专业英语文献翻译
工业工程专业英语最全翻译
UNIT ONEIndust rialEngine ering Educat ion for the 21st Centur y21世纪的工业工程教育The 21st centur y is just a few yearsaway. Strate gic planne rs all over the world a re usingthe year 2000 as the pointfuture busine ss activi ties.Are we all ready f or that time? As the indust rialworldprepar es to meet the techno logic al chall e n gesof the 21st centur y, thereis a need to focuson the people who will take it there. People will be the most import ant of the “man-machin e-materi al” system s compet ing in the next centur y. IEs should play a crucia l role in prepar ing organ i z atio ns for the 21st centur y throug h theirrolesas change initia torsand facil i t ator s. Improv ement s are needed in IE underg radua te educat ion if that role is to be succes sfull y carrie d out.21世纪来临在即，全世界的战略家们把2000年作为商业活动的焦点。
英语专业文献的翻译
简单句的翻译一、转换法英汉两种语言在造句方式和表达习惯上有较大区别，翻译中如果词类、成分一一对应直译，会使译文不通顺、难理解甚至无法交流，其最大的原因就是不会用转换法。
转换法包括词类或词性转换、句子成分转换、修饰词与被修饰词的转换等。
词类转换就是翻译处理时将某种词类的词译成另一种词类，因此句子结构也随之发生改变。
1、转化为汉语动词最常见的是英语中的名词、动名词或名词化结构转化为汉语中的动词，其原因是英语动词发达，而汉语则是动词占优势。
还有英语的形容词、副词、介词等结构转化为汉语的动词。
We also realized the growing need and necessity to industrialize certain sectors of the economy.我们也认识到越来越需要将某些经济部门工业化。
A successful scientist must be a good observer, accurate, patient and objective.一位成功的科学家必须善于观察，准确、耐心而客观。
With such knowledge one can decide which properties are relevant to one’s problem and whether the list values for specific properties are directly applicable.有了这样的知识，我们就能确定那些性能和我们考虑的特定问题有关，以及某些特定性能所列数值是否可以直接应用。
形容词转化为汉语动词更常见的是“the ＋形容词”组成的名词性结构如“theold, the infirm, the ill, the very young”（老、弱、病、幼者）。
此外还有一些作表语的形容词，包含感觉、知觉、情感、想法、信含、欲望等含义，其后常搭配一定的介词、不定式或that从句。
zotero翻译英文文献
zotero翻译英文文献如果你正在进行英文论文写作或者学术研究，那么你一定知道翻译英文文献这个问题非常重要。
如果你的英文水平较低或者文献来源于国外，那么你可能需要一些辅助工具。
今天，我们将介绍一个非常重要的翻译工具，那就是Zotero。
Zotero是一个免费的引用管理器，它可以帮助你轻松地保存，管理和分享你的文献。
除此之外，它还内置了一个翻译工具，可以帮助你翻译英文文献。
以下是使用Zotero翻译英文文献的步骤：第一步，下载并安装Zotero。
你可以在Zotero的官方网站上下载并安装。
第二步，添加你的文献。
你可以通过复制粘贴文献的URL或者ISBN号码来添加一个文献到Zotero中。
当然，最好的方法是安装Zotero的浏览器扩展程序，这样你可以直接抓取网页上的文献。
第三步，选择你要翻译的文献。
在Zotero中选中你要翻译的文献，右键点击鼠标，在弹出菜单中选择“翻译”选项。
第四步，选择翻译的语言。
在弹出的翻译菜单中，选择你要翻译的语言。
Zotero支持多种语言的翻译，包括英语、中文、德语、法语、西班牙语等。
第五步，等待翻译完成。
Zotero会自动连接翻译引擎，并在几秒钟内为你翻译好整个文献的内容。
在翻译完成后，你可以看到翻译后的文献内容，帮助你更好地理解文献。
值得一提的是，虽然Zotero内置了翻译工具，但是翻译质量并不保证。
Zotero只是调用了一些免费的翻译引擎，并不能保证所有内容都翻译得准确无误。
因此，在使用翻译工具时，我们还是需要对翻译结果进行验证和调整。
综上所述，使用Zotero翻译英文文献非常简单，只需要几个简单的步骤即可完成。
但需要注意的是，翻译结果并不保证翻译得十分精确，我们需要对翻译后的文献内容进行验证和调整。
最好的方法是学习英语并自己翻译文献，这样可以更好地理解文献，提高自己的语言能力。
各专业的英文翻译
哲学Philosophy马克思主义哲学Philosophy of Marxism中国哲学Chinese Philosophy外国哲学Foreign Philosophies逻辑学Logic伦理学Ethics美学Aesthetics宗教学Science of Religion科学技术哲学Philosophy of Science and Technology经济学Economics理论经济学Theoretical Economics政治经济学Political Economy经济思想史History of Economic Thought经济史History of Economic西方经济学Western Economics世界经济World Economics人口、资源与环境经济学Population, Resources and Environmental Economics应用经济学Applied Economics国民经济学National Economics区域经济学Regional Economics财政学（含税收学）Public Finance (including Taxation)金融学（含保险学）Finance (including Insurance)产业经济学Industrial Economics国际贸易学International Trade劳动经济学Labor Economics统计学Statistics数量经济学Quantitative Economics中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称国防经济学National Defense Economics法学Law法学Science of Law法学理论Jurisprudence法律史Legal History宪法学与行政法学Constitutional Law and Administrative Law刑法学Criminal Jurisprudence民商法学(含劳动法学、社会保障法学) Civil Law and Commercial Law (including Science of Labour Law and Science of Social Security Law )诉讼法学Science of Procedure Laws经济法学Science of Economic Law环境与资源保护法学Science of Environment and Natural Resources Protection Law国际法学(含国际公法学、国际私法学、国际经济法学、) International law (including International Public law, International Private Law and International Economic Law)军事法学Science of Military Law政治学Political Science政治学理论Political Theory中外政治制度Chinese and Foreign Political Institution科学社会主义与国际共产主义运动Scientific Socialism and InternationalCommunist Movement中共党史(含党的学说与党的建设) History of the Communist Party of China(including the Doctrine of China Party and Party Building)马克思主义理论与思想政治教育Education of Marxist Theory and Education in Ideology and Politics国际政治学International Politics国际关系学International Relations外交学Diplomacy社会学Sociology社会学Sociology人口学Demography人类学Anthropology民俗学(含中国民间文学) Folklore (including Chinese Folk Literature)民族学Ethnology民族学Ethnology马克思主义民族理论与政策Marxist Ethnic Theory and Policy中国少数民族经济Chinese Ethnic Economics中国少数民族史Chinese Ethnic History中国少数民族艺术Chinese Ethnic Art教育学Education教育学Education Science教育学原理Educational Principle课程与教学论Curriculum and Teaching Methodology教育史History of Education比较教育学Comparative Education学前教育学Pre-school Education高等教育学Higher Education成人教育学Adult Education职业技术教育学V ocational and Technical Education特殊教育学Special Education教育技术学Education Technology心理学Psychology基础心理学Basic Psychology发展与心理学Developmental and Educational Psychology应用心理学Applied Psychology体育学Science of Physical Culture and Sports体育人文社会学Humane and Sociological Science of Sports运动人体科学Human Movement Science体育教育训练学Theory of Sports Pedagogy and Training民族传统体育学Science of Ethnic Traditional Sports文学Literature中国语言文学Chinese Literature文艺学Theory of Literature and Art语言学及应用语言学Linguistics and Applied Linguistics汉语言文字学Chinese Philology中国古典文献学Study of Chinese Classical Text中国古代文学Ancient Chinese Literature中国现当代文学Modern and Contemporary Chinese Literature中国少数民族语言文学Chinese Ethnic Language and Literature比较文学与世界文学Comparative Literature and World Literature 外国语言文学Foreign Languages and Literatures英语语言文学English Language and Literature俄语语言文学Russian Language and Literature法语语言文学French Language and Literature德语语言文学German Language and Literature日语语言文学Japanese Language and Literature印度语言文学Indian Language and Literature西班牙语语言文学Spanish Language and Literature阿拉伯语语言文学Arabic Language and Literature欧洲语言文学European Language and Literature亚非语言文学Asian-African Language and Literature外国语言学及应用语言学Linguistics and Applied Linguistics in Foreign Languages新闻传播学Journalism and Communication新闻学Journalism传播学Communication艺术学Art艺术学Art Theory音乐学Music美术学Fine Arts设计艺术学Artistic Design戏剧戏曲学Theater and Chinese Traditional Opera电影学Film广播电视艺术学Radio and television Art舞蹈学Dance历史学History历史学History史学理论及史学史Historical Theories and History of Historical Science考古学及博物馆学Archaeology and Museology历史地理学Historical Geography历史文献学(含敦煌学、古文字学) Studies of Historical Literature (including Paleography and Studies of Dunhuang)专门史History of Particular Subjects中国古代史Ancient Chinese History中国近现代史Modern and Contemporary Chinese History世界史World History理学Natural Science数学Mathematics基础数学Fundamental Mathematics计算数学Computational Mathematics概率论与数理统计Probability and Mathematical Statistics应用数学Applied mathematics运筹学与控制论Operational Research and Cybernetics物理学Physics理论物理Theoretical Physics粒子物理与原子核物理Particle Physics and Nuclear Physics原子与分子物理Atomic and Molecular Physics等离子体物理Plasma Physics凝聚态物理Condensed Matter Physics声学Acoustics光学Optics无线电物理Radio Physics化学Chemistry无机化学Inorganic Chemistry分析化学Analytical Chemistry有机化学Organic Chemistry物理化学（含化学物理）Physical Chemistry (including Chemical Physics) 高分子化学与物理Chemistry and Physics of Polymers天文学Astronomy天体物理Astrophysics天体测量与天体力学Astrometry and Celestial Mechanics地理学Geography自然地理学Physical Geography人文地理学Human Geography地图学与地理信息系统Cartography and Geography Information System大气科学Atmospheric Sciences气象学Meteorology大气物理学与大气环境Atmospheric Physics and Atmospheric Environment 海洋科学Marine Sciences物理海洋学Physical Oceanography海洋化学Marine Chemistry海洋生理学Marine Biology海洋地质学Marine Geology地球物理学Geophysics固体地球物理学Solid Earth Physics空间物理学Space Physics地质学Geology矿物学、岩石学、矿床学Mineralogy, Petrology, Mineral Deposit Geology 地球化学Geochemistry古生物学与地层学（含古人类学）Paleontology and Stratigraphy (including Paleoanthropology)构造地质学Structural Geology第四纪地质学Quaternary Geology生物学Biology植物学Botany动物学Zoology生理学Physiology水生生物学Hydrobiology微生物学Microbiology神经生物学Neurobiology遗传学Genetics发育生物学Developmental Biology细胞生物学Cell Biology生物化学与分子生物学Biochemistry and Molecular Biology生物物理学Biophysics生态学Ecology系统科学Systems Science系统理论Systems Theory系统分析与集成Systems Analysis and Integration科学技术史History of Science and Technology工学Engineering力学Mechanics一般力学与力学基础General and Fundamental Mechanics固体力学Solid Mechanics流体力学Fluid Mechanics工程力学Engineering Mechanics机械工程Mechanical Engineering机械制造及其自动化Mechanical Manufacture and Automation机械电子工程Mechatronic Engineering机械设计与理论Mechanical Design and Theory车辆工程Vehicle Engineering光学工程Optical Engineering仪器科学与技术Instrument Science and Technology精密仪器及机械Precision Instrument and Machinery测试计量技术及仪器Measuring and Testing Technologies and Instruments 材料科学与工程Materials Science and Engineering材料物理与化学Materials Physics and Chemistry材料学Materialogy材料加工工程Materials Processing Engineering冶金工程Metallurgical Engineering冶金物理化学Physical Chemistry of Metallurgy钢铁冶金Ferrous Metallurgy有色金属冶金Non-ferrous Metallurgy动力工程及工程热物理Power Engineering and Engineering Thermophysics 工程热物理Engineering Thermophysics热能工程Thermal Power Engineering动力机械及工程Power Machinery and Engineering流体机械及工程Fluid Machinery and Engineering制冷及低温工程Refrigeration and Cryogenic Engineering化工过程机械Chemical Process Equipment电气工程Electrical Engineering电机与电器Electric Machines and Electric Apparatus电力系统及其自动化Power System and its Automation高电压与绝缘技术High V oltage and Insulation Technology电力电子与电力传动Power Electronics and Power Drives电工理论与新技术Theory and New Technology of Electrical Engineering电子科学与技术Electronics Science and Technology物理电子学Physical Electronics电路与系统Circuits and Systems微电子学与固体电子学Microelectronics and Solid State Electronics电磁场与微波技术Electromagnetic Field and Microwave Technology信息与通信工程Information and Communication Engineering通信与信息系统Communication and Information Systems信号与信息处理Signal and Information Processing控制科学与工程Control Science and Engineering控制理论与控制工程Control Theory and Control Engineering检测技术与自动化装置Detection Technology and Automatic Equipment系统工程Systems Engineering模式识别与智能系统Pattern Recognition and Intelligent Systems导航、制导与控制Navigation, Guidance and Control计算机科学与技术Computer Science and Technology计算机软件与理论Computer Software and Theory计算机系统结构Computer Systems Organization计算机应用技术Computer Applied Technology建筑学Architecture建筑历史与理论Architectural History and Theory建筑设计及其理论Architectural Design and Theory城市规划与设计（含风景园林规划与设计）Urban Planning and Design (including Landscape Planning and Design)建筑技术科学Building Technology Science土木工程Civil Engineering岩土工程Geotechnical Engineering结构工程Structural Engineering市政工程Municipal Engineering供热、供燃气、通风及空调工程Heating, Gas Supply, Ventilating and Air Conditioning Engineering防灾减灾工程及防护工程Disaster Prevention and Reduction Engineering and Protective Engineering桥梁与隧道工程Bridge and Tunnel Engineering水利工程Hydraulic Engineering水文学及水资源Hydrology and Water Resources水力学及河流动力学Hydraulics and River Dynamics水工结构工程Hydraulic Structure Engineering水利水电工程Hydraulic and Hydro-Power Engineering港口、海岸及近海工程Harbor, Coastal and Offshore Engineering测绘科学与技术Surveying and Mapping大地测量学与测量工程Geodesy and Survey Engineering摄影测量与遥感Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing地图制图学与地理信息工程Cartography and Geographic Information Engineering 化学工程与技术Chemical Engineering and Technology化学工程Chemical Engineering化学工艺Chemical Technology生物化工Biochemical Engineering应用化学Applied Chemistry工业催化Industrial Catalysis地质资源与地质工程Geological Resources and Geological Engineering矿产普查与勘探Mineral Resource Prospecting and Exploration地球探测与信息技术Geodetection and Information Technology地质工程Geological Engineering矿业工程Mineral Engineering采矿工程Mining Engineering矿物加工工程Mineral Processing Engineering安全技术及工程Safety Technology and Engineering石油与天然气工程Oil and Natural Gas Engineering油气井工程Oil-Gas Well Engineering油气田开发工程Oil-Gas Field Development Engineering油气储运工程Oil-Gas Storage and Transportation Engineering纺织科学与工程Textile Science and Engineering纺织工程Textile Engineering纺织材料与纺织品设计Textile Material and Textiles Design纺织化学与染整工程Textile Chemistry and Dyeing and Finishing Engineering服装设计与工程Clothing Design and Engineering轻工技术与工程The Light Industry Technology and Engineering制浆造纸工程Pulp and Paper Engineering制糖工程Sugar Engineering发酵工程Fermentation Engineering皮革化学与工程Leather Chemistry and Engineering交通运输工程Communication and Transportation Engineering道路与铁道工程Highway and Railway Engineering交通信息工程及控制Traffic Information Engineering & Control交通运输规划与管理Transportation Planning and Management载运工具运用工程Vehicle Operation Engineering船舶与海洋工程Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering船舶与海洋结构物设计制造Design and Construction of Naval Architecture and Ocean Structure 轮机工程Marine Engine Engineering水声工程Underwater Acoustics Engineering航空宇航科学与技术Aeronautical and Astronautical Science and Technology飞行器设计Flight Vehicle Design航空宇航推进理论与工程Aerospace Propulsion Theory and Engineering航空宇航器制造工程Manufacturing Engineering of Aerospace Vehicle人机与环境工程Man-Machine and Environmental Engineering兵器科学与技术Armament Science and Technology武器系统与运用工程Weapon Systems and Utilization Engineering兵器发射理论与技术Armament Launch Theory and Technology火炮、自动武器与弹药工程Artillery, Automatic Gun and Ammunition Engineering军事化学与烟火技术Military Chemistry and Pyrotechnics核科学与技术Nuclear Science and Technology核能科学与工程Nuclear Energy Science and Engineering核燃料循环与材料Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Materials核技术及应用Nuclear Technology and Applications辐射防护及环境保护Radiation and Environmental Protection农业工程Agricultural Engineering农业机械化工程Agricultural Mechanization Engineering农业水土工程Agricultural Water-Soil Engineering农业生物环境与能源工程Agricultural Biological Environmental and Energy Engineering农业电气化与自动化Agricultural Electrification and Automation林业工程Forestry Engineering森林工程Forest Engineering木材科学与技术Wood Science and Technology林产化学加工工程Chemical Processing Engineering of Forest Products环境科学与工程Environmental Science and Engineering环境科学Environmental Science环境工程Environmental Engineering生物医学工程Biomedical Engineering食品科学与工程Food Science and Engineering食品科学Food Science粮食、油脂及植物蛋白工程Cereals, Oils and Vegetable Protein Engineering农产品加工及贮藏工程Processing and Storage of Agriculture Products水产品加工及贮藏工程Processing and Storage of Aquatic Products农学Agriculture作物学Crop Science作物栽培学与耕作学Crop Cultivation and Farming System作物遗传育种学Crop Genetics and Breeding园艺学Horticulture果树学Pomology蔬菜学Olericulture茶学Tea Science农业资源利用学Utilization Science of Agricultural Resources土壤学Soil Science植物营养学Plant Nutrition植物保护学Plant Protection植物病理学Plant Pathology农业昆虫与害虫防治Agricultural Entomology and Pest Control农药学Pesticide Science畜牧学Animal Science动物遗传育种与繁殖Animal Genetics, Breeding and ReproductionScience动物营养与饲料科学Animal Nutrition and Feed Science草业科学Practaculture Science特种经济动物饲养学（含蚕、蜂等）The Rearing of Special-type Economic Animals (including Silkworm, Honeybees, etc.)兽医学Veterinary Medicine基础兽医学Basic Veterinary Medicine预防兽医学Preventive Veterinary Medicine临床兽医学Clinical Veterinary Medicine林学Forestry林木遗传育种学Forest Tree Genetics and Breeding森林培育学Silviculture森林保护学Forest Protection森林经理学Forest Management野生动植物保护与利用Wildlife Conservation and Utilization园林植物与观赏园艺Ornamental Plants and Horticulture水土保持与荒漠化防治Soil and Water Conservation and Desertification Combating 水产学Fisheries Science水产养殖学Aquaculture Science捕捞学Fishing Science渔业资源学Science of Fisheries Resources医学Medicine基础医学Basic Medicine人体解剖与组织胚胎学Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology免疫学Immunology病原生物学Pathogenic Organisms病理学与病理生理学Pathology and Pathophysiology法医学Forensic Medicine放射医学Radiation Medicine航空航天与航海医学Aerospace and Nautical medicine临床医学Clinical Medicine内科学（含心血管病学、血液病学、呼吸系病学、消化系病学、内分泌与代谢病学、肾脏病学、风湿病学、传染病学）Internal medicine (including Cardiology, Hematology, Respiratory, Gastroenterology, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Nephrology, Rheuma-tology, Infectious Diseases)儿科学Pediatrics老年医学Geriatrics神经病学Neurology精神病与精神卫生学Psychiatry and Mental Health皮肤病与性病学Dermatology and Venereology影像医学与核医学Imaging and Nuclear Medicine临床检验诊断学Clinical Laboratory Diagnostics护理学Nursing外科学（含普通外科学、骨外科学、泌尿外科学、胸心血管外科学、神经外科学、整形外科学、烧伤外科学、野战外科学）Surgery (General Surgery, Orthopedics, Urology, Cardiothoracic Surgery, Neurosurgery, Plastic Surgery, Burn Surgery, Field Surgery)妇产科学Obstetrics and Gynecology眼科学Ophthalmic Specialty耳鼻咽喉科学Otolaryngology肿瘤学Oncology康复医学与理疗学Rehabilitation Medicine & Physical Therapy运动医学Sports Medicine麻醉学Anesthesiology急诊医学Emergency Medicine口腔医学Stomatology口腔基础医学Basic Science of Stomatology口腔临床医学Clinical Science of Stomatology公共卫生与预防医学Public Health and Preventive Medicine流行病与卫生统计学Epidemiology and Health Statistics劳动卫生与环境卫生学Occupational and Environmental Health营养与食品卫生学Nutrition and Food Hygiene儿少卫生与妇幼保健学Maternal, Child and Adolescent Health卫生毒理学Hygiene Toxicology军事预防医学Military Preventive Medicine中医学Chinese Medicine中医基础理论Basic Theories of Chinese Medicine中医临床基础Clinical Foundation of Chinese Medicine中医医史文献History and Literature of Chinese Medicine方剂学Formulas of Chinese Medicine中医诊断学Diagnostics of Chinese Medicine中医内科学Chinese Internal Medicine中医外科学Surgery of Chinese Medicine中医骨伤科学Orthopedics of Chinese Medicine中医妇科学Gynecology of Chinese Medicine中医儿科学Pediatrics of Chinese Medicine中医五官科学Ophthalmology and Otolaryngoloy of Chinese Medicine针灸推拿学Acupuncture and Moxibustion and Tuina of Chinese medicine民族医学Ethnomedicine中西医结合医学Chinese and Western Integrative Medicine中西医结合基础医学Basic Discipline of Chinese and Western Integrative中西医结合临床医学Clinical Discipline of Chinese and Western Integrative Medicine 药学Pharmaceutical Science药物化学Medicinal Chemistry药剂学Pharmaceutics生药学Pharmacognosy药物分析学Pharmaceutical Analysis微生物与生化药学Microbial and Biochemical Pharmacy药理学Pharmacology中药学Science of Chinese Pharmacology军事学Military Science军事思想学及军事历史学Military Thought and Military History军事思想学Military Thought军事历史学Military History战略学Science of Strategy军事战略学Military Strategy战争动员学War Mobilization战役学Science of Operations联合战役学Joint Operation军种战役学（含第二炮兵战役学）Armed Service Operation (including Operation of Strategic Missile Force)战术学Science of Tactics合同战术学Combined-Arms Tactics兵种战术学Branch Tactics军队指挥学Science of Command作战指挥学Combat Command军事运筹学Military Operation Research军事通信学Military Communication军事情报学Military Intelligence密码学Cryptography军事教育训练学（含军事体育学）Military Education and Training (including Military Physical Training)军制学Science of Military System军事组织编制学Military Organizational System军队管理学Military Management军队政治工作学Science of Military Political Work军事后勤学与军事装备学Science of Military Logistics and Military Equipment军事后勤学Military Logistics后方专业勤务Rear Special Service军事装备学Military Equipment管理学Management Science管理科学与工程Management Science and Engineering工商管理学Science of Business Administration会计学Accounting企业管理学（含财务管理、市场营销学、人力资源管理学）Corporate Management (including Financial Management, Marketing, and Human Resources Management)旅游管理学Tourist Management技术经济及管理学Technology Economy and Management农林经济管理学Agricultural and Forestry Economics & Management农业经济管理学Agricultural Economics & Management林业经济管理学Forestry Economics & Management公共管理学Science of Public Management行政管理学Administration Management社会医学与卫生事业管理学Social Medicine and Health Management教育经济与管理学Educational Economy and Management社会保障学Social Security土地资源管理学Land Resource Management图书馆、情报与档案学Science of Library, Information and Archival 图书馆学Library Science情报学Information Science档案学Archival Science。
数学专业英语第二版的课文翻译
2－A Why study geometry Many leading institutions of higher learning have recognized that positive benefits can be gained by all who study this branch of mathematics. This is evident from the fact that they require study of geometry as a prerequisite to matriculation in those schools. 许多居于领导地位的学术机构承认，所有学习这个数学分支的人都将得到确实的受益，许多学校把几何的学习作为入学考试的先决条件，从这一点上可以证明。
Geometry had its origin long ago in the measurement by the Babylonians and Egyptians of their lands inundated by the floods of the Nile River. The greek word geometry is derived from geo, meaning “earth” and metron, meaning “measure” . As early as 2000 . we find the land surveyors of these people re-establishing vanishing landmarks and boundaries by utilizing the truths of geometry . 几何学起源于很久以前巴比伦人和埃及人测量他们被尼罗河洪水淹没的土地，希腊语几何来源于geo ，意思是”土地“，和metron 意思是”测量“。
土木工程给水排水英文文献及翻译-英语论文
土木工程给水排水英文文献及翻译-英语论文土木工程给水排水英文文献及翻译Building drainage of water-saving techniquesWith people's quality of life，the quality and quantity of water are constantly expanding. Implement sustainable water use and protection of water resources from destruction. And access to healthy water, recycling of water, has become the government and the broad masses of the people the focus of attention. All this gave to the construction of drainage works on the design of the many new requirements, water supply advanced technology of the urgent need to accelerate the pace. This paper will explore more of the building for drainage of water-saving technology; we hope to arouse the awareness of water conservation to build water-saving city efforts.Construction of a water-saving project, in addition to the water saving should formulate laws and regulations to strengthen the management and day-to-day publicity and education use price leverage to promote water conservation work, but also take effective measures, to ensure that the construction of water-saving work carried out in-depth and comprehensive. We are aware that the water supply network's coverage, the extension of transmission mains and the construction of the building because arisingfrom the difference in height, will be used to increase the water pressure before the end of ways to protect the most disadvantaged water points will be adequate water supply, This will be a large number of regional supply of high pressure water supply is. Therefore accessories before the water hydrostatic head greater than outflow, the flow was greater than the rated flow capacity. Beyond the rated flow capacity of that part of the normal flow did not have the use efficiency is a waste of water. As a result of this water is being wasted is not easy to detect and understand, it could be called a "stealth" wasting water.It has been in a different type of floor, the building 67 water distribution points so the overpressure from the measured flow analysis, Statistical results are 55% of the iron spiral movements - taps (hereinafter referred to as "ordinary water") and 61% of the ceramic valve - leading the flow of water-saving more than their rated flow, the super-flow pressure from the state. Two endings the largest flow out of the rated flow capacity of about three times [1]. This shows that in our existing buildings, water supply system overpressure out-flow phenomenon is widespread and it is a fairly serious. In distribution point pressure As overpressure flow out of the "invisible" water is not wasted paid enough attention to, So in our existing "building water supply and drainage design" and "construction water supply and drainage design GBJ15-20 00 draft "(hereinafter referred to as" draft "), although the wateraccessories and home support the greatest pressure certain restrictive provisions in [2], but this is only to prevent water from the high pressure parts will lead to damage to the point of consideration, not prevent excess pressure from the out-flow point of view, the pressure is too lenient restrictions on the flow overpressure no fundamental role. Therefore, in accordance with the water supply system overpressure flow from the actual situation, the pressure on the water supply system to make reasonable limit.1.2 measures taken decompressionWater supply system in a reasonable allocation of decompression device is to control pressure within the limits required to reduce excess pressure from the flow of technical support.1.2.1 Jangled nervesRelief valve is a good decompression device, can be divided into proportional (lower left) of direct action and the type (Photo) The former is based on the ratio of the area to determine the proportion of decompression, which can be set under pressure prior decompression, When the water-stop water, you can also be controlling the vacuum tube pressure is not increased, Decompression can achieve dynamic can achieve static decompression.1.2.2 Decompression orifice and conserving Cypriots1106土木工程给水排水英文文献及翻译Orifice decompression compared with jangled nerves example, the system is relatively simple, less investment, easy management. The practice of some units, water-saving effects are fairly obvious, If Shanghai Jiao tong University in the school bathroom water pipe installation aperture of 5 mm orifice, water-saving about 43%. But decompression orifice only by the dynamic pressure, static pressure can be reduced and the pressure downstream with the upstream pressure and the flow is changed, is not stable enough. In addition, the vacuum orifice plug easy. In better water quality and water pressure more stable, by using [3]. Cutting expenditure and the role of Cypriot advantages and decompression orifice basically are the same. Suitable for the small diameter and accessories installed to use [3].1.3 adopt water-saving leadingA trial showed that the leading Practical water-saving taps and the general state of the full, flow out of the former than the latter out of the flow. That is the same pressure, the leading water conservation has good water saving, water-saving volume in 20% ~ 30% between. And the higher the pressure ordinary tap water from the larger, water-saving is leading the greater the volume of water-saving. Therefore, should the building (especially in the standard water pressure in water distribution points) leading installation of water-saving, reduce water wastage. In 1999 theMinistry of Construction, State Economic and Trade Commission, State Bureau of Building materials apparatuses jointly issued a document "on the elimination of residential buildings behind the products notified" require large and medium-sized cities in new residential prohibit the use of helical-style cast iron nozzle movements, actively adopt "ceramic cartridge faucets" and "common faucet technical conditions of the ceramic cartridge faucets [4]. Since the main building of our school building earlier in the toilet faucet is still an ordinary spiral movement - iron taps. We have often seen leading loosening and tightening the leading difficulty caused by the leakage phenomenon. In fact, there is such a faucet overpressure caused by the "invisible" huge waste of water. Schools should arouse the concern of the relevant departments, from the long-term interests for the use of water-saving new leader, reduce unnecessary losses.2 vigorously develop the construction of water facilities, "watercourse." As the name suggests is not delivered on the waterways clean water is not sullied by sewage contamination. Residents put a wash, bathing, washing clothes and other water washing and flushing water together, after CO., filtration and disinfection, Sterilization, which imported waterway network, for toilet flushing, washing cars, and pouring green, onto the road and other non-drinking purposes. China therefore waterway is also known as miscellaneous water Road. With a watercourse which cubic metersof water, equivalent to the use of one cubic meters of clean water, emit less nearly a cubic meter of sewage and kill two birds with one stone. Water-saving achieved nearly 50% [3]. Therefore, the channel has many of the world's water shortage in cities used extensively.2.1 full use washing wastewater and other quality miscellaneous drainage The existing water facilities built in most hotels, colleges, and the basic source for the bathroom bathing wastewater. For some small units, smaller than bathing wastewater, and discharge time is too concentrated, Water facilities are not stable and adequate source of water. And washing with water wastewater, the use of time more evenly, water treatment and the advantages of relatively good, as a water source, to be fully exploited.2.2 Develop and implement as soon as possible the return to the new water quality standardsThe current construction of water reused implementation of the existing “life miscellaneous water quality standards.” The total coli form standards and the requirements of "sanitary standard for drinking water," the same, compared to the developed countries and the Chinese water standards apply to the swim-minus III also strict standards. This has led to two problems: First, many of the existing water works is less than the standard; 2 are fulfilled with a certain degree of difficulty, improvethe water project investment and processing cost. So should develop appropriate indicators of the value of water works to promote the spread土木工程给水排水英文文献及翻译and popularize. Water Saving water is not limiting, or even prevents the water. But reasonable people to water, efficient use of water and not waste. As long as we pay attention to fit the family's bad habits, we will be able to water-saving around 70% [3]. Water and waste a lot of the habits, such as: flush toilets single wash cigarette butts and broken fine waste; to access a cup of cold water. Many people will not venting water; spend the potatoes, carrots after peeling, washing or after the optional vegetables; when the water stopped (open access customers, answer the phone, change TV channels), not turning off the tap; During the suspension, forget turning off the tap; toilets, wash, brush, let the water has been flowing; Before sleep, go out, do not check the faucet; equipment leaks, not promptly repaired. From the following table, we can see in many parts of life as long as we interested to note that the conservation of water is very impressive.3 to promote the use of water-saving devicesIn addition to the family of water-saving attention to cultivate good habits of water, using water-saving devices is very important and also the most effective. Some people prefer laissez-faire, but also refusedto replace water-saving devices, in fact, so much water is a long time down the uneconomical. Thus vigorously promote the use of water-saving devices is the construction of water-saving important ways and means.3.1Water-saving taps3.1.1 Water Saving leading CeramicsCurrently most of the water-saving taps used Ceramics taps. Such taps compared with ordinary taps, water was typically up to 20% ~ 30%; and other types of water-saving compared to the leading and cheap [3]. Therefore, in the residential buildings of architectural vigorously promote the use of such water-saving lead. We taught the fifth floor of the dormitory building and are used by such leading.3.1.2 Closed since delay tapsSince the delay in the water taps closed after a certain time, shut down automatically to avoid Changliushui phenomenon. Water timing to be in a certain range adjustment, both for the convenience of Health has complied with the water-saving requirements suitable for washing in public places with.3.1.3 Photoelectric controlled tapsClosed since the delay of water-saving taps but water while fixed time and meet the different requirements of the use of the object. Photoelectric controlled taps will be able to overcome the above drawbacks, such as the latest one of the type of infrared device control wash, Thefirst installation will be self-inspection of the device in front of or below the fixed reflectors (for example, vanity) and based on the reflectors adjust their distance from work to avoid the past because of automatic water obstacles closer to the front of regular water, Such intelligent device can wash your hands although below action without washing their hands without water. a long time will wash water and do not have long-term can also regularly flush Water Seal failure to avoid a supply shortage ahead of the police [3].3.2The total water-saving flush3.2.1 Use of small volume cisterns commodeChina is promoting the use of water tanks 6 L fecal water-saving devices, and have flushing water to 4.5 L or even less, stood on the stool available. However, we should also pay attention to the drainage system to ensure the normal work of the use of small volume cisterns commode, otherwise they will be brought to plug the pipeline, not a net wash, and other issues. Two respectively flushing cisterns in urine, flushing water for 4 L (or less); Washing stool, Chong stood at 9 L (or less) [3]. (Map is a two-valve I-Yuan annually to the water tanks, to open the stool below the drain urine when opened above the drain Pictured left is the two-block cisterns switch several forms) Israel's construction regulations require all new buildings to install two respectively wash cisterns. China should also vigorously promoted two respectively cisterns, because one day, thenumber is far higher than the urine stool frequency. To three homes as an example, per person per day for a meeting of feces, urine four times and the use of existing water tanks L 9, day to 135 L of water; 6 L of water use, 90 L of water a day;土木工程给水排水英文文献及翻译and the use of cisterns two respectively, 75 L of water a day, can be seen using two respectively cisterns 9 L 6 L than using more water-saving cisterns [3]. 6 L Yuan annually to the use of water-saving cisterns better results. The use of tanks in two trances another advantage is not right and the replacement of the total drainage system to carry out reform therefore particularly applicable to existing buildings the total replacement of water tanks.3.2.2-washing UrinalThe United States launched the Urinal-washing, which is not water, the stench from the toilets without using utensils, In fact, only in one end Urinal add special "trap" devices, but because the economic, health, water effectively, So popular station.3.2.3Photoelectric control UrinalUrinal photoelectric controls in a number of public buildings installations.3.2.4 Delayed flushing valve closedIt is the use of guide-work principle, water officials directly connected with the water pressure high enough circumstances, can protect the instantaneous flushing commode needs to replace tanks and accessories, installation is simple and easy to use, health, low prices, Water-saving effect of the obvious characteristics [3]. We carpentry center is used for such cleaning.3.3 in hot water systems installed in various forms of water-saving devicesIf installed in public bathrooms limited flow orifice, in the cold, hot water imported pressure balance between the installation of equipment; Installation of low-flow plumbing. Inflatable hot water thermostat and cooling, hot water mixed hydrants.3.4 to further develop various forms of water-saving devices3.4.1 Development of different water taps outSome countries, in different places with different water out of taps, Singapore provides water for washing vegetables pots 6 L / min, shower water 9 L / min; China's Taiwan Province launched the spray-wash special taps, the flow was 1 L / min. In China, various taps most of the rated flow capacity of 0.2 L / s, that is 12 L / min, excessive [4]. Therefore be reasonable to develop taps the rated flow, and gradually installed in different places different from water taps.3.4.2 Vacuum water-saving techniquesTo ensure that sanitary ware and sewer cleaning effect of vacuum technology can be applied to drainage works Most of the air instead of using water, relying on the vacuum of high-speed gas-water mixture, and rapid disposal of the sewage, dirt-gully clean and save water and drain away the effects of dirty air. A complete vacuum drainage system, including: vacuum valve and with a magnitude of suction devices occupants, the closed aqueduct, vacuum collection containers. Vacuum pumps, control equipment and channels and so on. Together with the vacuum generated 40 ~ 5min the negative pressure of sewage pumped to the collection containers, then will collect sewage pump effluent into the municipal sewer. Different types of construction in the use of vacuum technology, the average water-saving exceed 40%. The use of the office building water-saving will rate-70% [2].3.4.3 Development zone leading to the wash waterIn Japan, many families use with the leading water wash, wash all the wastewater into water tanks for back flushing. If the water tank, they can directly turn on the water faucet open. Irrigation water use, it can not only save water but also reduce the costs. At present, the water in China has sales.土木工程给水排水英文文献及翻译随着人民生活质量的提高，对供水量和质的要求正不断扩展.同时实施水的可持续利用和保护，使水资源不受破坏，并能进入良性的水质、水量再生循环，也已成为政府和广大人民群众关注的焦点。
八大英文文献翻译神器
你值得拥有的八大英文文献翻译神器不管是做科研还是写SCI论文，开始都需要阅读大量的文献，做课题至少查阅600篇，粗看300篇，细看100篇，研读50篇，在看到一叠叠论文后，由于语言问题，往往会觉得无从下手，下面分享几款常用的文献翻译神器。
1、谷歌浏览器翻译优点：页面简洁，使用方便，随开随用，多种语言随时切换，只要有网就能翻译。
缺点：功能比较单一，排版比较乱，界面不是很美观。
2、SCI Translate9.0目前有9.0普通版以及VIP版，VIP版内置Google 人工智能云翻译引擎，翻译精准度很强；没有广告。
3、LinggleLinggle是一个可用来进行英语语法、句子写作的工具，可为学习者提供更准确的英文写作建议。
4、NetSpeakNetSpeak是一个提供免费线上单词、词组、语句翻译的工具，其特点是可以在线搜索和比较各种英文词汇、短句、语法、单词解释等内容，并且可以统计出这个用语的变化形态，还可以分析使用频率和情境，堪比谷歌翻译。
5、CNKI翻译CNKI翻译助手是一款专业的学术翻译工具，由“中国知网”开发制作，汇集了从CNKI系列数据库中挖掘的大量常用词汇、专业术语、成语俚语及双语例句等，形成海量中英在线词典和双语平行语料库。
6、LingoesLingoes是一款简明易用的词典与文本翻译软件，支持全球超过80多种语言的词典查询、全文翻译、屏幕取词、划词翻译、例句搜索、网络释义和真人语音朗读功能。
7、有道词典有道词典是个神器，尤其是查词、划词、取词的方面特别突出，词库中有所有专业用语的补充包，可以让你瞬间翻译出各种专业的英文单词，从复杂的有机化合物，到稀奇古怪的动物名，哪里不会点哪里。
8、Copy Translator比较适用于即时翻译，内置了谷歌翻译、百度翻译、有道翻译、搜狗翻译、彩云翻译和腾讯翻译几种不同的翻译引擎，随意切换，总有一个适合你。
医用英语医学文献翻译4（缺5,9整理版）
医⽤英语医学⽂献翻译4（缺5,9整理版）UNIT 1 TEXT B刷⽛，使⽤⽛线，以及每年2次的⽛齿检查是⼝腔卫⽣保健标准，但是保护你珍珠样洁⽩的⽛齿的好处远⽐我们知道的还要多。
在⼀篇评论⽂章中，塔夫茨⼤学⽛科医学院的⼀个教员破除了常见的⽛科神话，并概述了饮⾷和营养如何影响⼉童，青少年，孕妇，成年⼈和⽼年⼈的⼝腔健康。
误区1：⼝腔卫⽣的不良后果是限制嘴巴准妈妈也许不知道她们所吃的⾷物会影响到胎⼉的⽛齿发育。
在怀孕过程中的营养缺乏也许会使未出⽣的孩⼦在今后的⽣活中更容易出现蛀⽛。
“在14周到4个⽉⼤的时候，缺乏钙，维⽣素D，维⽣素A，蛋⽩质和卡路⾥会导致⼝腔软组织缺损，” Carole Palmer说。
Carole Palmer是，教育学博⼠(EdD)，注册营养师(RD)，塔夫茨⼤学教授，公共健康和社会服务系营养和⼝腔健康推进部的负责⼈。
有数据表明缺乏⾜够的维⽣素B6和B12可能是导致患唇裂和阻碍味觉形成的危险因素。
在童年的时候，最普遍的疾病是蛀⽛，⼤约⽐⼉童哮喘⾼五倍。
“如果⼀个⼉童因为蛀⽛⽽嘴巴受伤，他/她在学校会⽐较难集中注意⼒，⽽且会更喜欢吃容易咀嚼的⾷物，这些⾷物含有的营养往往更少些。
甜甜圈和点⼼这样的⾷物⼤多营养品质低下，含糖量⾼于其他需要咀嚼的富含营养的⾷物，⽐如⽔果和蔬菜，” Palmer说。
“⼝腔并发症与不良的饮⾷习惯会造成认知和⽣长发育问题，以及导致肥胖。
”误区2：吃越多糖，越容易蛀⽛这与你吃了多少糖⽆关，⽽是糖和⽛齿接触的时间有多少。
“⾷物，⽐如慢慢溶解的糖果和苏打⽔在嘴巴⾥停留的时间会⽐较久。
这增加了⽛齿暴露在⼝腔细菌由糖产⽣成的酸中的时间，” Palmer说。
有研究表明，⼗⼏岁的青少年⼤约40%的碳⽔化合物是由软饮料中摄取的。
这些源源不断地软饮料增加了⽛齿腐烂的风险。
⽆糖碳酸饮料和酸性饮料，⽐如柠檬⽔，往往被认为⽐含糖饮料对⽛齿更安全，但是经常⾷⽤的话仍会造成⽛齿釉质脱矿。
专业英语文献翻译及总结
Drying characteristics ofsweet cherrya b s t r a c tThe effects of alkali emulsion of ethyl oleate and air temperature (60, 70 and 75 ◦C) on the drying characteristics of sweet cherrywere studied using a hot air dryer at a constant air velocity of 2.0 m/s. Itwas observed that both the alkali emulsion of ethyl oleate and air temperature affected the drying time. The drying times of pre-treated samples were 19.5–22.6% shorter than those of control samples. Five semi-theoretical thin-layer models, namely, Lewis, Henderson and Pabis, Logarithmic, Page,Wang and Singh modelswere used for the modeling of the drying kinetics. The fit quality obtained with each model was evaluated using statistical tests. After comparing experimentally obtained values with the calculated values from the models, it was concluded that Page model represents the drying characteristics better than the other models. The effective moisture diffusivity was determined by using Fick’s second law and was observed to lie between 5.683×10−10 and 1.544×10−9m2/s for the pre-treated and control samples. Rehydration ratio was significantly affected by pre-treatment and air temperature. It was found to increase proportionally with the increase in air drying temperature.Keywords: Sweet cherry; Drying; Mathematical models; Pre-treatment solution; Rehydration ratio1.IntroductionCherries occupy the Cerasus subgenus within Prunus genous of Rosaceae family, subfamily Prunodeae. Prunus甜樱桃的干燥特性摘要对油酸乙酯碱乳液和空气温度（60℃，70℃，75℃）对甜樱桃干燥特性的影响进行了研究，使用热风干燥机在一个恒定的空气流速为2.0m/s进行干燥。
【精品】53中英文双语英语翻译专业外文文献翻译成品：在翻译中迷失？译者在国际商务中的文化、语言与角色
外文标题：Lost in translation? Culture, language and the role of the translator in international business外文作者：John Blenkinsopp and Maryam Shademan Pajouh文献出处: 《Critical Perspectives on International Business》 , 2018 , 6 (1) :38-52(如觉得年份太老，可改为近2年，毕竟很多毕业生都这样做)英文3189单词， 17020字符(字符就是印刷符)，中文5098汉字。
此文档是毕业设计外文翻译成品（含英文原文+中文翻译），无需调整复杂的格式！下载之后直接可用，方便快捷！本文价格不贵,也就几十块钱！一辈子也就一次的事！Lost in translation? Culture, language and the role of thetranslatorin international businessJohn Blenkinsopp and Maryam Shademan PajouhTeesside University Business School, UKAbstractPurpose Issues of language in international business have been the focus of a growing body of theoretical and empirical work, and this paper contributes to this literature, focusing specifically on issues of translation. The role of translator will vary depending on the language strategy adopted, with strategies linked to differing perspectives on language in international business – mechanical, cultural and political. We examine these perspectives through the lens of a specific problem for transnational communication –…untranslatable‟ words and concepts. Design/methodology/approach Interviews were conducted withprofessional linguists (translators and interpreters) to explore how they dealt with issues of untranslatable but cultural salient words in their day-to- day work with international businesses, using the problems of translating the Farsi word tarouf into English as a case in point.Findings The linguists agreed that tarouf was an untranslatable word, and described their strategies to deal with this problem. The commoneststrategy was avoidance, stemming from linguists‟ concern to maintain their professional standing with clients, a finding which reflects an emerging emphasis on the importance of context and relationships forunderstanding inter-cultural communication.Practical implications The study highlights the crucial role of the translator in international business, and draws attention to the potential for cross-cultural communication problems arising from mutual lack of awareness of culturally-salient but inherently untranslatable words or phrases.Social implications Effective inter-cultural communication is an issue ofgreat importance to wider society, and business has historically been thecommonest site of such communication. Our study highlights an issue of considerable importance for improving inter-cultural communications, contributing to a growing inter-disciplinary literature in this area.Originality/value Much of the research on language in internationalbusiness has focused on the emergence of English as a lingua franca, but the present study focuses on specific issues of translation and does so in an under-researched location, Iran. It draws attention to a problem of translation not widely discussed, and shows how important this issue can be for international business.Keywords: international business; interpreters; language; tarouf; translators; cross-cultural communicationIntroductionThe multinational corporation (MNC) is, by definition, a multilingual organisation (Fredriksson et al, 2006) and multilingual situations occurwith increasing regularity at various levels of the organisation (Charles and Marschan-Piekkari, 2002). Though issues of communication within MNCs have been a concern within the field of international business for an extended period, the specific issue of language was neglected until relatively recently (Janssens et al, 2004; Welch et al, 2005). A possible explanation is that international business practice has also been somewhat blind to this issue – though the practicalities of language barriers were widely recognised, the full implications of …talking a different language‟ were not. Welch and Welch suggest language is …a mental model, framing activity and behaviour‟ (2008: 341), and these framing effects can be visible even at the level of a single word.An example is offered by Wierzbicka‟s (2001) examination of the Polish word przykro. Usually translated as hurt, offended, sorry or sad, Wierzbicka suggests something is lost in translation, describing przyko as a …culturally salien Polish emotion. …That is not to say that speakers of English never experience the emotion associated in Polish with the word przykro; only that they do not think habitually about their experiences in these terms‟(Wierzbicka, 2001: 22). The Chinese word guanxi offers another obvious example of a word which is both culturally salient and yet inherently …untranslatable‟. Gaunxi has become widely known –discussed and researched to a point where there is a degree of awareness of the concept and its importance in international business.Linguistic imperialismMuch of the literature on the role of language in international business has focused on two particular features. The first is the decisions made by MNCs regarding language use, particularly around choices as to whether to adopt a corporate lingua franca (and if so, which language to adopt)and related issues of translation and interpretation. The second is thestudy of the growth of English as a lingua franca, through linguistic imperialism (Philipson, 1992).Though a complex notion, linguistic imperialism is usefully captured as the process by which speakers of onelanguage come to feel it necessary to use anoth er language, …to the point where they believe they can and should use only that foreign language when it comes to transactions dealing with the more advanced aspects of life‟ (Ansre, 1979, cited in Sliwe, 2008). Ansre is clearly describing a final outcome, and the process of linguistic imperialism is likely to be highly contested. Though the present article is focused on issues of translation in international business, the rise of English as a lingua franca through linguistic imperialism forms an important backdrop our study, and we will briefly explore this literature.Language barriers in international businessThese issues of translation can obviously be viewed as a language barrier for international business, but Harzing and Feely (2008) argue that the idea of …language barriers‟ has been rather under-defined. They propose a model of communication in which different components contribute to a vicious circle which creates the language barrier – failure to communicate effectively leads to uncertainty, anxiety and mistrust, which produces misattribution, conflict and cognitive distortion, to which the various parties respond by engaging in greater formality in communication, which is less effective...and the circle is completed. Their model focuses on the HQ- subsidiary relationship in MNCs, but the idea that communication problems arising from language differences might produce a vicious circle seems relevant to a range of settings within international business. Jameson argues that language …defines cultura l groups, as well as being the most frequently used symbolic systems through which culture is conveyed‟ (2007: 214), and as such it is core to cross-cultural communication in all settings. One of the key issues which led us to examine the issue of …untranslatable‟ words is that they are likely to lead to situations in which the failure to communicate effectively is either not recognised, or is recognised but baffling to the parties involved. Translation StudiesIn this section we want to examine some of the key ideas in the field of translation studies which might shed light on the present study, though it is useful to recall Nida‟s point that many translators will not draw upon theory in any conscious fashion:Instead of speaking of theories of translation, we should perhapsspeak more about various approaches to the task of translating, different orientations which provide helpful insight, and diverse ways of talking about how a message can be transferred from onelanguage to another.(Nida, 1991: 21).We can see that the translator has a key role to play in this process, but Pym (2006) notes that until recently the field of translation studies has paid relatively little attention to their role as mediators. It should be noted that although we have used translator as a generic term, it is more preciseto use this to refer to those who translate the written word. Translators of the spoken word are more commonly referred to as interpreters, and Pym(2006) suggests that the importance of the mediating role is more obviousand immediate for interpreters. Consistent with this, our findings suggest that the issue of untranslatable words presents more of a problem for interpreters thantranslators.An overview of TaroufTarouf (…tar-off’) is a Farsi word which describes a complex cultural construct. Three different English-Farsi dictionaries offer the following translations:- salutation, compliment, comity, chivalry- compliment, ceremony, offer, present- compliment(s), ceremony, offer, gift, flummery, courtesy, flattery,formality, good manners, soft tongue, honeyed phrases.Many of these words have only limited relation to each other, and this is because they can be seen as facets of tarouf, and the kinds of behaviours associated with it. Two examples illustrate tarouf more effectively than these definitions. The first is an Iranian joke:Many years ago, a young Persian woman became pregnant. Themonths passed and she kept getting bigger, finally nine months came but no baby came out. She kept getting bigger and b igger…but still no baby! Years went by until she became an old woman with a huge belly. Finally the doctors had a machine that could look into her belly and see what was going on in there. They looked inside and saw two men with beards saying to each other, ‘after you’, ‘no, after you’, ‘no please, after you’.A second example was told to us by an Iranian about his cousin, born inthe UK of Iranian parents, who made his first visit to Iran in his early 20s.He took a taxi back to the airport, and he and the driver chatted for the whole of the journey. When he got to the airport he asked the driver to tell him the fare, but the driver said there was no charge, it had been a pleasure to talk with him. My cousin didn’t know about tarouf, so he took this at fac e value, thanked him profusely and left!The driver, despite no doubt being aghast at this turn of events, let him go.This illustrates that tarouf is deeply culturally embedded –the driver could ill afford to offer a free fare for such a long journey, yet faced with a customer who did not recognise the conventions of tarouf he felt unable to step outside of them and demand the fare.MethodIn order to explore the idea of tarouf as an …untranslatable‟ word, we interviewed translators working in English and Farsi. We were unable to secure access to translators through agencies, who appeared concerned our approach was a ruse to gain access to translators without paying an agency fee. We therefore adopted a snowball sampling approach, going directly to individual translators based in Iran, and asking them torecommend other potential participants for us to contact. Clearly the study was premised on our claim that tarouf is untranslatable, so we initially asked all participants whether they agreed with that assertion. All confirmed that it was so, and we proceeded to explore the three empirical questions listed above via in-depth telephone interviews with 31individuals – 16 translators (5 men, 11 women) and 14 interpreters (12men, 2 women). Six of the interpreters were interviewed twice, and were also sentfollow-up e-mails seeking clarification of key points. It was not possible to record the interviews so we were unable to produce transcripts, however detailed notes were taken. The opportunity for follow-up interviews and e-mails provided a further rigour to the data gathering process. The question of the implications for international business communication was something upon which they could provide some insight, but we decided to compare their views to those of practising managers so after completing the interviews with the translators, we undertook telephone interviews with five managers (three Iranian, two British) working for MNCs in Iran. The data analysis approached adopted was somewhat simplistic, in t hat we treated the participants‟ response as reporting fact, rather than as texts for analysis.FindingsHow do you deal with the word tarouf in your work?Though the concept of tarouf permeates all Iranian writing and speech, the word itself will occur relatively infrequently in the kinds of business documents which translators handle. They were initially rather defensive when we asked them about the difficulties in translating tarouf. Once they understood we were not criticising their practice, but interested in how they dealt with the problem, they explained that where possible they would seek a word which captured as far as possible the particular element of tarouf which was relevant in that passage. (Note: if the translated passages were then subjected to back translation, often seen as the acid test of good translation, the second translator would almost certainly not translate any of these words as …tarouf‟). The challenge of translation posed by tarouf was not confined to the word itself. There are what might be called …tarouf phrases‟, expressions of politeness which serve a …phatic function‟ (Tietze, 2007), that is, a function in maintaining social relationships.DiscussionThe first is that translators have a clear view on how to handle the issue of untranslatable words. They generally choose either to find the closest approximation in the target language, or to ignore the word altogether. Only when neither option seems possible do they choose to raise the issue of the untranslatable nature of a word or phrase, and on such occasions they will provide an explanation of the cultural context in order to help the audience understand what the author/speaker is attempting to convey. The fact they engage in such explanations only when deemed unavoidableappears to arise from a concern about the impact of this on theirprofessional image.ConclusionThis study highlights the significance of …untranslatable‟ words in multi- cultural communications, and the crucial mediating role of the translator/interpreter in international business communication. Our participants‟description of their practice reflected elements of all three perspectives on language use – mechanical, cultural and political –described by Janssens et al (2004). Their core practice remained wedded to the mechanical perspective, as they attempted to render documents or speech between Farsi and English as accurately as possible. The…untranslatable‟ nature of tarouf tested this preferred way of working to its limits, but only in certain circumstances did they choose to provide their clients with the cultural perspective required to understand fully the nature of their business interactions. Their choices demonstrate the significant power dimension of their role, consistent with the political perspective, butwhereas Janssens et al (2004) highlight organisational power dynamics, in this instance it is the professional status and personal business concerns of the translator/interpreter which dominate. Their judgement as to whether or not to offer an explanation of tarouf is based upon their view of whether this will enhance or diminish their standing in the eyes of their clients (and by extension, whether or not this will lead to repeat business). This suggests a need for greater attention to the role of the translator, and in particular greater clarity from clients as to what they require. The irony of course is that when dealing with …untranslatable‟ words and conceptsthe clients do not know what they are missing, and are therefore unlikelyto see the need to specify their requirements.ReferencesBarner-Rasmussen, W, and Bjorkman, I. (2005), “Surmounting interunit barriers”, International Studies of Management and Organisation, Vol. 35 No.1, pp. 28-46. Bjerregaard, T, Lauring, J, and Klitmoll er, A. (2009). “A critical analysis of intercultural communication research in cross-cultural management: Introducing newer developments in anthropology”, Critical Perspectives on International Business , Vol. 5 No. 3, pp. 207-228.Charles, M. (2007), “Language matters in global communication”, Journal of Business Communication, Vol.44 No. 3, pp. 260-282.Charles, M, and Marschan-Piekkari, R. (2002), “Language training for enhanced horizontal communication: A challenge for MNCs”, Business Communication Quarterly, Vol. 65 No. 2, pp. 9-29.Dowling, P.J. and Welch, D.E. (2004), International Human Resource Management: Managing People in a Multinational Environment (4th Ed), London, Thomson Learning.Feely, A, J. and Harzing, A, W. (2003), “Language management i n multinational companies”, Journal of Cross Cultural Management, Vol. 10 No. 2, pp. 37-52.Fredriksson, R, Barner-Rasmussen, W. and Piekkari, R. (2006), “The multinational corporation as a multilingual organization: The notion of a common corporate langua ge”, Corporate Communications: An International Journal, Vol.11 No. 4, pp. 406-423.Harzing, A.W.K., and Feely, A.J. (2008), “The Language Barrier and its Implications for HQ-Subsidiary Relationships”, Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, Vol. 15 No. 1, pp. 49-60. Jameson, D.A. (2007), “Reconceptualizing cultural identity and its role in intercultural business communication”, Journal of Business Communication, Vol. 44 No. 3, pp. 199-235.Janssens, M., Lambert, J., and Steyaert, C. (2004), “Developing languagestrategies for international companies: the contribution of translation studies”, Journal of World Business, Vol. 39 No. 4, pp. 414-430. Khomenei, A, R (1980), “Search and Find the East”, In Albert, H (ed). Tell the American People: Perspectives on the Iranian Revolution, Movement for a New Society, Philadelphia, pp. 204-210.Latifi, F. (1997), “Management Learning in National Context”, PhD thesis, Henley Management College.Lazarova, M., and Tarique, I. (2005), “Knowledge transfer upon repatriation”, Journal of World Business, Vol. 40 No. 4, pp. 361-373.Nida, E.A. (1991), “Theories of translation”, TTR: traduction, terminologie,rédaction, Vol. 4 No. 1, pp. 19-32.Phillipson, R. (1992), Linguistic Imperialism, Oxford, Oxford University Press. Pochhacker, F. (2006), “Interpreters and ideology: from …between‟ to…within‟”, Across Languages and Cultures, Vol. 7 No. 2, pp.191–207.Pym, A. (2006), “On the social and the cultural in Translation Studies”, in Pym, A., Shlesinger, M. and Jettmarová, Z. (Eds.), Sociocultural Aspects of Translating and Interpreting, Amsterdam and Philadelphia, Benjamins. Pym, A. (2008), “On Toury's laws of how translators translate”, in Pym, A.D., Shlesinger, M., and Simeoni, D. (Eds.), Beyond DescriptiveTranslation Studies: Investigations in Homage to Gideon Toury, Amsterdam and Philadelphia, Benjamins.Sliwa, M. (2008), “Understanding social change through post-colonialtheory: Reflections on linguistic imperialism and language spread in Poland”, Critical Perspective on International Business, Vol.4 No. 2/3, pp. 228-241. Tayeb, M. (2001), “Human Resource in Iran”, in Budwar, P.S. and Yaw, D. (Eds.) Human Resource Management in Developing Countries, London: Routledge, pp.121-134.Tietze, S. (2008), International Management and Language, London, Routledge.Tietze, S. (2007), “Language and international management emergent themes and new perspectives”, Bradford University School of Management Working Paper, No. 07/35.Tollefson, J.W. (1991), Planning Language, Planning Inequality, Language Policy in the Community, New York, Longman.Toury, G. (1995), Descriptive Translation Studies and beyond, Amsterdam and Philadelphia, Benjamins.Welch, D.E, and Welch, L.S. (2008), “The importance of language in international knowled ge transfer”, Management International Review, Vol.48 No. 3, pp. 339-360.Welch, D, Welch. L, and Piekkari, R. (2005), “Speaking in tongues: The impact of language in international management processes”, International Studies of Management and Organization, Vol. 35 No. 1, pp. 10-27. Wierzbicka, A. (2001), “A Culturally Salient Polish Emotion: Przykro ['Pshickro]”, International Journal of Group Tensions, Vol. 30 , pp. 3-27.在翻译中迷失？译者在国际商务中的文化、语言与角色约翰．布莱金索普和玛雅姆．塞得门．帕乔英国梯塞德大学商学院摘要目标：国际商务中有关的语言问题一直是越来越多的理论和实证性工作的焦点，本文促成了这些文献并专注于翻译问题。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
研究生课程（论文类）试卷
2010 /2011 学年第 1 学期
课程名称：专业英语
课程代码：11000003
论文题目：再生式流体压缩机作为二级气泵控制发动机排气学生姓名：张峰
专业学号：制冷与低温工程 102310121
所在学院：能源与动力学院
图
二级气泵已经被确立为汽车发动机的主要部件，但更多的研究目的是为了提高二级气泵运行的效率，可靠性，宽范围。
汽车工业通常期望的二级气泵都要有以下特性。
40%上下；
与传统的二级气泵相比，流速增加的同时效率提高了但不会增加电流消耗；
能在维持泵的现行流速同时通过降低泵的能耗来增加二级气泵的效率；
在电动机转速限制在≤16500转/分钟的情况下，能够实现
在没有引导的情况下，启动时压力上升最快合适；
尺寸紧凑。
无量纲流量系数为：
尽管如此,再生式流体压缩机最大的优势，特别是在这样的减排类型的发动机应用中图3. 在9.96 kPa反压下，再生式流体压缩机和离心空气泵流量和压力随时间变化的比较
图4.在9.96 kPa反压下，再生式流体压缩机和离心式空气泵运行故障时间长短的比较
图5 再生流体涡轮机切向压力偏差（来自附录2）
流体进入泵通过入口区域(A)处流动压力的损失。
这个区域已经被试验证明在泵里面对流体的型态以及泵的性能具有很大的影响。
在流体从A到B的过程中得到加速。
流体进入工作区域（B-C
的速度和压力主要取决于进口区域。
这个工作区域压力变化是线性的，流体型态在这个区域中充分发展，并且流体经历一个重要的升压过程。
当流体流体在出口（区域D）离开泵时，经历一个与入
图6 压力沿着泵环面从吸收到释放的变化过程
性能预测
图7 近距离观察到叶轮叶片之间的速度矢量(叶轮叶片三维流场观察图)
图8.在进出口压力差为10 kPa，转速为16 500 r/min条件下再生式流体压缩机模型运行时的压力分布
图12.在压力差为10kPa，转速为16 500 r/min， T3温度下在气泵进口区的静压轮廓图
图16.切向流动和循环部件
通过进一步的简化公式,再循环压力上升可以表示为(见附录2细节推导)：。