上下义关系①Superordinate 上义词②Hyponyms下义词ponential analysis 成分分析法——a way of analyze lexical meaningIt is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The approachis based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components,called semantic features.8.。
英语语言学期末复习考点
1. Define the following terms.1）structureIt consists of the way in which the words are organized into phrases and the phrases are organized into larger phrases.2）grammarIt is the process of describing the structure of phrases and sentences in such a way that we account for all the grammatical sequences in a language and rule out all the ungrammatical sequences; or can be defined as the study of phrases and sentences structure.3）structural ambiguityIt happens when two distinct underlying interpretations are represented differently in deep structure. There are two different underlying structures with the same surface structure.4）deep structureIt is an abstract level of structural organization in which all the elements determining structural interpretation are represented.5）SyntaxIt deals with how sentences are constructed with words.2. Draw the phrase structure tree for the sentence "Bill ran to the park slowly."Bill ran to the park slowly.3. Draw two different phrase structure trees to illustrate the ambiguity involved in the sentence" I once shot an elephant in my pajamas.” Under each tree write the way to understand the sentence embodied by the tree.I once shot an elephant in my pajamas.I once shot an elephant, and the elephant was in my pajamas.I once shot an elephant in my pajamas.I once shot an elephant when I was wearing my pajamas.4. Draw two different phrase structure trees to illustrate the ambiguity involved in "tall boys and girls." Under each tree write the way to understand the phrase embodied by the tree.tall boys and girls.Both boys and girls are tall.tall boys and girls.Only the boys are tall.5. Define the following terms.1) semanticsSemantics is the study of meaning in human language.2) lexical gapLexical gap is the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic field of a language. 3) semantic rolesSemantic role is a way of categorizing the relation between a sentence’s parts and the event that it describes. to categorize the relation between a sentence’s parts and the event that it describes.6. Define the approaches to meaning and state their problems.1) meaning as naming:the meaning of an expression is what it refers to.Problem: it is not always immediately clear what is being named. What do conjunctions like but and and refer to? What do prepositions like for and to stand for? What do we say about names for imaginary objects or actions? The concert word tree can stand for a particular tree or any tree or all trees in the world.2) meaning as concept:expressions mean the concept or idea associated with them. Any particular sound image is psychologically associated with a particular concept.Prob: To state that meaning is a concept does not overcome all the problems that the naming theory has. We can still ask what are the concepts that and or but stand for?3) meaning as behaviour:a STIMULUS (S) produced a linguistic response (r), which works as a stimulus (s), and results in a non-linguistic response (R). The meaning of a linguistic form is defined as observable behaviours.Prob: Since the practical stimulus S is not always obvious, so how do we identify it?4) meaning as context:meaning is found in the context within which a particular expression is uttered. It suggests thatwe can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, the observable context.Prob: What are we actually observing in a context?5) meaning as truth conditions:the sense of a declarative sentence permits you to know under what circumstances a sentence is true. Those circumstances are called “truth conditions” of the sentence. The truth conditions of a declarative sentence are the same as the sense of the sentence. Knowing the meaning of a sentence is the same as knowing the conditions under which the sentence is true or false.Prob: This approach limits semantics to being concerned principally about meaning in relation to truth and falsehood. How can we discuss the meaning of interrogatives and imperatives?7. Define the seven types of meaning with one example for each.1) Conceptual meaning:what words denote or refer to.It can be studied in terms of contrastive features or binary feature format.e.g. man: [ +HUMAN +ADULT +MALE] woman: [+HUMAN +ADULT +FEMALE]2) Connotative meaning:the communicative value that a word or a combination of words has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual meaning.e.g. dragon in Western countries means an evil monster, but in China it refers to an auspicious animal.3)Social meaning:the meaning which an expression conveys about the contexts or social circumstances of its use.e.g. larceny, used in court of law, is of French origin; theft, used in informal settings, is of Anglo-Saxon origin. There is no real difference in conceptual meaning. The differences have to do with levels of formality.4) Affective meaning:the level of meaning that conveys the language user’s feeling, including his attitude or evaluation in shaping his use of language.e.g. statesman indicates a wise and respected political leader, while politician refers to someone who is good at taking advantage of different conditions in an organization.5) Reflective meaning:the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word forms parts of our response to another sense.e.g. nuclear family6) Collocative meaning:the associations a word gets because of the meanings which tend to occur in its linguistics context.e.g. clear could mean free from complications (as in a clear case), free from guilt (as in a clear conscience) or clear from clouds (as in a clear sky).7) Thematic meaning:meaning that arises out of the way in which the writer or speaker organizes his message.e.g. an active sentence has a different meaning from its passive equivalent although in conceptual meaning they seem to be the same.8. What are the differences between less marked and more marked terms in the same semantic field?1) The less marked members of a semantic field will usually be easier to learn and remember than more marked members.2) A less marked word consists of only one morpheme, in contrast to more marked words.3) The less marked member of a semantic field cannot be described by using the name of another member of the same set, while more marked members can be thus described.4) Less marked terms tend to be used more frequently than more marked terms.5) Less marked terms are broader in meaning than more marked terms.6) Less marked words are not the result of the metaphorical usage of the name of another object or concept, whereas more marked words often are.9. Use contrastive features to illustrate the conceptual meanings of the words "boy","girl", "mare" and "stallion".boy: [+HUMAN -ADULT +MALE]girl: [+HUMAN -ADULT +FEMALE]mare: [+ANIMAL +HORSE -MALE +ADULT]stallion: [+ANIMAL +HORSE +MALE +ADULT]10. Identify the difference between homonymy and polysemy. Make sure you include examples.HOMONYMY is words that have the same linguistic forms but are different in meaning, e.g. bank (of a river)- bank (financial institution); while POL YSEMY is one world which has two or more meanings that are related conceptually or historically, e.g. foot.11. Identify the difference between hyponymy and meronymy. Make sure you include examples.HYPONYMY is when a word is a member of the denotation of another word, e.g. Potato is a hyponym of vegetable ; while MERONYMY is when a word is a part of the denotation of another word, e.g. wheel, door, window, etc. are all meronyms of car.12. Define semantic roles with one example for each.1)Agent:the responsible initiator of an action; the entity that performs an actione.g. David washed the dishes.2) Patient:the entity that undergoes a certain change of state; the entity that undergoes the effect of some action.e.g. The sun melted the ice.3) Experiencer:the entity that experiences a physical or mental sensation; the one that receives a sensory input.e.g. John likes blueberry pancakes.4) Instrument:the means by which an action is performed or something comes aboute.g. They signed the treaty with the same pen.5) Cause:any natural force that brings about a change of statee.g. The snow caved in the roof.6) Recipient:the entity that receives a physical objecte.g. He sold me this camera.7) Benefactive:the entity for which an action is performed.e.g. They baked me a cake.8) Locative:the location of an action or state.e.g. The band performed in a park.9) Temporal:the time at which the action or state occurred.e.g. She left home yesterday.13. Define semantic relationships between sentences with one example for each.1) Entailment:when the truth of one sentence guarantees the truth of another sentence. In terms of truth value: when a is true, b is necessarily true; when b is false, a is false; when b is true, a may be true or false.e.g. a: That person is a bachelor.b: That person is a man.2) Presupposition:the assumption or belief implied by the use of a particular word or structure. When a is true, bis necessarily true; when a is false, b is still true; when b is true, a can be either true or false; when b is false, no truth value can be said about a.e.g. a. John’s son is an engineer.b. John has a son.3) Paraphrase:two sentences have the same meaning.e.g. a: I gave the book to John.b: I gave John the book.4) Contradiction:two sentences have contradict meaninge.g. a: Charles is a bachelor.b: Charles is married.5) Implicature:when one sentence can be concluded from another sentencee.g. Speaker 1. I’d like a cup of coffee.Speaker 2: There’s a place around the corner called Joe’s.14. Define the following concepts.Pragmatics is the study of what speakers mean, or “speaker meaning”. It is the study of language in use.Micropragmatics is the study about the mechanisms by which speakers/writers encode their message in skilful ways and how hearers/readers arrive at the intended meaning in spite of the differences between the literal meaning and the intended meaning.e.g. I was waiting for the bus, but he just drove by without stopping.15. Define speech acts and classify.Speech acts: the acts people perform by using language.1) Locutionary act: the act of saying, the literal meaning of the utterance.2) Illocutionary act: the extra meaning of the utterances produced on the basis of its literal meaning.3) Perlocutionary act: the effect of the utterance on the hearer depending on specific circumstances16. Classification of illocutionary acts1) Representatives:speech acts stating that the speaker is committed to the truth of a statement. e.g. statements of fact, assertions, conclusions and descriptions.e.g. The earth is flat.2) Directives:speech acts that the speaker uses to get the hearer to do something. e.g. commands, orders, requests, suggestions, begging and pleading.e.g. Could you le n t me a pen, please?3) Commissives:speech acts that the speaker uses to commit himself to some future action. e.g. promises, threats, refusals and pledges.e.g. I’ll be back.4) Expressives:utterances stating that the speaker expresses an attitude about the situation. e.g. pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy or sorrow.e.g. I’m really sorry.5) Declarations:those utterances that the speaker uses to change a situation.e.g. Jury foreman: We find the defendant guilty.17. Sentence forms & speech act18. Common Speech Acts & its Function19. Indirect speech acts1) QuestionsDirecta: Did John marry Helen?b. I ask you whether or not John married Helen.Indirecta. I don’t know if John married Helen.b. I would like to know if John married Helen.c. Do you know if John married Helen?2) RequestsDirecta: Please take out the garbage.b. I request that you take out the garbage.Indirecta. The garbage isn’t out yet.b. Could you take out the garbage?c. Would you mind taking out the garbage?d. I would like for you to take out the garbage.。
语言学期末复习重点
第七章The essential elements suggested by this framework include 1) speech community(言语社团), 2) situation(场景), event and act, and 3) mnemonic SPEAKING components(交际民族学模式)an important figure in American anthropological linguistics---Benjamin Lee Whorf and his famous hypothesis concerning language, thought, and culture: Sapir-Whorf Hypotheses(萨丕尔-尔夫假说)What this hypothesis suggests is this: Our language helps mould our way of thinking and,Consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’ uniqu e ways of understanding the world.two versions of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis have been developed, a strong version and a weak version. The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis makes, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.The weak version of this hypothesis, however, is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative(相对), rather than categorical(绝对).some social factors that are believed to influence our language behavior in a social context. Among these factors, some major ones include a) class; b) gender; c) age; d) ethnic identity; e) education background; f) occupation; and g) religious belief.社会语言学(the sociolinguistics of language)cross-cultural communication1.When in Rome do as the Romans do 入乡随俗2.Put yourself in other’s shoes 换位思考3.One culture’s meat is another culture’s poison 萝卜青菜各有所爱Honesty and sincerity are key points to mutual understanding第八章If we divide meaning into two major sides: the side more closely related to the words used, the more constant, inherent side of meaning (which is studied under the heading of semantics) and the side more closely related to the context,themore indeterminate side, or something extra (which is studied under the heading of pragmatics)Speech Act Theory is the first major theory in the study of language in use Austin revised the notes and changed the title from Words and Deeds (《言与行》)to How to Do Things with Words(《怎样用词做事》),Austin’s first shot at the theory is the claim that there are two types of sentences: performatives and constatives.Austin argues that sentences like the following do not describe things. They cannot be said to be true or false. The uttering of these sentences is, or is a part of, the doing of an action. So they arc called PERFORMATIVES.Ex. 8-2 said by a chemistry teacher in a demonstration of an experiment is not a performative. It is a description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking.The speaker cannot pour any liquid into a tube by simply uttering these words. He must accompany his words with the actual pouring. Otherwise one can accuse him of making a false statement. Sentences of this type are known as CONSTATIVES.A Theory of the Illocutionary Act 行事行为理论In his(Austin) opinion, there are three senses in which saying something may be understood as doing something. The first sense is an ordinary one(普通意义). That is, when we speak we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning.For example, when somebody says “Morning!”, we can ask a question like “What di d he do?” instead of “What did he say?” And the answer could be that he produced a sound, word or sentence------“Morning!” The act performed in this sense is called a Locutionary Act (发话行为).Within this act, however, Austin suggests that there is another act. In other words, when we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood.In the example of “Morning!” we can say it has the force(语力) of a greeting, or it ought to have been taken as a greeting. This is the second sense in which to say something is to do something, and the act performed is known as an Illocutionary Act(行事行为).The third sense in which to say something can mean to do something concerns the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer.By telling somebody something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer on something, or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce him to do something, etc. Whether or not these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act that the speaker has performed. This act, which is performed through, by means of, a locutionaryact, is called a Perlocutionary Act (取效行为).The second major theory in pragmatics is t he theory of conversational implicature （会话含义理论）, proposed by another Oxford philosopher Herbert Paul Grice. This theory first became known to the public at Harvard in 1967. Part of the lectures was published in 1975 under the title of “Logic and Conversation”, on which we base our present introduction.The Cooperative Principle 合作原则Grice noticed that in daily conversations people do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them. In order to avoid the logical use of implication(蕴含), which we touched on in the section on logical semantics, Grice coined the term implicature(含义)Cooperative Principle, or CP Grice introduced four categories of maxims as follows: QUANTITY 数量QUALITY 质量RELATION 关系MANNER 方式Characteristics of Implicature 含义的特征(1)Calculability 可推导性(2)Cancellability 可取消性(3)Non-detachability 不可分离性(4)Non-conventionality 非常规性Relevance Theory 关联理论This theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperbe r (斯波伯) and Deirdre Wilson (威尔逊) in 1986.The definition of this theory: Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance. 每一个明示交际行动，都传递一种假定：该行动本身具备最佳关联性。
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最新英语语言学期末考试重点1.What is language?2.Design features of language①Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)②Duality（二层性）:③Productivity/creativity(创造性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.④Displacement(移位性):3.Functions of language① Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age，sex，language，background，accent，status)③ Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things，to perform certain actions. (name，promise，apologize，sorry，declare)④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.⑤(寒暄交流⑥ Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics，poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.4. What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.5. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive & prescriptiveSynchronic & diachronicLangue & parole6.Descriptive(描写/述性)—describe and analyze linguistic facts or the language people actually use (modern linguistic)Prescriptive(规定性)—lay down rules for “correct and standard” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar: “never use a double negative”)7.Synchronic study (共时)—description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study (历时)—description of a language as it changes through time (historical development of language over a period of time)第四章1．What is Syntax （句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituentssentences.句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2．Four Approaches :The traditional approach传统语言观(Parts of speech、Syntactic Function 不考、Category范畴、Concord and government一致关系和支配关系)、The structural approach 结构语言观、The generative approach、The functional approach功能语言观3．The traditional grammar regards sentences as a sequence of words ，so it pays great attentionto the study of words ，such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech ，the identification of function of words in terms of subject，predicate ，etc.4. Parts of speechTraditional grammar defines 8 parts of speech: nouns，verbs，pronouns，adjectives，adverbs，prepositions，conjunctions and interjections.5．The term Category范畴in some approaches refers to word classes and functions in its narrow sense，范畴这一术语狭义上是指词类和功能eg. Noun，V erb，Subject，Predicate. More specifically，it refers to the defining properties of these general units:the categories of the noun名词的范畴，include number，gender，case and countability（case）; the categories of the verb动词的范畴: tense，aspect，voice，etc.6．Number is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun名词和不可数名词.Two terms of number in nouns: singular and plural单数和复数Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs7. Gender is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun.In English，the gender distinctions are on the whole natural，determined by the biological gender of the creature.8. Case is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.在词类分析中，格范畴用来辨别句子中词之间的句法关系In English，pronouns have three cases of nominative主格，accusative受格，and genitive与格. Nouns have two of general and genitive所有格In English，the case of noun is realized in three channels:(a) inflection(b) following a preposition(c) word order9. Tense时态: the absolute location of an event or action on time. It is marked by an inflection of the verb. As a result，there are only two tenses recognized now: past and present.Since the future time does not involve any inflection of the verb，we do not refer to a “future tense”，even though in many different ways we can talk about the future.10. Aspect体Perfective（完成体）and Imperfective（进行体）Perfective and Progressive (in English)11. Voice语态: describe the relationship between verb and subjectPassive被动语态and active主动语态12. Concord and government①Concord (一致关系) refers to agreement between words，especially between a verb and the subject of a sentence.②Government (支配关系) is a type of grammatical relationship between two or more elements in a sentence.In traditional grammar，the term government has typically been used to refer to the relationship between verbs and nouns or between prepositions and nouns.13.The Structural Approach ，由Ferdinand de Saussure提出14.Syntactic Relations：Positional relations位置关系、Relations of substitutability替代关系、Relations of co-occurrence同现关系15.Immediate constituent (直接成分) is any meaningful constituent at the first step in an analysis.16.An endocentric construction(向心结构) is a construction that contains:1) a head，which is the single obligatory element in the construction;2) one or more optional elements subordinate to the head.17.them e(主位) refers to the known information which is not new to the reader or listener Rheme (述位) refers to the information that is new. The new information is what is to be transmitted to the reader or listenerThe linguists of the Prague school believed that sentence may be analyzed from the functional side as well as the grammatical side.subject，predicate (grammatical side)theme，rheme (functional side)第五章1. What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words，phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2．Geoffrey Leech利奇Seven types of meaning7种意义类型:①Conceptual meaning概念意义②Connotative meaning内涵意义③Social meaning社会意义④Affective meaning 感情意义Associative Meaning联想意义（②——⑥）⑤Reflected meaning反射意义⑥Collocative meaning搭配意义⑦Thematic meaning主位意义3.Conceptual meaning(概念意义) is also called “denotative”（外延义）and it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary.4.Associative meaning (联想意义) is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the wordAssociative meaning is the meaning which a word suggests or implies.5.Thematic meaning (主位意义) is “.”它是由词序和词语重音所决定的6. The Referential Theory（指称理论）：① The Referential Theory② The Semantic Triangle③ Sense and Reference7.The referential theory指称理论is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论8. The semantic triangle语意三角is the indirect relation between a word and a thing it refers to and it is mediated by concept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的9.Sense (涵义) is a set of properties possessed by a name.10.Reference (指称) is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object.11. The sense of an expression is the thought it expresses，while its reference is the object it representsEvery word has a sense，but not every word has a reference.12. Sense Relations涵义关系①Synonymy（同义关系）②Antonymy（反义关系）（Gradable、、Converse）③Hyponymy（上下义关系）13.But total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style，connotations and dialect.14.Gradable antonymy (等级反义关系) 、互补反义关系)、Converse antonymy (反向反义关系) is an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of16. Sentence Meaning17. Sense relations between sentences① Synonymity (同义)a. He was a bachelor all his life.b. He never married all his boy.Sentences a and b are in a synonymous relationship: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the truth of another sentence②Inconsistency(矛盾)a. Elizabeth II is Queen of England.b. Elizabeth II is a man.Sentences a and b are in a relationship of contradiction: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the falseness of another sentence.③Entailment (蕴涵)a. He married a blonde heiress.b. He married a blonde.Entailment refers to a kind of meaning inclusion. If x entails y，the meaning of x is included in y.④Presupposition(前提预设)It is what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the message already knows.⑤Contradiction(矛盾)⑥Semantic anomaly(语义反常)18. An integrated theory﹡组合性原则)：﹡This semantic theory is the integration of syntax and semantics﹡Their basic idea is that a semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules﹡The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words﹡19.Logical semantics（逻辑语义学）﹡A proposition(命题) is what is to be expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.﹡It is the basic meaning which a sentence express.﹡A very important property of the proposition is that it has a truth value.第八章1.What is PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of language in context / use / .2 Semantics and PragmaticsSimilarity：Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic study of meaningDifference：Semantic meaning: the more constant，inherent side of meaning ；Pragmatic meaning: the more indeterminate，the more closely related to context ；Pragmatic = meaning - semantics 3.Three Contents :Speech Act Theory、The Theory of Conversational Implicature、Post-Gricean Developments4.Speech Act Theory(言语行为理论)：①Performatives and Constatives②A theory of the illocutionary act5.The utterance which performs an act is called a performative(行事话语).6.A constative (述事话语) is an utterance which asserts something that is either true or false.7Characteristics of Implicature：Calculability、Cancellability、Non-detachability、Non-conventionality8.Calculability(可推导性): means that implicature of an utterance can be calculated based on literal meaning，CP and its maxims，context，etc.9.Cancellability/Defeasibility(可取消性/可废除原则)If the factors that conversational implicature relied on change，the implicature will also change.10.Relevance Theory关联理论：Every ostensive stimulus conveys a presumption of its own optimal relevance.Cognitive Principle of Relevance：Human cognition tends to be geared to the maximization of relevance.。