Microlinguistic
语言应用学专有名词解释
Micro-linguistics: phonology; morphology; syntax; semantics; Pragmatics;Phonetics Macro-linguistics:Psycholinguistics;Sociolinguistics;Anthropologicallinguistics;Computational linguistics;Historical linguistics;corpus linguistics;Some other applicationLinguistics：is the scientific study of language.（Linguistics is a subject which studies language in general systematically and scientifically）Language：language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Morphology:one of the branches of micro-linguistics which studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Syntax is branch of micro-linguistics which mainly studies how words are combined to form sentences.Semantics is one of the branches of micro-linguistics which mainly studies meaning of words, phrases and sentences.Arbitrary:There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Duality:Human language is a system which consists of two sets of structures/ levels: lower level and higher level.Displacement: Most animals can only communicate about things in the immediate situation, but human beings can talk about things that are absent, in the past, present or future as easily as about things that are present.Cultural transmission: Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. This showed that language is culturally transmitted, not by instinct, but by passing on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning.Phonetics:It is one of the branches of micro-linguistics which mainly studies human speech sounds.Phonology:It is a branch of micro-linguistics which mainly studies how sounds are organized to form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey in natural languages. It is concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Culture is a historically shared system of symbolic resources through which we make our world meaningful.Culture shock is a psychological phenomenon that is experienced most often by those who, whether voluntarily or involuntarily, in the process of adjusting themselves to a new culture. It is the anxiety when people are isolated in an alien culture. Reverse culture shock :It is the term for re-entry responses experienced when one tries to readjust to one’s own culture .Speech act theory:Speech act is a term derived from the work of the philosopher J. L. Austin (1962) and now used to refer to a theory which analyzes the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonalcommunication.Language and culture relationship :Language and culture, intrinsically dependent on each other, have evolved together through the history. Where there is a language, there is its distinctive culture.In a word, language expresses cultural reality.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis is the ideas about language–thought relationship, put forward by Sapir and Whorf. The main ideas are: one’s thinking is determined by his native language because one can not but perceive the world through his language. That is language determinism.Low-Context Communication:Language is precise –the message is in the words: say what you mean and mean what you say.High-Context Communication : Language is not the only means of communication: gesture, facial expression, silence, setting.Synonymy (同义现象): the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. Synonyms may be different in dialect, style, emotion and collocation. 同义关系(synonymy):英语中绝对同义词是很少的,但在一定的上下文之中,一个词可以用另外的词来代替而使意义不变,这样的同义现象很普遍。
27037本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理Chapter2Linguistics
Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学2.1 The scope of linguistics:语言学的研究范畴Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.语言学是对语言的科学研究。
It may be a study of the structure of language，the history of language，the functions of language，etc.它可能研究语言的及结构,语言的历史、语言的功能等。
It is a scientific study beacause “it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data，conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure”（Dai Wei dong，1988:1）这是一个科学研究因为“这是基于语言数据的系统考察,和语言结构一般理论的研究之上的”2.1.1 Lyons’ distinctions 莱昂斯的区分1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics. 普通语言学与描写语言学：The former deals with language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.前者处理一般语言，而后者涉及一个特定的语言。
2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics. 共时语言学与历时语言学：Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.历时语言学追溯了语言的历时发展和记录了发生的连续时间点间的变化，共时语言学提供了一个账户的语言，因为它是某个特定的时间点。
英语语言学概论整理
Chapter 1 Language语言1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish itfrom any animal system of communication.2. Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehendingindefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language.3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivatedrelationship between a linguistic form and its meaning.4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that representssomething else by association or convention.5. discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a languageare meaningfully distinct.6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language canbe used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users.7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds,the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure.8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passedon from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9. interchangeability(互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both aproducer and a receiver of messages.1. ★What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. ★What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Duality of structure.7) Interchangeability.3. Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4. ★(Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions ofchildren’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language?I. H alliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:1) Instrumental function. 工具功能2) Regulatory function. 调节功能3) Representational function. 表现功能4) Interactional function. 互动功能5) Personal function. 自指性功能6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7) Imaginative function. 想象功能II. A dult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学1. general linguistics and descriptive linguistics(普通语言学与描写语言学) The former dealswith language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics(共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachroniclinguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The former copeswith languages with a view to establishing a theory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics (微观语言学与宏观语言学) The former studies only thestructure of language system whereas the latter deals with everything that is related to languages.5. langue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by allthe members of a speech community whereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6. competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all thelinguistic regulation systems whereas the latter is the use of language in concrete situation.7. speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing iswritten codes, gives language new scope.8. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为)People actually says on a certain occasion to a certain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The formerdescribes the horizontal dimension of a language while the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10. verbal communication and non-verbal communication (言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use oflanguage as a means of transmitting information is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1. ★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy andsimplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theoryand the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significantgeneralizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. ★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s nativelanguage.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words andmeaning of sentences.6) Pragmatics. 语用学★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.Chapter 3 Phonetics语音学1. articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds iscalled articulatory phonetics.2. acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission ofspeech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3. auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is calledauditory phonetics.4. consonant(辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is eithercompletely blocked, or partially blocked, or where the opening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5. vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in anyway and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6. bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restrictedby the two lips. [p][b] [m] [w]7. affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediatelyreleasing it slowly is called affricates. [t X] [d Y] [tr] [dr]8. glottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9. rounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lipsforming a circular opening. [u:] [u] [OB] [O]10. diphthongs(双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to anotherthrough intervening positions.[ei][ai][O i] [Q u][au]11. triphthongs(三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowelposition to another and then rapidly and continuously to a third one. [ei Q][ai Q][O i Q] [Q u Q][au Q] 12. lax vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tensevowels and lax vowels. All the long vowels are tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. ★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1) The position of the soft palate.2) The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3) The place of articulation.4) The manner of articulation.2. ★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1) The state of the velum2) The position of the tongue.3) The openness of the mouth.4) The shape of the lips.5) The length of the vowels.6) The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. ★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1) Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is calledarticulatory phonetics.2) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speechsounds is called acoustic phonetics.3) Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is calledauditory phonetics.4. ★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:1) Voiced.2) Nasal.3) Consonantal.4) Vocalic.5) Continuant.6) Anterior.7) Coronal.8) Aspirated.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1) High.2) Low.3) Front.4) Back.5) Rounded.6) Tense.Chapter 4 Phonology 音位学1. phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.2. allophones(音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particularphoneme.3. phones(单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called aphone.4. minimal pair (最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by onesound.5. contrastive distribution (对比分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same environmentand the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6. complementary distribution(互补分布) If two or more sounds never appear in the sameenvironment ,then they are said to be in complementary distribution.7. free variation(自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and thesubstitution of one for the other does not cause any change in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8. distinctive features(区别性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes onephoneme from another.9. suprasegmental features(超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply togroups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.10. tone languages(声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning atword level.11. intonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguishmeaning at phrase level or sentence level.12. juncture(连音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcategrammatical units.1. ★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1) Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds,while phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2) Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstractdescription of speech sounds and tries to describe the regularities of sound patterns.2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1) The two forms are different in meaning.2) The two forms are different in one sound segment.3) The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4. ★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1) Contrastive distribution. Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distributionbecause substituting [m] for [n] will result in a change of meaning.2) Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] arein complementary distribution because the former occurs either initially in a word or initially ina stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3) Free variation. In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and/dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/ can be said to be in free variation.5. What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What arethe suprasegmental features in English?I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus haveeffect on one sound segment, are referred to as segmental features.2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segmentare known as suprasegmental features.3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may applyto a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6. What’s the difference between tone language s and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7. ★What’s the difference between phonetic tran scriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.Chapter 5 Morphology 形态学1. morphemes (语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of alanguage.allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2. roots(词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principalmeaning.affixes(词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3. inflectional affixes (屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, butdo not change its part of speech.derivational affixes(派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4. empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both aword and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.6. immediate constituents(直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largestgrammatical units that constitute a construction. Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7. morphological rules (形态学规则) The principles that determine how morphemes are combinedinto new words are said to be morphological rules.8. word-formation process (构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes offorming new words on the basis of already existing linguistic resources.1. ★What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2. How are morphemes classified?1) Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes andaffixational morphemes.2) Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and boundmorphemes.3. ★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications ofmorphemes.a) All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b) All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4. What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero morph?a) Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b) Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of bothfunction and position.a) Functionally:i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words whilederivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b) In term of position:i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6. What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example:a) un- + adj. ->adj.b) Adj./n. + -ify ->v.c) V. + -able -> adj.d) Adj. + -ly -> adv.Chapter 6 Syntax 句法学1. syntagmatic relations (横组关系) refer to the relationships between constituents in aconstruction.paradigmatic relations (纵聚合关系) refer to the relations between the linguistic elements withina sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations (等级关系) refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at anylevel within a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis (标记法直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers (短语标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing(方括号标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3. constituency (成分关系)dependency (依存关系)4. surface structures (表层结构)refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression,derived from deep structure by transformational rules.deep structures (深层结构) deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures.5. phrase structure rules (短语结构规则)are a way to describe a given language's syntax. Theyare used to break a natural language sentence down into its constituent parts.6. transformational rules (转换规则)7. structural ambiguity (结构歧义)1. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?They are different from each other in four aspects:1) Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deepstructures correspond to the meaningful grouping of sentences.2) Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3) Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meaningsof sentences.4) Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2. Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1) PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2) T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3. What’s the o rder of generating sentences? Do we start with surface structures or with deepstructures? How differently are they generated?To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules) while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).4. What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5. What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1) Syntagmatic relations2) Paradigmatic relations.3) Hierarchical relations.Chapter 7 Semantics 语义学1. Lexical semantics (词汇语义学) is defined as the study of word meaning in language.2. Sense (意义) refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Reference (所指) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.4. Concept (概念) is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5. Denotation(外延) is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguisticexpression independent of context and situation.6. Connotation (内涵) refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of themeaning of, a linguistic unit.7. Componential analysis (成分分析法) is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into itscomponents.8. Semantic field (语义场) The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items,but is organized into areas, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways.The areas are semantic fields.9. Hyponymy (上下义关系) refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusiveword and a more specific word.10. Synonymy (同义关系) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11. Antonymy (反义关系) refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12. Lexical ambiguity (词汇歧义)13. Polysemy (多义性) refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14. Homonymy(同音(同形)异义关系) refers to the phenomenon that words having differentmeanings have the same form.15. Sentence semantics (句子语义学) refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1. What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? Andhow does he classify semantics?In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2. What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning?1) Object, 2) concept, 3) symbol, 4) user, 5) context.3. What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory ofsemantic theory in defining meaning of words?。
the nature of linguistics
2. What is Linguistics?
the scientific study of language or the science of language (social science): The scientific features of linguistic study exhasutiveness consistency economy objectivity
sign
semantics pragmatics
object
(Language philosophy)
user
The apexes of the triangle are language signs, signs, objects the signs refer to and users of language. language.
3. Main branches of Linguistics
a tree-like illustration as follows: treepragmatics semantics syntax morphology phonology phonetics
Meaning in use Meaning in the abstract
The process of linguistic study can be summarized as follows:
First, certain linguistic facts are observed, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; Next, based on these generalizations, hypotheses are formulated to account for these facts; and then the hypotheses are tested by further observations; and Finally a linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.
linguistics
Use of linguistics
1. Sociolinguistics: the study of relationship between
language and society
2. Psycholinguistics: the study of the relationship
Noam Chomsky • Birth: 1928.12.7 • Main interests： Linguistics Philosophy of language Philosophy of mind • Notable ideas： Generative grammar, universal grammar
In the late 1960s-1970s, semantics became a separate discipline.
Trend of modern linguistic development
2. Linguistics studies not only language system, but also speech activities & speech mechanism Structural linguistics: language system is the only object of linguistic study Speech activities: speaking & writing (constructing utterances) and listening and reading (understanding utterances) Speech mechanism: how people construct and understand utterances
语言学概论-试卷1
一、在下列每小题的四个备选答案中，选出一个正确答案，并将其字母标号填入括号内。
1.A symbol consists of two parts: a concrete form and the which the object or form conveys. ( A )A. meaningB. meansC. signD. signature2. By saying language is ____ we mean we can’t give a sound reason wh y such a form ispronounced in this way rather than in that way, and why a particular meaning should be indicated by this form rather than by that form. 我们无法给出合理的理由说明为什么以这种方式而不是以这种方式发音，以及为什么应该用这种形式而不是那种形式来表示特定的含义。
( B )A. systematicB. arbitrary任意的C. symbolicD. conventional3. Which of the following is an acceptable English form? ( D )A. / fsem /B. / uid /C. / mdik /D. / haid /4. Which of the following is a narrow transcription? ( D )A. /′kʌmfət/B. /′ritn/C. /fi: l /D. /kʌla: s /★5. The production of a stop consists of three stages: closure stage, hold stage and_____ stage ( B )A. relaxB. releaseC. stopD. relieve6. A phoneme is defined as a minimal, distinctive unit in the _____ system of a language. ( D )A.syntaxB. semanticsC. linguisticD. sound7. The same phrase or sentence may have two or more interpretations depending on the hierarchical arrangement of its constituents. 相同的短语或句子可能具有两种或更多种解释，具体取决于其组成的层次结构Such a case is called _____. ( A )A. structural ambiguityB. semantic ambiguityC. hierarchical orderD. linear order8. Which of the following is NOT an illocutionary（言外的）speech act according to Searle?(D )A. directivesB. commissivesC. expressivesD. representation9. Lexical(词汇的) semantics is concerned with _____ meaning. (C )A. sentenceB. syntacticC. wordD. discourse10.If sentences are syntactically well-formed but semantically ill-formed(句子在语法上格式正确，但在语义上格式错误，), they are known as semantically _____ sentences. (C )A. normalB. abnormalC. anomalous (异常的)D. well-formed二、填空题。
关于毕业论文的三种格式_论文格式_
关于毕业论文的三种格式x大学毕业论文课题名称学生姓名学号专业班级指导教师XX 年月二、“目录”样式i. introductionii. demonstrationa. language as a concrete system of signs1. language is a system.2.the conventionalization of language.b. language as a social institution1. communicative function of language.2. language evolves hand in hand with the society.a.influences from the society upon language.1) macrolinguistic perceptive2) microlinguistic perceptiveb.influences from language upon society1) interaction between language and society2) social factors and linguistic researchiii. conclusion三、“英、中文摘要、关键词”样式abstractthis paper begins with a brief introduction to chomsky’smethodology of idealization in linguistic research.摘要：本文从chomsky在语言学研究过程中所采用的理想化模式入手，认为chomsky为了使研究变得简单，便将与语言关系紧密的社会因素摒除在研究范围之外，这是一种不可取的理想模式。
接下来本文从两个主要方面阐述了理想化模式不可取的原因：一是语言作为一种符号系统，只有在社会的环境下才能具有完整的意义。
Linguistics 语言学
语言学第一讲Lecture One Brief Introduction to Ling and Lang1. Linguistics1.1 Definition of linguistics Page 1-2“scientific study of language”.ling is a discipline which describes lang in all its respects (e.g. its system, its internal structure, its social functions, its use and its historical development) and formulates theories as to how it works.1.2linguistics versus traditional grammarTraditional grammar, as a pre-20th century language description andpre-linguistic product of research, was based upon earlier grammars of Latin or Greek, and laid emphasis on correctness, literary excellence, the use of Latin models, and the priority of written language----A gram which states rules for what is considered the best or most correct usage. The three sources from which the rules of prescriptive gram come:1)Latin and Greek----unchanging form of these langs----high prestige in European education----brilliance of classical literature.e.g “It is I” and not “It is me”2) the written langespecially the works of great writers. People are told to speak as they would write.e.g Whom did you speak to?3) LogicGram should be judged insofar as it follows the principles of logic.e.g You shouldn’t say“I haven’t done nothing”I don’t know nothing about the matter. (一无所知)Nobody hardly took notice of him. (几乎没有一个人注意他)Features of Modern linguistics----priority is given to spoken language;----focus is on synchronic study of contemporary language than in the study of the evolution of languages;----modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature;----it is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented.1.3. Use of studying linguistics Page 3-41.4 The scope of linguistics Page 4-8Linguistics can be classified from different angles1) general linguistics, particular linguistics,2) synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics3) comparative-historical linguistics and contrastive linguistics4) theoretical linguistics, applied linguistics (the structure/system)5) prescriptive ling, descriptive ling6) microlinguistics and macrolinguisticsMicrolinguistics:Phonetics ----Phonology---Morphology--Syntax---Semantics---PragmaticsMacrolinguistics:Sociolinguistics—Psycholinguistics—Neurolinguistics—Anthropological linguistics---Applied linguistics---Corpus linguistics----Discourse Analysis----Cognitive linguistics----Computational linguistics----. ExerciseComment on the differences between human language and animal communication, and provide examples if you can.第二讲differences between human language and animal communication：1) language has the ability to refer to things far removed in time and space. Human frequently say things such as “My uncle went to Shanghai last week.”. In contrast, it may be impossible for an animal to convey similar information.2) humans have the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances, but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3) learning/acquiring is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any known animal communication system.5) animal communication systems are closed, whereas human languages are open-ended.6) humans can perform acts with language.2. Language2.1 Definition of language (Page 8)Tool for human communicationMeans by which we express our feeling…..Comprehensive definitionIt is really just as difficult to define language as it is to define man.人：是一切社会关系的总和；是唯一能把动物养成宠物和煮成食物的动物；是一种会笑的动物；"Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication"Wardhaugh in his "Introduction to Linguistics" (1972).（语言是用于人类交际的、任意的、有声的符号系统）Short as it is, this definition has captured the main features of language.First of all, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary.Third, language is vocal.Fourth, language is symbolic.Fifth, language is used for human communication and language ishuman-specific.2.2 Origine of language (page3-4)In general, there are two contrasting viewpoints: the divinist and evolutionist The divinists---- ----language was God’s gift to mankindAccording to Christian beliefs, God gave Adam the power to name all things. Whatever Adam called everything God created. Language is the creation of God. Evolutionists----language is the product of human evolution. It was originated in the process of labor.According to the evolution theory proposed by Darwin, language is a product of evolutionary development of the human species. It is a human invention.The earliest human being is believed to live in Africa around 200,000 years ago, and modern language emerged perhaps around 100,000 years ago (Aitchison, 1996). In the beginning there was one language developed by Afican men. As these ancient ancestors walked out of Afica and spread around the world about 35, 000 to 12, 000 years ago, more and more languages were developed.2.3 Design Features of Language1) Arbitrariness---There is no logical (intrinsic or direct) connection between the sound/sign and meaning, between the word and its object, between the grammar and the meaning it carries;or the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.A building we live in with our family is called house in English, maison in French, dom in Russion, casa in Spanish, fangzi in ChineseHowever, language is not entirely arbitrary; there are cases where there seems to be some association between sounds and meaning, e.g.Onomatopoetic words: P10Motivated wordsSome compound words: tractor driver shoe-makerThe other side of the coin of arbitrariness is conventionality. The link between linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.A pair of trousers----一条裤子 A pair of shirts---两件衬衣Go shopping *go buying go hunting冬瓜(white gourd) （夏天吃的）北戴河is not a river 中南海is not a sea.食堂餐厅*餐堂*食厅英国的语言----英语英文中国的语言----中文（*中语）汉语昨天昨晚*昨早*昨月*昨年去年*去天*去晚*去月明天明年*明月*明周今天今年*今月两百二十元----*二百两十元二百五----傻里傻气的人生前好友（死前好友）已婚夫妇未婚妻（未婚怎么能称妻）三长两短、七上八下三下五除二2) DualityTwo levels:Lower level---- a limited set of sounds, meaninglessHigher level----units of meaning coming from the combination of the units of lower level Phoneme—morpheme—words—phrase—clause—sentence3) Productivity/creativity--The users of a language can utilize limited linguistic rules to produce or understand infinite meaningful linguistic forms, including those they have never heard before.This is the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.The man that the girl that my wife taught married published many poems.(和我妻子教的那个女孩结婚的那个男人发表了许多诗)他一边脱衣服，一边穿裤子。
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From pidgin to Creole（克里奥尔 （ 语）
• As a result of intermarriage, the pidgin is spoken at home and learned by children as a mother tongue. • When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their mother tongue, it is said to have become a Creole.
Pidgin(洋泾浜英语）
• Pidgin(洋泾浜英语）: It is the mixture of 洋泾浜英语） 洋泾浜英语 two or more languages and not a native language of anyone. It is learned informally in contact and used especially as trade language.
Microlinguistic
• We are interested in examining micro linguistic phenomena such as structural variants, address forms(称呼语), gender differences, discourse analysis（话语分 析）, Pidgin(皮钦语) and Creole(克里奥尔 语) languages and other more languagerelated issues.
Address forms(称呼语)
• Address forms plays an important in language and it is closely related to the society and culture and the people who use it. Different social system and cultural lead to various address forms and expressions.
Practical Creole
• • • • • • • • • • • • 一天：控入 两天：带入 太阳：所来 月亮：拉论 黑：诺 为什么：给不非呀 干什么：给非呀 知道：挂你 老师：提吃 学生：意思读但吃 老头：不楼木 很多人：不顾积木
Pidgin
• “瘪三”（BEG SIR，乞丐先生，用来形容 瘪三” 瘪三 ，乞丐先生， 叫花子、难民、逃荒者等各式穷人， 叫花子、难民、逃荒者等各式穷人，后引 申为最广泛的骂人用语之一： 申为最广泛的骂人用语之一： • "赤佬 是英语 赤佬"是英语 赤佬 是英语"CHEAT"（欺骗）和中文 佬 （欺骗）和中文"佬 "的混生词语，一个鲁迅时代最流行的洋泾 的混生词语， 的混生词语 浜俚语（隐语）； 浜俚语（隐语）；
Popular address forms
• • • • • • • • • • • • 在下&孤&偶&私&俺：“我”的意思。 MM ：“妹妹”或“美眉” 全拼的缩写。 恐龙：长得不太好看的女生。 青蛙：长得不太好看的男生。 大虾：大侠，指的是高手。 水友：泛指论坛的注册用户。 水王：指疯狂发帖并且不注意发帖质量的BBS用户。 GF ：“女朋友”的 英文girl friend的缩写。 BF ：“男朋友” 英文boy friend的缩写。 PLMM ：“漂亮美眉”全拼的缩写。 PPMM ：“漂漂美眉”的拼音缩写。 TX：“同学”的拼音缩写，也作“童鞋”； “调戏”的拼音语 • “蹩脚”（BILGE，船底污水，引申为肮脏的、 蹩脚” ，船底污水，引申为肮脏的、 下三滥的、劣质的） 下三滥的、劣质的） • “大兴”（DASHY，浮华的，华而不实的，引申 大兴” ，浮华的，华而不实的， 为假的、冒牌的、劣质的） 为假的、冒牌的、劣质的） • "肮三 （ON SALE，二手货贱卖，引申为垃圾货、 肮三"（ 肮三 ，二手货贱卖，引申为垃圾货、 形容人的品质低劣） 形容人的品质低劣）