杨忠语言学词汇

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杨忠语言学笔记

LinguisticsChapter 1 Introduction: Language and Linguistics●What is language?⏹Different definitions of language◆Language is a system whose parts can and must be considered in theirsynchronic solidarity. (de Saussure, 1916)◆[Language is] a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in lengthand constructed out of a finite set of elements. (Chomsky, 1957)◆Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method ofcommunicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarilyproduced symbols.⏹Each of the definitions above has pointed out some aspects of the essence oflanguage, but all of them have left out something. We must see themulti-faceted nature of language.⏹As is agreed by linguists in broad terms, language can be defined as asystem of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.●Features of human language⏹Creativity◆Language provides opportunities for sending messages that have neverbeen sent before and for understanding brand new messages.◆The grammar rules and the words are finite, but the sentences areinfinite. Every speaker uses language creatively.⏹Duality◆Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other ofmeanings.◆Certain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certain meanings.◆Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds or sequencesof speech sounds.⏹Arbitrariness◆The relationship between the two subsystems of language is arbitrary.◆There is no logical connection between sound and meaning.⏹Displacement◆There is no limit in time or space for language.◆Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present orfuture.⏹Cultural transmission◆Culture cannot be genetically transmitted. Instead, it must be learned.◆Language is a way of transmitting culture.⏹Interchangeability◆All members of a speech community can send and receive messages.⏹Reflexivity◆Human languages can be used to describe themselves.◆The language used to talk about language is called meta-language.●Functions of language – three meta-functions⏹The ideational function◆To identify things, to think, or to record information.⏹The interpersonal function◆To get along in a community.⏹The textual function◆To form a text.●Types of language⏹Genetic classification⏹Typological classification◆Analytic language –no inflections or formal changes, grammaticalrelationships are shown through word order, such as Chinese andVietnamese◆Synthetic language –grammatical relationships are expressed bychanging the internal structure of the words, typically by changing theinflectional endings, such as English and German◆Agglutinating language – words are built out of a long sequence of units,with each unit expressing a particular grammatical meaning, such asJapanese and Turkish●The myth of language – language origin⏹The Biblical account◆Language was God’s gift to human beings.⏹The bow-wow theory◆Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries ofanimals, like quack, cuckoo.⏹The pooh-pooh theory◆Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain orjoy.⏹The yo-he-ho theory◆Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged injoint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.⏹The evolution theory◆Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call ofsocial need.●What is linguistics?⏹Linguistics is the scientific study of language.◆Observing & questioning◆Formulating hypotheses◆Verifying the hypotheses◆Proposing a theory⏹Branches of linguistics◆Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions●Phonetics●Phonology●Morphology●Syntax●Semantics◆External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions●Pragmatics●Psycholinguistics●Sociolinguistics●Applied linguistics●Computational linguistics●Neurolinguistics⏹Features of linguistics◆Descriptive◆Dealing with spoken language◆SynchronicChapter 2 Phonetics●What is phonetics?⏹Phonetics is termed as the study of speech sounds.⏹Sub-branches of phonetics◆Articulatory phonetics – the production of speech sounds◆Acoustic phonetics – the physical properties of speech sounds◆Auditory phonetics – the perceptive mechanism of speech sounds●The speech organs⏹Where does the air stream come from?◆From the lung⏹What is the function of vocal cords?◆Controlling the air stream⏹What are the cavities?◆Oral cavity◆Pharyngeal cavity◆Nasal cavity●Transcription of speech sounds⏹Units of representation◆Segments (the individual sounds)⏹Phonetic symbols◆The widely used symbols for phonetic transcription of speech sounds isthe International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).◆The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a singlesymbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguishphonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.◆In more detailed transcription (narrow transcription) a sound may betranscribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to markthe finer distinctions.●Description of speech sounds⏹Description of English consonants◆General feature: obstruction◆Criteria of consonant description●Places of articulation●Manners of articulation●V oicing of articulation◆Places of articulation●This refers to each point at which the air stream can be modified toproduce a sound.⏹Bilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w]⏹Labiodental: [f] [v]⏹Interdental: [ ] [❆]⏹Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r]⏹Palatal: [☞] [✞] [t☞] [d✞] [j]⏹Velar: [k] [g] [☠]⏹Glottal: [h]◆Manners of articulation●This refers to how the air stream is modified, whether it iscompletely blocked or partially obstructed.⏹Stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]⏹Fricatives: [s] [z] [☞] [✞] [f] [v] [ ] [❆] [h]⏹Affricates: [t☞] [d✞]⏹Liquids: [l] [r]⏹Glides: [w] [j]⏹Nasals: [m] [n] [☠]◆V oicing of articulation●This refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds areproduced.⏹V oiced sounds⏹V oiceless sounds⏹Description of English vowels◆General feature: without obstruction◆Criteria of vowel description●Part of the tongue that is raised⏹Front⏹Central⏹Back●Extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate⏹High⏹Mid⏹Low●Kind of opening made at the lips●Position of the soft palate◆Single vowels (monophthongs) and diphthongs●Phonetic features and natural classes⏹Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called natural classes.⏹Major class features can specify segments across the consonant-vowelboundary.⏹Classification of segments by features is the basis on which variations ofsounds can be analyzed.Chapter 3 Phonology●What is phonology?⏹Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.⏹Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which areconcerned with the study of speech sounds.⏹Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.◆What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning ina particular language?◆What sounds vary in what ways in what context?◆What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?●Phonemes and allophones⏹ A phoneme is a distinctive, abstract sound unit with a distinctive feature.⏹The variants of a phoneme are termed allophones.⏹We use allophones to realize phonemes.●Discovering phonemes⏹Contrastive distribution – phonemes◆If sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be incontrastive distribution.◆Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs andminimal sets.● A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one soundin the same position.●Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by onesegment in the same position.◆The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels representedby the English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution.◆Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English.However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features.Therefore, they are separate phonemes.⏹Complementary distribution – allophones◆Sounds that are not found in the same position are said to be incomplementary distribution.◆If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number offeatures, they are allophones of the same phoneme.⏹Free variation◆If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution doesnot result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.●Distinctive and non-distinctive features⏹Features that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, and featuresdo not, non-distinctive features.⏹Distinctive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.●Phonological rules⏹Phonemes are abstract sound units stored in the mind, while allophones arethe actual pronunciations in speech.⏹What phoneme is realized by what allophones in what specific context isanother major question in phonology.⏹The regularities that what sounds vary in what ways in what context aregeneralized and stated in phonology as rules.⏹There are many phonological rules in English. Take the following ones asexamples.●[+voiced +consonant] – [-voiced]/[-voiced +consonant]_●[-voiced +bilabial +stop] – unaspirated/[-voiced +alveolar +fricative]_●Syllable structure⏹ A syllable is a phonological unit that is composed of one or more phonemes.⏹Every syllable has a nucleus, which is usually a vowel.⏹The nucleus may be preceded by one or more consonants called the onsetand followed by one or more consonants called the coda.●Sequence of phonemes⏹Native speakers of any language intuitively know what sounds can be puttogether.⏹Some sequences are not possible in English. The impossible sequences arecalled systematic gaps.⏹Sequences that are possible but do not occur yet are called accidental gaps.⏹When new words are coined, they may fill some accidental gaps but theywill never fill systematic gaps.●Suprasegmental features⏹Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or moresegments are called suprasegmental features.⏹These features are distinctive features.⏹Stress◆Stress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements overothers in a word.◆Stress is a relative notion. Only words that are composed of two or moresyllables have stress.◆If a word has three or more syllables, there is a primary stress and asecondary stress.◆In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. InEnglish, word stress is unpredictable.⏹Intonation◆When we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas.◆Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.◆The same sentence uttered with different intonation may expressdifferent attitude of the speaker.◆In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise.⏹Tone◆Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish words.◆The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered withdifferent tones.◆Chinese is a typical tone language.Chapter 4 Morphology●What is morphology?⏹The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.⏹Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds withmeaning.⏹Morphology is defined as t he study of the internal structure and theformation of words.●Morphemes and allomorphs⏹The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.⏹ A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.⏹“zero” form of a morpheme and suppletives◆Some countable nouns do not change form to express plurality. Similarly,some regular verbs do not change form to indicate past tense. In thesetwo cases, the noun or verb contains two morphemes, among whichther e is one “zero form” of a morpheme.◆Some verbs have irregular changes when they are in past tense. In thiscase, the verbs also have two morphemes. Words which are not relatedin form to indicate grammatical contrast with their roots are calledsuppletives.●Free and bound morphemes⏹Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes arecalled free morphemes.⏹Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. Theyare always attached to free morphemes to form new words. Thesemorphemes are called bound morphemes.⏹The distinction between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme iswhether it can be used independently in speech or writing.⏹Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are theaffixes (prefixes and suffixes).●Inflexional and derivational morphemes⏹Inflexional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number ofnouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.⏹Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms toconstruct new words.◆English affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.◆Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted intoother morphemes.◆The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words iscalled derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.●Conclusion: classification of morphemes⏹Morphemes◆Free morphemes◆Bound morphemes●Inflexional●Derivational: affixes⏹Prefixes: -s, -’s, -er, -est, -ing, -ed, -s⏹Suffixes●Formation of new words⏹Derivation◆Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.◆Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create aderived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes tothe word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness,unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a freemorpheme is termed complex derivation.◆Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category.Generally speaking, affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a differentlanguage origin.◆Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.◆Some English suffixes also change the word stress.⏹Compounding◆Compounding is another common way to form words. It is thecombination of free morphemes.◆The majority of English compounds are the combination of words fromthe three classes – nouns, verbs and adjectives – and fall into the threeclasses.◆In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech ofthe word.◆The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of thecomponents.⏹Conversion◆Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class intoanother class.◆Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.⏹Clipping◆Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting oneor more syllables.◆Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informaloccasions.◆Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even informal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian),gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator)and fax (facsimile)are rarelyused in their complete form.⏹Blending◆Blending is a process that creates new words by putting togethernon-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog(smoke +frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfastand lunch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word inthe textbook for junior middle school students –“plike” (a kind ofmachine that is like both a plane and a bike).⏹Back-formation◆Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a realor supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed fromtelevision. Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefixtele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix–sion in English indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in theword television as that suffix and drop it to form the verb televise.⏹Acronyms and abbreviations◆Acronyms and abbreviations are formed by putting together the initialletters of all words in a phrase or title.◆Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer thanabbreviations, which are read letter by letter.◆This type of word formation is common in names of organizations andscientific terminology.⏹Eponyms◆Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals orplaces. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originatingfrom the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slicesof bread so that he could eat while gambling.⏹Coinage◆Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existingmorphemes.◆This way of word formation is especially common in cases whereindustry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak andCoca-cola.Chapter 5 Syntax●What is syntax?⏹The term syntax is from the ancient Greek word syntaxis, which literallymeans “arrangement” or “setting out together”.⏹Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways inwhich words, with or without appropriate inflexions, are arranged to showconnexions of meaning within the sentence.⏹Syntax is a branch of linguistics that analyzes the structure of sentences.●What is a sentence?⏹Syntax is the analysis of sentence structure. A sentence is a sequence ofwords arranged in a certain order in accordance with grammatical rules.⏹ A sequence can be either well-formed or ill-formed. Native speakers of alanguage know intuitively what strings of words are grammatical and whatare ungrammatical.●Knowledge of sentence structure⏹Structural ambiguity◆Structural ambiguity is one or more string(s) of words has/have morethan one meaning. For example, the sentence Tom said he would comeyesterday can be interpreted in different ways.⏹Word order◆Different arrangements of the same words have different meanings. Forexample, with the words Tom, love and Mary, we may say Tom lovesMary or Mary loves Tom.⏹Grammatical relations◆Native speakers know what element relates to what other elementdirectly or indirectly. For example, in The boats are not big enough andWe don’t have enough boats, the word enough is related to differentwords in the two sentences.⏹Recursion◆The same rule can be used repeatedly to create infinite sentences. Forexample, I know that you are happy. He knows that I know that you arehappy. She knows that he knows that I know that you are happy.⏹Sentence relatedness◆Sentences may be structurally variant but semantically related.⏹Syntactic categories◆ A syntactic category is a class of words or phrases that can substitute forone another without loss of grammaticality. For example, consider thefollowing sentences:●The child found the knife.● A policeman found the knife.●The man who just left here found the knife.●He found the knife.◆All the italicized parts belong to the same syntactic category called nounphrase (NP). The noun phrases in these sentences function as subject.The knife, also a noun phrase, functions as object.●Traditional grammar⏹In traditional grammar, a sentence is considered a sequence of words whichare classified into parts of speech.⏹Sentences are analyzed in terms of grammatical functions of words: subjects,objects, verbs (predicates), predicatives, …⏹Compulsory elements of a sentence: subject, verb, object, complement,adverbial…⏹Nou ns: number, case, gender…⏹Verbs: tense, aspect, voice…⏹Adjectives and adverbs: comparative and superlative degrees⏹Agreement in number/person/gender⏹Parsing: trying to make detailed analysis in structure●Structural grammar⏹Structural grammar arose out of an attempt to deviate from traditionalgrammar. It deals with the inter-relationships of different grammatical units.In the concern of structural grammar, words are not just independentgrammatical units, but are inter-related to one another.⏹Form class◆Form class is a wider concept than part of speech in traditional grammar.◆Linguistic units which can appear in the same slot are said to be in thesame form class. For example, a(n), the, my, that, every,etc. can beplaced before nouns in English sentences. These words fall into oneform class.◆These linguistic units are observed to have the same distribution.⏹Immediate constituent (IC) analysis◆Structural grammar is characterized by a top-down process of analysis.◆ A sentence is seen as a constituent structure. All the components of thesentences are its constituents. A sentence can be cut into sections. Eachsection is its immediate constituent. Then each section can be further cutinto constituents. This on-going cutting is termed immediate constituentanalysis.◆Examples:●Old men and women: old | men and women, old || men | and women●The ||| little || girl | speaks || French.◆In this way, sentence structure is analyzed not only horizontally but alsovertically. In other words, IC analysis can account for the linearity andthe hierarchy of sentence structure.●I will suggest | that this || in itself reflects ||| a particular ideology|||| about gender ||||| that deserves to be re-examined.◆Two advantages of IC analysis:●It can analyze some ambiguities.●It shows linearity and hierarchy of one sentence.●Transformational-generative (TG) grammar⏹Background and the goal of TG grammar◆Chomsky (1957) – grammar is the knowledge of native speakers.●Adequacy of observation●Adequacy of description●Adequacy of explanation◆Writing a TG grammar means working out two sets of rules –phrasestructure rules and transformation rules –which are followed byspeakers of the language.◆TG grammar must account for all and only grammatical sentences.⏹Syntactic categories◆Noun Phrase (NP)◆Verb Phrase (VP)◆Sentence (S)◆Determiner (Det)◆Adjective (Adj)◆Pronoun (Pro)◆Verb (V)◆Auxiliary Verb (Aux)◆Prepositional Phrase (PP)◆Adverb (Adv)⏹Phrase structure (PS) rules◆S → NP VP(Det) (Adj) N◆NP →{Pro◆VP → (Aux) V (NP) (PP)◆PP → P NP⏹Tree diagrams (omit)⏹Recursion and the infinitude of language◆S contains NP and VP and that S may be a constituent of NP and VP. NPand PP can be mutually inclusive. If phrasal categories appear on bothsides of the arrow in phrase structure rules, the rules are recursive.Recursive rules can be applied again and again, and the phrase structurecan grow endlessly.⏹Sub-categorization of the lexicon.◆The process of putting words of the same lexical category into smallerclasses according to their syntactic characteristics is calledsub-categorization.⏹Transformational rules (T-rules)◆Particle movement T-rule●John turned the machine off. John turned off the machine.◆Replacement T-rule●John beat Tom. He beat Tom.●The house needs repairing (to be repaired).◆Insertion T-rule● A fish is swimming in the pond. There is a fish swimming in thepond.◆Deletion T-rule●They came in and (they) sat down.◆Copying T-rule●He is coming, isn’t he?●He has finished his homework, hasn’t he?◆Reflexivization T-rule●I wash me (myself).⏹TG grammar accounts for the mental process of our speaking.●Systematic-functional grammar⏹Background and the goal of systemic-functional grammar◆M. A. K. Halliday●Language is a system of meaning potential and a network ofmeaning as choices.●Meaning determines form, not vice versa. Meaning is realizedthrough forms.●The goal of systemic-functional grammar is to see how function andmeaning are realized through forms.●The three meta-functions of language⏹Ideational function⏹Interpersonal function⏹Textual function⏹The transitivity system of language◆Elements●Process●Participants●Circumstances◆Categorization of reality●Doing – material process⏹Processes involving physical actions: walking, running,throwing, kicking, wrapping, etc.⏹Actor, goal and circumstance●Being – relational process⏹Processes representing a relation being set up between twoseparate entities.⏹Be (identifying), have (attributive)⏹Carrier/possessor and attribute/possessed●Sensing – mental process⏹Processes of sensing, including feeling, thinking, perceiving,imagining, wanting, liking, etc.⏹Senser and phenomenon●Less central types of linguistic process⏹Verbal processes – saying something◆Sayer and receiver⏹Behavioural processes – active conscious processes◆Behaver and range⏹Existential processes – existence of an entity◆Existent⏹Mood and modality◆Mood expresses the speaker’s attitude and serves for interpersonalfunction. It is a syntactic constituent made up of the subject and thefinite.◆Modality is the degree of certainty or frequency expressed by thegrammatical forms of finite. It can be categorized by modalization andmodulation.⏹Theme and rheme◆Theme is the given information, while rheme is the new information.◆Examples:●John | is my friend.●He | should have replied to my letter.Chapter 6 Semantics●What is semantics?⏹Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the onlylinguistic discipline that studies meaning.⏹Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In otherwords, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences outof context.●Reference and sense⏹Linguistic expressions stand in a relation to the world. There are two aspectsof meaning.⏹Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity inthe world. But the referential theory fails to account for certain kinds oflinguistic expression.◆Some words are meaningful, but they identify no entities in the realworld, such as the words dragon, phoenix, unicorn, and mermaid.◆It is not possible for some words to find referent in the world, such asthe words but, and, of, however, the, etc.◆Speakers of English understand the meaning of a round trianglealthough there is no such graph.⏹Sense is the relation by which words stand in human mind. It is mentalre presentation, the association with something in the speaker’s or hearer’smind. The study of meaning from the perspective of sense is called therepresentational approach.●Classification of lexical meanings⏹Referential meaning (denotative meaning) – central meaning of words, stable,universal⏹Associative meaning –meaning that hinges on referential meaning, lessstable, more culture-specific◆Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has byvirtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent,。

杨忠---语言学概论中文版学习指导东北师范大学

《语言学概论》学习指导杨忠主编《语言学概论》学习指导主编杨忠副主编：林正军魏昆编者（按姓氏笔画排序）王泽霞王晶芝杨忠林正军《语言学概论学习指导》是为网络课程学历教育考生编写的学习指导书，既可用于网络语言学课程的大纲及教材辅导，亦可用作语言学课程教学的辅导材料。

语言学作为与外语教学密切相关的学科之一，在外语教学中的地位和作用越来越显著。

在大学英语本科专业，语言学已被当作一门重要的专业课开设。

同时，语言学也是外语教师职业发展和培训的必修课。

为了配合《语言学概论》（杨忠主编，高等教育出版社，2002）这本教材的教与学，我们组织编写了这本学习指导用书。

本书与教材相对应，共分为十章，每章包括导读、重点与难点、习题及语言学名家介绍四部分。

本书的编写体例由杨忠、林正军和魏昆共同商定。

具体分工如下：杨忠负责序言部分的撰写、以及全书的审校工作；王泽霞负责第一至三章及综合测试题一至四的编写；王晶芝负责第四至六章及综合测试题五至八的编写；林正军负责第七至十章及综合测试题九至十的编写、以及全书的统稿工作；魏昆负责全书的校对和编排工作。

本书语言学名家简介部分的编写参考了刘润青的《西方语言学流派》（外语教学与研究出版社，2004）、当代国外语言学与应用语言学文库的相关导读部分、以及中国学术期刊全文数据库的部分文章，在此我们向以上著作及文章的作者致谢！本书在编写过程中得到东北师范大学出版社魏昆老师以及出版社的大力支持，在此表示衷心感谢！编者2006年2月19日序第一章语言和语言学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—费迪南·德·索绪尔第二章语音学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—维伦·马泰休斯第三章音位学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—路易斯·叶姆斯列夫第四章形态学：词的构成研究导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—布龙菲尔德第五章句法：句子结构分析导读本章习题语言学名家介绍—乔姆斯基第六章语义学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—杰弗瑞·利奇第七章语用学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—约翰·塞尔第八章社会语言学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—威廉·拉波夫第九章第二语言习得导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—约翰·鲁珀特·弗斯第十章语言学与外语教学导读本章习题语言学名家介绍—韩礼德绪论漫谈外语教师学习语言学杨忠就“从语言学中学什么”和“怎样学习语言学”两个相关的话题与年轻的外语同行们交流一下学习语言学的体会，代为序。

杨忠--语言学概论课后综合测试题及中文版答案

综合测试题（一）I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets：(10 points)( ) 1. General linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning. ( ) 2. The total number of words stored in the brain is called morphology. ( ) 3. The sentence “The woman can’t bear children”is structurally ambiguous.( ) 4. Categorization refers to the process by which people use language to classify the world around and inside them.( ) 5. Metaphors can create similarities between the target domain and the source domain.( ) 6. According to referential content, deixis can be put into person deixis, place deixis, time deixis and discourse deixis.( ) 7. Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories.( ) 8. Modality can be categorized into probability and Usuality.( ) 9. Age is not the learner factor that has been an issue in second language acquisition research.( )10. Register, as a variety of language in use, is analyzed on three dimensions: field, mode and tenor.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. ____________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A. creativityB. arbitrarinessC. displacementD. interchangeability2. Syntactically, Japanese is ____________ language.A. analyticB. isolatingC. syntheticD. agglutinating3. The general roles language plays are termed .A. metalanguagesB. metafunctionsC. metadiscoursesD. metagrammar4. ____________ is a process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix.A. BlendingB. EponymsC. BackformationD. Clipping5. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a ___________.A. suffixB. prefixC. morphemeD. morph6. __________ theories are those that attempt to explain acquisition on the basis of assuming an innate biological endowment that makes learning possible.A. EnvironmentalistB. functionalistC. nativistD. both a and b7. Words and phrases like now, yesterday, next week, in three day, etC. are called __________.A. person deixisB. time deixisC. place deixisD. discourse deixis8. Every syllable has a(n) __________, which is usually a vowel.A. nucleusB. onsetD. code D. rhyme9. ___________ is defined as the study of meaning.A. linguisticsB. semanticsC. morphologyD. pragmatics10. A ___________ is a mixed language which has become the mother tongueof a speech community.A. pidginB. creoleC. EsperantoD. natural languageIII. Match the terms in column A with the phrases in column B and put a, b…j into brackets: (10 points)A B( ) 1. Socialinguistics a. the analysis of sentence structure( ) 2. Applied Linguistics b. the analysis of meaning in context( ) 3. Morphology C. the analysis of meaning( ) 4.d Phonetics d. the study of sound systems and patterns( ) 5.Linguistics e. the application of linguistic theories to other spheres ( ) 6. Syntax f. the study of speech sounds( ) 7. Psycholinguistics g. the study of the relationship between language and society ( ) 8. Pragmatics h. the study of word structure( ) 9. Phonology i. the scientific study of language( ) 10 Semantics j. the study of the relationship between language and mindIV. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature(s) they all share: (10 points)1.[t∫][dз]2.[m] [n] [ɡ]3.[f] [θ] [s ] [∫] [h]4.[d] [n] [z] [l] [r]5.[i:] [i] [u:] [u]V. Consider the following words and fill in the form: (10 points)VI. Interpretate the following ambiguous sentences: (10 points)1.The duck is too hot to eat.(1)______________________________________(2)______________________________________2.Visiting friends can be boring.(1)______________________________________(2)______________________________________VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1. derivation2.learner factorsVIII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1.What is the difference between “a red and a redcoat” ?2.What are the features of modern linguistics?3. According to Austin, what does a speech act consist of?综合测试题（二）I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)( ) 1. According to M. A. K. Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are ideational metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and logicalmetafunction.( ) 2. Duality is the first and foremost striking feature of human language. ( ) 3. Modality can be categorized into modalization and modulation according to Halliday.( ) 4. Morphology is the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.( ) 5. Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meaning. ( ) 6. Second language acquisition is a complex process which involves social factors and learner factors.( ) 7.Varieties of a language are of four types: the standard variety, regional dialets, sociodialects and registers.( ) 8. Functional linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning. ( ) 9.Euphemism is an expression that substitutes one which may be seen as offensive or disturbing to the addressee.( ) 10. Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The language used to talk about language is called __________.A. languageB. metalanguageC. natural languageD. artificial language2. [+continuant] specifies ________________.A. all the fricativesB. all the fricatives and glidesC. all the fricatives and liquidsD. all the fricatives, liquids and glides3. _________ is a process that creates new words by putting togethernon-morphemic parts of existing words.A. CoinageB. BlendingC. AcronmymsD. Clipping4. A __________ is a minimal distinctive linguistic unit.A. morphemeB. wordC. phonemeD. allophones5.The word “multinationality has ___________ morphemes.A. 2B. 3C. 4D. 56._________ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varietiesaccording to use”, in contrast with regional dialects and sociolects, both of which are “varieties according to user”.A. fieldB. modeC. tenorD. register7.__________ are a fundamental unit of conversational structure.A. back-channel signalsB. adjacency pairsC. pre-sequencesD. insertion sequences8.The idea that people cooperate with each other in conversing is generalizedby Grice (1975) as ____________.A. the principle of relevanceB. cooperative principleC. the politeness principleD. the theory of prototypes9.Beauty and siren both refer to a good-looking woman, but they differ in__________.A. affective meaningB. styleC. collocationD. register10.“John explained the theory”is a ___________ process according toHalliday.A. materialB. mentalC. verbalD. behavioralIII. Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given: (10 points)1.Specially, there are four m__________ under cooperative principlegeneralized by Grice.2.M__________ is unanimously acknowledged by researchers and languageteachers as an important factor in second language acquisition.3. A speech act consists of three dimensions. The act of producing ameaningful linguistic expression is called l_____________ act. The act of communicating intention through utterance is termed i_____________ act.The act of bringing about an effect is known as p____________ act.4.The transference of properties of the source domain to the target domain isreferred to by some cognitive linguists as m____________ .5.C__________ is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deletingone or more syllables.6. A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called a___________,7.The term language a___________ refers to the natural process of children’language development.8. A d___________ is a variety of a language that is distinctive from otherregional varieties in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.IV. Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of English word formation in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence: (10 points)( ) 1. This vet is very famous in the town. a. Conversion ( ) 2. This classroom is large and bright.. b. Derivation ( ) 3. He is watering flowers. C. Blending ( ) 4. Orlon is a kind of cloth material. d. Backformation( ) 5. Watt is the measurement unit of electricity. e. Acronym( ) 6. EEC is an important organization in the world. f. Compounding ( ) 7. An editor is a person who edits a newspaper. g. Coinage( ) 8. The road was enlarged last year. h. Eponym( ) 9. Some young people have brunch quite often. i. ClippingV. Pick out the sound that does not belong to the group of the sounds according to the natural class of sounds. And then name the feature(s) that define the one picked out and the group of sounds: (10 points)For example: [z] voiced/voiceless [f] [θ] [z] [s]1. [ ] ____________ ____ [m] [ŋ] [l] [n]2. [ ] ____________ ____ [p] [b] [m] [v] [w]3. [ ] ____________ ____ [s] [z] [∫] [dз] [з]4. [ ] ____________ ___________ [i:] [i] [æ] [u] [e]5. [ ] __________________________ [i:] [ə:] [e] [æ]VI. Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the sentence, “He found his book on Wall Street”: (10 points)VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)nguage and linguistics2.semantics and pragmaticsVII. Answer the following questions:(40%)1.How do you understand creativity, one of the features of human language?2.What do Taboo and Euphemism mean? What is the relationship betweenthem?3.What are the general roles language plays according to Halliday?综合测试题（三）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets. (10 points)( ) 1. A morpheme is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrast words in meaning and in form.( ) 2. The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage. ( ) 3. The word “went” contains two morphemes.( ) 4. The approach that analyzes word meaning by decomposing it into its atomic features is called componential analysis (CA).( ) 5. Euphemism refers to a prohibition on the use of, mention of, or association with particular objects, action, or persons.( ) 6. The distinction between a free morpheme and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.( ) 7. In English, the two liquids [l] and [r] are phonemes, but in Korean, they are allophones.( ) 8. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the Subject and the Predicate.( ) 9. Compounding is one type of word formation by combining both free morphemes and bound morphemes.( )10. The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The followings are all features of language except __________.A. dualityB. productivityC. changeabilityD. displacement2. The lexical sense relation between flour and flower is __________.A. synonymyB. antonymC. polysemyD. homonymy3. ______ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.A. ConversionB. AbbreviationC. EponymsD. Blending4. Children all undergo ________ stages of language development.A. babbling, two-word, holophrastic and the telegraphic speechB. babbling, two-word, telegraphic speech and the holophrasticC. babbling, holophrastic, two-word, and the telegraphic speechD. babbling, holophrastic, telegraphic speech and the two-word5. The followings are acknowledged as important factors in second language acquisition except _________.A. motivationB. nationalityC. ageD. learning strategy6. Speakers consider the matter of face for themselves and others. Based on this observation, Leech (1983) proposes _____________.A. the cooperative principleB. the principle of relevanceC. the politeness principle C. speech acts7.Minimal pairs can be exemplified by ____________.A. moon/noonB. foot/foodC. she/sheetD. sea/sea8.The features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or moresegments are called ___________.A. distinctive featuresB. non-distinctive featuresC. suprasegmental featuresD. free variation9.The ____________ function (sometimes also referred to as experientialfunction) is realized by the transitivity system of language.A. ideationalB. interpersonalC. textualD. logical10.Free morphemes were traditionally called roots, and bound morphemes_________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. affixesD. inflectional morphemesIII. Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of English word formation in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence: (10 points)( ) 1. Most children like drinking Coca-cola. a. Conversion ( ) 2. UNESCO is a branch United Nations. b. Derivation ( ) 3. The police machineguned the gang. c. Blending( ) 4. I like sandwiches very much. d. Backformation ( ) 5. There are a lot of fruits in the fridge. e. Acronym ( ) 6. Infotech is popular nowadays. f. Compounding ( ) 7. An editor is a person who edits a newspaper. g. Coinage( ) 8. His stepmother is very kind to him. h. Eponym( ) 9. The street was widened last year. i. ClippingIV. Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory description.(10 points)1. labiodentals [ ]2. interdentals [ ]3. back vowels [ ]4. high vowels [ ]5. palatal affricates [ ]V. Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket. (10 points)( ) 1. The noise annoyed him. a. Material process ( ) 2. The police caught him b. Relational process ( ) 3. There are two books on the table. c. Mental process ( ) 4. John explained the theory to me. d. Verbal process( ) 5. He watches TV every day. e. Behavioral process ( ) 6. The conference is on Monday f. Existential processVI. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1.arbitrariness2.voicingVII. Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the sentence, “They can fish”. (10 points)VIII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1.What is the difference between a greenhouse and a greenhouse?2.What is conversion in terms of word formation? Illustrate it with examples.3.What are the components of metaphors?综合测试题（四）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)( ) 1. English is a tone language.( ) 2. Bound morphemes are always attached to free morphemes to form new words.( ) 3. Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meanings. ( ) 4. Metaphor is an essential element in our categorization of the world and our thinking process.( ) 5. Overgeneralization is found universal in second language acquisition. ( ) 6. According to M. A. K. Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are experiential metafunction, interpersonal metafunction anddiscourse metafunction.( ) 7. The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage. ( ) 8. There are two types of language in the world: natural language and artificial language.( ) 9. Coinage is a process of inventing words based on existing morphemes. ( )10 Environmentalist theories hold that experience is of more importance than innate contributions in learning a second language.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The word “antidisestablishmentariaism” is composed of ______ morphemes.A. sixB. sevenC. eightD. nine2. __________ refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.A. VoicingB. VoicedC. NasalizationD. Aspiration3. Smog is a ___________ word.A. derivedB. clippedC. blendedD. compound4. The idea that the learners have a sense of achievement as long as they learn if of vital importance. This kind of motivation may be termed ____ motivation.A. instrumentalB. integrativeC. cognitiveD. none of them5. [u:] possesses the features _____________.A. [+high][+back][+round][-tense]B. [+high][-back][+round][+tense]C.[+high][+back][+round][+tense]D. [-high][+back][+round][+tense]6. English is an example of _________ languages.A. VSOB. SVOC. SOVD. SVO7. A ________ is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrastwords in meaning and in form.A. phonemeB. phoneC. morphemeD. morph8.Free morphemes were traditionally called _________.A. affixesB. prefixC. suffixD. root9.The lexical sense relation between elephant and animal is __________.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. antonymyD. homonymy10.Words like male and female, pass and fail, etc. are ________ antonyms.A. gradableB. complementaryC. reversalD. relativeIII. Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracketbefore the sentence. (10 points)( ) 1. John is talking to Jane. a. Material process ( ) 2. Tom is the leader b. Relational process ( ) 3. There is a cat on the bed. c. Mental process ( ) 4. The bad news astonished her. d. Verbal process ( ) 5. Edward broke the window. e. Behavioral process ( ) 6. He waved his hands. f. Existential processIV. State what semantic property or properties are shared by the group of words. (10 points)For example: typewriter, ruler, notebook[ +stationary]1. king, bachelor, son ________________________2. bull, rooster, stallion ________________________3. pine, rose, elm4. bravery, charity, devotion5. car, bike, planeV. Transcribe the sound represented by the underlined letter(s) in the words and the describe it. (10 points)Example: far [a:] back low vowel1. thread [ ]2. beat [ ]3. important [ ]4. live [ ]5. stop [ ]VI. Explain the ambiguity of the following sentences. (10 points)1.She can not bear children.(1)(2)(3) ______________________________________________2.He hates old men and women.(1)(2)VII. Explain the following terms with examples. (10 points)pounding2.Free variationVII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1.What is the distinction between semantics and pragmatics?2.What are the four parameters that underlie a speaker’s communicativecompetence according to Hymes (1972)?3.What are the three types of antonyms (lexical opposition) in English?综合测试题（五）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)( ) 1. Language is defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.( ) 2. Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meaning.( ) 3. The Swiss linguist Chomsky regarded the linguistic sign as composed of sound image and referent.( ) 4. Language can be used to refer to things real or false, past, present or future.( ) 5. Language is merely genetically transmitted from generation to generation.( ) 6. We use language as symbolic code to represent the world around us. ( ) 7. The ideatonal function of language binds individuals together. ( ) 8. When we speak or write we usually confine ourselves to single phrases or sentences.( ) 9. Language is mostly a natural phenomenon.( ) 10. Applied linguistic is concerned with the application of linguistic theories and descriptions in other fields.Ⅱ. Transcribe the sound underlined in the words and then describe it. (5 points)1.Geographic2.Red3.Song4.Clock5.PsychopathyⅢ. The following sets of minimal pairs show that English /p/ and /b/ contrast in initial, medial, and final positions. (5 points) Initial Medial Finalpit/bit rapid/rabid cap/cabFind similar sets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given:1./k/-/g/2./m/-/n/3./l/-/r/4./b/-/v/5./b/-/m/Ⅳ. Each of the following columns illustrates a different morphological process. (10 points)Column ⅠColumn ⅡColumn ⅢA. chairs A. reality A. blackboardB. wider B. movement B. greenhouseC.looked C.malcontent C. makeshiftD. Tom’s D. stepmother D. paintwork(1) What morphological process is shown by Column Ⅰ, Ⅱand Ⅲ.(2) What is the morphological difference between a),b) and c),d) inColumn Ⅱ.Ⅴ. Tell whether polarity or modality is expressed in the following sentences if modality, then identify the type (modalization or modulation). (10 points)1.I have not finished the task.2.He often comes to my office.3.I will show you how to make up the bed.4.He hardly came back to see his mother5.The company ought to cut the price of the products.Ⅵ. Analyze the semantic properties of the given cooking terms, using the features [+/-WATER], [+/-FAT], [+/-PAN], [+/-POT], [+/-OVEN], [+/-SIEVE], etC. (10 points)boil:fry:steam:stew:bake:Ⅶ. Paraphrase each of the following sentences in two different ways to show that you understand the ambiguity involved:(15 points)a).The professor’s appointment was shocking.b).The design has big squares and circles.c).The governor is a dirty street fighter.Ⅷ. What maxim of the politeness principle is observed by B?What is the implicature? (5 points)a).The dress is lovely, isn’t it?b).The material is nice.Ⅸ. Draw two phrase structure trees representing the two meanings of the sentence the magician touched the child with the wand. Be sure you indicate which meaning goes with which tree. (10 points)Ⅹ. Answer the following question: (20points)1.What is the functioning of stress and intonation in English?2.How do you account for the relation between phonetics andphonology?综合测试题（六）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (20 points)( ) 1. In the study of the first step is the task of auditory phonetics.( ) 2. The sound source is the larynx.( ) 3. The oral cavity contains most of the articulators, namely, the uvula, the velum the hard palate.( ) 4. Sounds which are produced with the upper teeth touching the lower lip are labialdentals.( ) 5. Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme. ( ) 6. Abbreviations are formed by putting together the final letters of some or all words in a phrase or title.( ) 7. Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places.( ) 8. All members.of a speech community can send and take messages. ( ) 9.Traditional grammar was initially based on European language, particularly on Latin and German.( ) 10. One of the important concepts of structural grammar is the concept of immediate constituent.( ) 11. Pragmatics is the analysis of meaning in context.( ) 12. The meanings communicated through language are or two types: conventional meanings and intentional meanings( ) 13. An expression used by a s peaker/writer to identify something is called deictic expression.( ) 14. Chomsky theory of conversational implicature is regarded as a breakthrough in pragmatic study of language use.( ) 15. Relevance is a relative notion. It is determined by two factors: contextual effect and processing effort.( ) 16. Modality can be categorized into modalization and intention.( ) 17. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the object and the finite. ( ) 18. Relational processes are linguistic processes that represent a relation being set up between two separate.( ) 19. Mental processes are processes of sensing.( ) 20. A TG grammar must account for all or only grammatical sentences.Ⅱ. Divide the following words by placing a + between their separate morphemes. (5 points)1.Retroactive2.Befriended3.Televise4.Margin5.EndearmentⅢ.Write the one proper description from the list under B for the italicized part of each word in A. (5 points)A Ba. terrorized (1) free rootb. uncivilized (2) bound rootC. terrorize (3) inflectional suffixd. lukewarm (4) derivational suffixe. impossible (5) inflectional prefix(6) derivational prefix(7) inflectional infix(8) derivational infixⅣ. Write out at least ten structure rules that each of the following rules abbreviate. (5 points)V P→V (NP) (PP) (Adv)NP→(Det) (Adj) N (PP)Ⅴ .Draw phrase structure trees for the following sentences: (10 points)a)The man found the letter.b)The students put the books in the classroom.Ⅵ. Write the semantic feature shared by the given words. (5 points)1.Bull, rooster, bachelor, boyk, water, alcohol, oil3.Squash, tennis, cricket, fencing, boxing4.Idea, concept, love, clarity, democracy5.Pine, elm, willow, birch, poplarⅦ.Each of the following words is a basic level term. Write its superordinate in the left blank and one of its subordinate in the right blank. (10 points)1.table2.willow3.cat4.blue5.dictionary6.painting7.driver8.verb9.chemistry10.juiceⅧ. The opposite of analytic is contradictory. A sentence that is false due to the meaning of its words alone is contradictory.Kings are female is an example. Write a C by the contradictory sentences and S for situational by sentences that are not contradictory. (10 points)1.My sister is a man.2.Witches are wicked3.My sister is an only child.4.The evening star isn’t the morning star.5.The evening star isn’t the evening star.6.Babies are adults.7.Babies can lift one ton.8.Puppies are human.9.My bachelor friends are all married.10.My bachelor friends are all lonely.Ⅸ. Pig Latin is a common language game of English; but even Pig Latin has dialects, forms of the “language game” with different rules. (10 points)Consider the following data from three dialects of Pig Latin, each with its own rule applied to words beginning with vowels:Dialect 1 Dialect 2 Dialect 3“eat” [itme] [ithe] [ite]“arc” [arkme] [arkhe] [arke]⑴ State the rule that accounts for the Pig Latin forms in each dialect.Dialect 1:Dialect 2:Dialect 3:⑵ How would you say honest, admire, and illegal in each dialect? Give thephonetic transcription of the Pig Latin forms.honest 1. 2. 3.admire 1. 2. 3.illegal 1. 2. 3.Ⅹ. Answer the following questions: (20 points)1.What is the function of phonological knowledge?2.Exemplify the differences between anaphoric and cataphoricreference.综合测试题（七）Ⅰ. Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given: (10 points)1.The term l a refers to the natural process ofchildren’s language development.2.It is found that children all undergo certain stages of languagedevelopment, namely the b stage, holophrastic stage,the two-word stage, and the telegraphic speech stage.3.The practice of error analysis is divided into i ,describing and explaining.4.S refers to the analysis of meaning.5.In the aspect of affective meaning, statesman is commendingin sense while politician is d .6. D synonyms are words which are similar in meaningbut used in different dialects of the language.7.In order to avoid repetition the writer needs to use a sto replace a word used in the previous co-text when he/shewants to continue to address that idea.8.The sentence “The bachelor is unmarried” is it t .9.The domain to be conceptualized is called t domain,while the conceptualizing domain is termed the sourcedomain.10.P deixis specifies the locations relative to the speechevent.Ⅱ. Write the sound which corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions: (5 points)1.tense front mid vowelteral liquid。

杨忠---语言学概论中文版学习指导东北师范大学

语言学作为与外语教学密切相关的学科之一，在外语教学中的地位和作用越来越显著。

在大学英语本科专业，语言学已被当作一门重要的专业课开设。

同时，语言学也是外语教师职业发展和培训的必修课。

为了配合《语言学概论》（杨忠主编，高等教育出版社，2002）这本教材的教与学，我们组织编写了这本学习指导用书。

本书与教材相对应，共分为十章，每章包括导读、重点与难点、习题及语言学名家介绍四部分。

本书的编写体例由杨忠、林正军和魏昆共同商定。

语言学杨忠第一章

Discussion:
What is language?
What does ‗language‘ mean?
General (broad) sense Used without articles. the universal properties of all human languages, i.e. the common features, not just one particular language.
(译文: 语言是用于人类交际的﹑任意的﹑ 有声的符号系统。)
A generally accepted definition:
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (Wardhaugh, 1977).
What is language?
A medium of communication.
A system of code
A carrier of culture
An instrument for thinking
A glue of a community
A social institution
What is language?
(译文: 语言是用于人类交际的﹑任意的﹑ 有声的符号系统。)
(1) What is language?
Language is systematic. Language is symbolic. Language is arbitrary. Language is primarily vocal. Language is human specific.
What is language?

杨忠--语言学概论课后综合测试题及中文版答案(仅供借鉴)

最新杨忠--语言学概论-课后综合测试题及中文版答案

综合测试题（一）I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets：(10 points) ：() 1. General linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning.() 2. The total number of words stored in the brain is called morphology.() 3. The sentence “The woman can’t bear children” is structurally ambiguous.() 4. Categorization refers to the process by which people use language to classify the world around and inside them.() 5. Metaphors can create similarities between the target domain and the source domain.() 6. According to referential content, deixis can be put into person deixis, place deixis, time deixis and discourse deixis.() 7. Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories.() 8. Modality can be categorized into probability and Usuality.() 9. Age is not the learner factor that has been an issue in second language acquisition research. ()10. Register, as a variety of language in use, is analyzed on three dimensions: field, mode and tenor.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. ____________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A. creativityB. arbitrarinessC. displacementD. interchangeability2. Syntactically, Japanese is ____________ language.A. analyticB. isolatingC. syntheticD. agglutinating3. The general roles language plays are termedA. metalanguagesB. metafunctionsC. metadiscoursesD. metagrammar4. ____________ is a process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix.A. BlendingB. EponymsC. BackformationD. Clipping5. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a ___________.A. suffixB. prefixC. morphemeD. morph6. __________ theories are those that attempt to explain acquisition on the basis of assuming an innate biological endowment that makes learning possible.A. EnvironmentalistB. functionalistC. nativistD. both a and b7. Words and phrases like now, yesterday, next week, in three day, etC. are called __________.A. person deixisB. time deixisC. place deixisD. discourse deixis8. Every syllable has a(n) __________, which is usually a vowel.A. nucleusB. onsetC. codeD. rhyme9. ___________ is defined as the study of meaning.A. linguisticsB. semanticsC. morphologyD. pragmatics10. A ___________ is a mixed language which has become the mother tongue of a speech community.A. pidginB. creoleC. EsperantoD. natural languageIII. Match the terms in column A with the phrases in column B and put a, b…j into brackets: (10points)A( ) 1. Socialinguistics( ) 2. Applied Linguistics( ) 3. Morphology( ) 4. Phonetics( ) 5. Linguistics( ) 6. Syntax( ) 7. Psycholinguistics( ) 8. Pragmatics( ) 9. Phonology( ) 10 SemanticsBa. the analysis of sentence structureb. the analysis of meaning in contextc. the analysis of meaningd. the study of sound systems and patternse. the application of linguistic theories to other spheresf. the study of speech soundsg.the study of the relationship between language and societyh.the study of word structurei. the scientific study of languagej. the study of the relationship between language and mindIV. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature(s) they all share: (10 points) 1. [t∫][dз] 2. [m] [n] [ɡ] 3. [f] [θ] [s ] [∫] [h] 4. [d] [n] [z] [l] [r] 5. [i:] [i] [u:] [u]V. Consider the following words and fill in the form: (10 points)Words analyzed number of morphemes troublesome free morphemesstepmother psycholinguistics understatement antidisestablishmentarianismVI. Interpretate the following ambiguous sentences: (10 points)1. The duck is too hot to eat. (1) ______________________________________ (2) ______________________________________2. Visiting friends can be boring. (1) ______________________________________ (2) ______________________________________VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1. derivation2. learner factorsVIII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1. What is the difference between “a red and a redcoat”?2. What are the features of modern linguistics?3. According to Austin, what does a speech act consist of?综合测试题（二）I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)() 1. According to M. A. K. Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are ideational metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and logical metafunction.() 2. Duality is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.() 3. Modality can be categorized into modalization and modulation according to Halliday. () 4. Morphology is the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.() 5. Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meaning.() 6. Second language acquisition is a complex process which involves social factors and learner factors.() 7.Varieties of a language are of four types: the standard variety, regional dialets, sociodialects and registers.() 8.Functional linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning.() 9.Euphemism is an expression that substitutes one which may be seen as offensive or disturbing to the addressee.() 10. Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The language used to talk about language is called __________.A. languageB. metalanguageC. natural languageD. artificial language2. [+continuant] specifies ________________.A. all the fricativesB. all the fricatives and glidesC. all the fricatives and liquidsD. all the fricatives, liquids and glides3. _________ is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words.A. CoinageB. BlendingC. AcronmymsD. Clipping4. A __________ is a minimal distinctive linguistic unit.A. morphemeB. wordC. phonemeD. allophones5. The word “multinationality has ___________ morphemes.A. 2B. 3C. 4D. 56. _________ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varieties according to use”, in contrast with regional dialects and sociolects, both of which are “varieties according to user”.A. fieldB. modeC. tenorD. register7. __________ are a fundamental unit of conversational structure.A. back-channel signalsB. adjacency pairsC. pre-sequencesD. insertion sequences8. The idea that people cooperate with each other in conversing is generalized by Grice(1975) as ____________.A. the principle of relevanceB. cooperative principleC. the politeness principleD. the theory of prototypes9. Beauty and siren both refer to a good-looking woman, but they differ in __________.A. affective meaningB. styleC. collocationD. register10. “John explained the theory” is a ___________ process according to Halliday.A. materialB. mentalC. verbalD. behavioralIII. Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given: (10 points) 1. Specially, there are four m__________ under cooperative principle generalized by Grice.2. M__________ is unanimously acknowledged by researchers and language teachers as an important factor in second language acquisition.3. A speech act consists of three dimensions. The act of producing a meaningful linguistic expression is called l_____________ act. The act of communicating intention through utterance is termed i_____________ act. The act of bringing about an effect is known as p____________ act.4. The transference of properties of the source domain to the target domain is referred to by some cognitive linguists as m____________.5. C__________ is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.6. A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called a___________,7.The term language a___________ refers to the natural process of children’ language development.8. A d___________ is a variety of a language that is distinctive from other regional varieties in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.IV. Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of English word formation in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence: (10 points)A() 1. This vet is very famous in the town.() 2. This classroom is large and bright..() 3. He is watering flowers.() 4.Orlon is a kind of cloth material.() 5. Watt is the measurement unit of electricity.() 6. EEC is an important organization in the world.() 7. An editor is a person who edits a newspaper.() 8. The road was enlarged last year.() 9. Some young people have brunch quite often.Ba. Conversionb. Derivationc. Blendingd. Backformatione. Acronymf. Compoundingg. Coinageh. Eponymi. ClippingV. Pick out the sound that does not belong to the group of the sounds according to the natural class of sounds. And then name the feature(s) that define the one picked out and the group of sounds: (10 points)For example: 1. [ 2. [ 3. [ 4. [ 5. [ [z] voiced/voiceless ____ ____ ____ ___________ [f] [θ] [z] [s] [m] [?] [l] [n] [p] [b] [m] [v] [w] [s] [z] [∫] [dз] [з] [i:] [i] [?] [u] [e] [i:] [?:] [e] [?] ] ____________ ] ____________ ] ____________ ] ____________] __________________________VI. Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the se ntence, “He found his book on Wall Street”: (10 points)VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1. language and linguistics2. semantics and pragmaticsVII. Answer the following questions:(40%)1. How do you understand creativity, one of the features of human language?2. What do Taboo and Euphemism mean? What is the relationship between them?3. What are the general roles language plays according to Halliday?综合测试题（三）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets. (10 points)()1. A morpheme is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrast words in meaning and in form.() 2. The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage.() 3. The word “went” contains two morphemes.() 4. The approach that analyzes word meaning by decomposing it into its atomic features is called componential analysis (CA).() 5. Euphemism refers to a prohibition on the use of, mention of, or association with particular objects, action, or persons.() 6. The distinction between a free morpheme and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.() 7. In English, the two liquids [l] and [r] are phonemes, but in Korean, they are allophones. () 8. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the Subject and the Predicate.() 9. Compounding is one type of word formation by combining both free morphemes andbound morphemes.()10. The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The followings are all features of language except __________.A. dualityB. productivityC. changeabilityD. displacement2. The lexical sense relation between flour and flower is __________.A. synonymyB. antonymC. polysemyD. homonymy3. ______ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.A. ConversionB. AbbreviationC. EponymsD. Blending4. Children all undergo ________ stages of language development.A. babbling, two-word, holophrastic and the telegraphic speechB. babbling, two-word, telegraphic speech and the holophrasticC. babbling, holophrastic, two-word, and the telegraphic speechD. babbling, holophrastic, telegraphic speech and the two-word5. The followings are acknowledged as important factors in second language acquisition except _________.A. motivationB. nationalityC. ageD. learning strategy6. Speakers consider the matter of face for themselves and others. Based on this observation, Leech (1983) proposes _____________.A. the cooperative principleB. the principle of relevanceC. the politeness principleD. speech acts7. Minimal pairs can be exemplified by ____________.A. moon/noonB. foot/foodC. she/sheetD. sea/sea8. The features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called ___________.A. distinctive featuresB. non-distinctive featuresC. suprasegmental featuresD. free variation9. The ____________ function (sometimes also referred to as experiential function) is realized by the transitivity system of language.A. ideationalB. interpersonalC. textualD. logical10. Free morphemes were traditionally called roots, and bound morphemes _________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. affixesD. inflectional morphemesIII. Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of English word formation in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence: (10 points)A( ) 1. Most children like drinking Coca-cola.( ) 2. UNESCO is a branch United Nations.( ) 3. The police machineguned the gang.( ) 4. I like sandwiches very much.( ) 5. There are a lot of fruits in the fridge.( ) 6. Infotech is popular nowadays.( ) 7. An editor is a person who edits a newspaper.( ) 8. His stepmother is very kind to him.( ) 9.The street was widened last year.Ba. Conversionb. Derivationc. Blendingd. Backformatione. Acronymf. Compoundingg. Coinage h. Eponym i. ClippingIV. Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory description.(10 points)1. labiodentals2. interdentals3. back vowels4. high vowels5. palatal affricatesV. Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket. (10 points)A( ) 1. The noise annoyed him.( ) 2. The police caught him( ) 3. There are two books on the table.( ) 4. John explained the theory to me.( ) 5. He watches TV every day.( ) 6. The conference is on MondayBa. Material processb. Relational processc. Mental processd. Verbal processe. Behavioral processf. Existential processVI. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1. arbitrariness2. voicingVII. Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the sentence, “They can fish”. (10 points) VIII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1. 2. What is the difference between a greenhouse and a greenhouse? What is conversion in terms of word formation? Illustrate it with examples.3. What are the components of metaphors?综合测试题（四）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)( ) 1. English is a tone language.( ) 2. Bound morphemes are always attached to free morphemes to form new words.( ) 3. Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meanings.( ) 4. Metaphor is an essential element in our categorization of the world and our thinking process.( ) 5. Overgeneralization is found universal in second language acquisition.( ) 6. According to M. A. K. Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are experiential metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and discourse metafunction.( ) 7. The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage.() 8. There are two types of language in the world: natural language and artificial language. ( ) 9. Coinage is a process of inventing words based on existing morphemes.( )10 Environmentalist theories hold that experience is of more importance than innate contributions in learning a second language.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The word “antidisestablishmentariaism” is composed of ______ morphemes.A. sixB. sevenC. eightD. nine2. __________ refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.A. VoicingB. VoicedC. NasalizationD. Aspiration3. Smog is a ___________ word.A. derivedB. clippedC. blendedD. compound4. The idea that the learners have a sense of achievement as long as they learn if of vital importance. This kind of motivation may be termed ____ motivation.A. instrumentalB. integrativeC. cognitiveD. none of them5. [u:] possesses the features _____________.A.[+high][+back][+round][-tense]B. [+high][-back][+round][+tense]C.[+high][+back][+round][+tense]D. [-high][+back][+round][+tense]6. English is an example of _________ languages.A. VSOB. SVOC. SOVD. SVO7.A ________ is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrast words in meaning and in form.A. phonemeB. phoneC. morphemeD. morph8. Free morphemes were traditionally called _________.A. affixesB. prefixC. suffixD. root9. The lexical sense relation between elephant and animal is __________.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. antonymyD. homonymy10. Words like male and female, pass and fail, etc. are ________ antonyms.A. gradableB. complementaryC. reversalD. relativeIII. Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracketbefore the sentence. (10 points)A( ) 1. John is talking to Jane.( ) 2. Tom is the leader( ) 3. There is a cat on the bed.( ) 4. The bad news astonished her.( ) 5. Edward broke the window.( ) 6. He waved his hands.Ba. Material processb. Relational processc. Mental processd. Verbal processe. Behavioral processf. Existential processIV. State what semantic property or properties are shared by the group of words. (10 points)For example: typewriter, ruler, notebook 1. king, bachelor, son 2. bull, rooster, stallion 3. pine, rose, elm 4. bravery, charity, devotion 5. car, bike, plane [ +stationary] ________________________ ________________________V. Transcribe the sound represented by the underlined letter(s) in the words and the describe it. (10 points)Example: far [a:] back low vowel1. thread2. beat3. important4. live5. stop [ [ [ [ [ ] ] ] ] ]VI. Explain the ambiguity of the following sentences. (10 points)1. She can not bear children.(1) (2)(3) ______________________________________________2. He hates old men and women.(1) (2) ______________________________________________VII. Explain the following terms with examples. (10 points)1. 2. Compounding Free variationVII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1. 2. What is the distinction between semantics and pragmatics? What are the four parameters that underlie a speaker’s communicative competence according to Hymes (1972)?3. What are the three types of antonyms (lexical opposition) in English?综合测试题（五）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)() 1. Language is defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.( ) 2. Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meaning.() 3. The Swiss linguist Chomsky regarded the linguistic sign as composed of sound image and referent.( ) 4. Language can be used to refer to things real or false, past, present or future.( ) 5. Language is merely genetically transmitted from generation to generation.( ) 6. We use language as symbolic code to represent the world around us.( ) 7. The ideatonal function of language binds individuals together.( ) 8. When we speak or write we usually confine ourselves to single phrases or sentences. ( ) 9. Language is mostly a natural phenomenon.() 10. Applied linguistic is concerned with the application of linguistic theories and descriptions in other fields.Ⅱ. Transcribe the sound underlined in the words and then describe it. (5 points)1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Geographic Red Song Clock PsychopathyⅢ. The following sets of minimal pairs show that English /p/ and /b/ contrast in initial, medial, and final positions. (5 points)Initial pit/bit Medial rapid/rabid Final cap/cabFind similar sets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. /k/-/g/ /m/-/n/ /l/-/r/ /b/-/v/ /b/-/m/Ⅳ. Each of the following columns illustrates a different morphological process. (10 points) Column ⅠA. chairs B. wider C.looked D. Tom’sColumn ⅡA. reality B. movement C.malcontent D. stepmotherColumn ⅢA. blackboard B. greenhouse C. makeshift D. paintwork(1) What morphological process is shown by Column Ⅰ, Ⅱand Ⅲ.(2) What is the morphological difference between a),b) and c),d) in Column Ⅱ.Ⅴ. Tell whether polarity or modality is expressed in the following sentences if modality, then identify the type (modalization or modulation). (10 points)1. I have not finished the task.2. He often comes to my office.3. I will show you how to make up the bed.4. He hardly came back to see his mother.5. The company ought to cut the price of the products.Ⅵ. Analyze the semantic properties of the given cooking terms, using the features [+/-WATER], [+/-FAT], [+/-PAN], [+/-POT], [+/-OVEN], [+/-SIEVE], etc. (10 points)boil: fry: steam: stew: bake:Ⅶ. Paraphrase each of the following sentences in two different ways to show that you understand the ambiguity involved: (15 points)a). The professor’s app ointment was shocking.b). The design has big squares and circles.c). The governor is a dirty street fighter.Ⅷ. What maxim of the politeness principle is observed by B? What is the implicature? (5points)a). The dress is lovely, isn’t it?b). The material is nice.Ⅸ. Draw two phrase structure trees representing the two meanings of the sentence the magician touched the child with the wand. Be sure you indicate which meaning goes with which tree. (10 points)Ⅹ. Answer the following question: (20 points)1. What is the functioning of stress and intonation in English?2. How do you account for the relation between phonetics and phonology?综合测试题（六）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (20 points)( ) 1. In the study of the first step is the task of auditory phonetics.( ) 2. The sound source is the larynx.( ) 3. The oral cavity contains most of the articulators, namely, the uvula, the velum the hard palate.( )4. Sounds which are produced with the upper teeth touching the lower lip are labialdentals.( ) 5. Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.( ) 6. Abbreviations are formed by putting together the final letters of some or all words in a phrase or title.( ) 7. Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places. ( ) 8. All members.of a speech community can send and take messages.( ) 9.Traditional grammar was initially based on European language, particularly on Latin and German.( ) 10. One of the important concepts of structural grammar is the concept of immediate constituent.( ) 11. Pragmatics is the analysis of meaning in context.( ) 12. The meanings communicated through language are or two types: conventional meanings and intentional meanings( ) 13. An expression used by a speaker/writer to identify something is called deictic expression.( ) 14. Chomsky theory of conversational implicature is regarded as a breakthrough in pragmatic study of language use.( ) 15. Relevance is a relative notion. It is determined by two factors: contextual effect and processing effort.( ) 16. Modality can be categorized into modalization and intention.( ) 17. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the object and the finite.( ) 18. Relational processes are linguistic processes that represent a relation being set up between two separate.( ) 19. Mental processes are processes of sensing.( ) 20. A TG grammar must account for all or only grammatical sentences.Ⅱ. Divide the following words by placing a + between their separate morphemes. (5 points)1. Retroactive2. Befriended3. Televise4. Margin5. EndearmentⅢ.Write the one proper description from the list under B for the italicized part of each word in A. (5 points)Aa. terrorizedb. uncivilizedc. terrorized. lukewarme. impossible B(1) free root (2) bound root (3) inflectional suffix (4) derivational suffix (5) inflectional prefix (6) derivational prefix (7) inflectional infix (8) derivational infixⅣ. Write out at least ten structure rules that each of the following rules abbreviate. (5 points)VP→V (NP) (PP) (Adv) NP→(Det) (Adj) N (PP)Ⅴ .Draw phrase structure trees for the following sentences: (10 points)a) The man found the letter.b) The students put the books in the classroom.Ⅵ. Write the semantic feature shared by the given words. (5 points)1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Bull, rooster, bachelor, boy Milk, water, alcohol, oil Squash, tennis, cricket, fencing, boxing Idea, concept, love, clarity, democracy Pine, elm, willow, birch, poplarⅦ.Each of the following words is a basic level term. Write its superordinate in the left blank and one of its subordinate in the right blank. (10 points)1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. table willow cat blue dictionary painting driver verb chemistry juiceⅧ. The opposite of analytic is contradictory. A sentence that is false due to the meaning of its words alone is contradictory.Kings are female is an example. Write a C by the contradictory sentences and S for situational by sentences that are not contradictory. (10 points)1. My sister is a man.2. Witches are wicked.3. My sister is an only child.4. The evening star isn’t the morning star.5. The evening star isn’t the evening star.6. Babies are adults.7. Babies can lift one ton.8. Puppies are human.9. My bachelor friends are all married.10. My bachelor friends are all lonely.Ⅸ. Pig Latin is a common language game of English; but even Pig Latin has dialects, forms of the “language game” with differen t rules. (10 points)Consider the following data from three dialects of Pig Latin, each with its own rule applied to words beginning with vowels: Dialect 1 “eat” “arc” [itme] [arkme] Dialect 2 [ithe] [arkhe] Dialect 3 [ite] [arke]⑴State the rule that accounts for the Pig Latin forms in each dialect. Dialect 1: Dialect 2: Dialect 3: ⑵How would you say honest, admire, and illegal in each dialect? Give the phonetic transcription of the Pig Latin forms. honest admire 1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3.Illegal1.2.3.Ⅹ. Answer the following questions: (20 points)1. What is the function of phonological knowledge?2. Exemplify the differences between anaphoric and cataphoric reference.综合测试题（七）Ⅰ. Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given: (10 points) 1. 2. The term l a refers to the natural process of children’s language development. It is found that children all undergo certain stages of language development, namely the b 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. stage, holophrastic stage, , the two-word stage, and the telegraphic speech stage. The practice of error analysis is divided into i describing and explaining. S refers to the analysis of meaning . In the aspect of affective meaning, statesman is commending in sense while politician is d D synonyms are words which are similar in meaning but used in different dialects of the language. In order to avoid repetition the writer needs to use a s to replace a word used in the previous co-text when he/she wants to continue to address that idea.8. 9. The sentence “The bachelor is unmarried” is it t The domain to be conceptualized is called t domain.10. P event.Ⅱ. Write the sound which corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions: (5 points)。

2011年翻译硕士MTI参考书目

北京外国语大学1.《中式英语之鉴》Joan Pinkham 、姜桂华著，2000年，外语教学与研究出版社。

2.《英汉翻译简明教程》庄绎传著，2002年，外语教学与研究出版社。

3.《高级英汉翻译理论与实践》叶子南著，2001年，清华大学出版社。

4.《非文学翻译理论与实践》罗进德主编，2004年，中国对外翻译出版公司。

5.《非文学翻译》，李长栓著，2009年9月外语教学与研究出版社出版。

6.《非文学翻译理论与实践》，李长栓著，中国对外翻译出版公司。

广东外语外贸大学初试无参考书，以下为复试参考书目：1.《实用翻译教程（修订版）》，刘季春主编，中山大学出版社，2007年。

2.《英汉翻译基础教程》，冯庆华、穆雷主编，高等教育出版社，2008年。

3.《英语口译教程》，仲伟合主编，高等教育出版社，2007年。

4.《商务英语口译》（第二版），赵军峰主编，高等教育出版社，2009年。

5. 有关英语八级考试的书籍，以及英美政治、经济、文化等方面百科知识的书籍湖南师范大学暂无，复试科目为：听力、英语写作南京大学暂无，可用近年来国内出版的英语专业高级阅读、翻译、写作教材，以及任何大学语文教材南开大学暂无，参考《全日制翻译硕士专业学位（MTI）研究生入学考试指南》，外研社同济大学翻译硕士英语：暂无参考书，建议考生多阅读国内外英文报刊杂志，扩大词汇量，扩宽视野，培养中西文化比较意识。

汉语写作与百科知识：不设具体参考书目，希望考生关注时事，加强人文知识的学习和积累。

英语翻译基础：1.《文体与翻译》,刘宓庆,中国对外翻译出版公司,20072.《实用翻译教程》,冯庆华,上海外语教育出版社,20073.《翻译基础》，刘宓庆，华东师范大学出版社，2008西南大学1．《实用汉英翻译教程》，曾诚编，北京：外语教学与研究出版社。

2．《英译汉教程》，连淑能编著，北京：高等教育出版社。

中南大学翻译硕士英语，暂无英语翻译基础：1.《英汉—汉英应用翻译教程》，方梦之编，上海外语教育出版社，2004年2.《高级英汉翻译理论与实践》，叶子南编，清华大学出版社，2008年汉语写作与百科知识：1.《应用文写作》，王首程主编，高等教育出版社，2009年中山大学翻译硕士英语：1.英美概况部分参见《英语国家社会与文化入门》上、下册，朱永涛编，高等教育出版社，2005；2.其它部分不列参考书汉语写作与百科知识: 参照教指委公布的考试大纲北京航空航天大学翻译硕士英语：不根据某一教科书命题英语翻译基础：1. Dictionary of Translation Studies 上海外语教育出版社（2004年）2.《翻译研究词典》外语教学与研究出版社（2005年）3.《英汉互译实用教程》武汉大学出版社（2003年）汉语写作与百科知识：不根据某一教科书命题北京师范大学1.庄绎传，《英汉翻译简明教程》。

2021东北师范大学外国语言学及应用语言学考研参考书真题经验

东北师范大学外国语言学及应用语言学考研经验考研其实是一件非常枯燥和艰辛的过程，这段时间也非常感谢high研APP 的伙伴们的鼓励和支持，没有你们我可能都坚持不下来。

只有一个建议：选择自己喜欢且擅长的，剩下要做的就是朝着这个方向努力啦。

关于初试一、参考书及资料政治：肖秀荣精讲精练，肖秀荣1000题，肖秀荣历年真题，李凡政治新时器，肖秀荣四套卷，八套卷，时政小册子，风中劲草德语：德语四级练习册，新编大学德语教材前三册，东师真题专业课：杨忠语言学，杨忠对应练习册，胡壮麟语言学（没看完），英语国家概况（下册没看），星火语言学，东师真题基础英语：精读56册，专八阅读，东师真题二、各科准备情况1.政治由于我高中是理科生，政治几乎是零基础，所以还是花费了很多时间在政治上面的。

马克思不懂的那部分看看加深一下理解，最开始看的是政治新时器和配套的1000题，1000题能做几遍是几遍，虽然到最后也有很多记不住，但我觉得做题能加深我的记忆。

不赞同买好多本习题册，一本书看得精比看好多本书有用多了。

到了后期可以看看风中劲草，有人是直接背，我剩的时间很少，就只是把做题中不会的知识点给看了。

大题就只是背了肖四，还是就剩几天才背的（心痛的回忆呀），全押中了也是幸运哈哈哈！第一轮的复习，是最为基础的复习。

刚开始，不需要给自己的复习太大压力，主要的任务是熟悉考点。

政治学科和其他学科不同，不必要静下来来看很长时间书才开始做题。

政治科目的复习，可以把看书和做题交叉在一起，配套进行。

边看书边做题，通过做题来强化自己看书的效果。

能够做到熟知考点，遇到考点不觉得陌生，就可以了。

这一轮的复习，建议以单项选择题为主，因为多项选择题需要有一定知识积累才能开始做题。

第二轮的复习，可谓是最艰难的。

经过一轮对知识点的熟悉，处在夹生半熟的状态。

多项选择题刚好可以检测知识点的复习情况。

这一轮的复习，是最为关键的。

在政治选择题中，最为关键的就是多项选择题，分值高、难度大，要想拿到不错的分数，务必好好练习。

hedge名词解释杨忠语言学

hedge名词解释杨忠语言学Hedge（名词）是指一种由词语、短语或句子组成的修饰性语言结构，用于减少陈述句的强度或保留解释的余地。

它可以用来表达迟疑、推测、条件、可能性、不确定性等含糊不清的语气或态度。

英文解释：Hedge (noun) refers to a modifier linguistic structure composed of words, phrases, or sentences, used to reduce the intensity of a statement or to leave room for interpretation. It can be used to express hesitation, speculation, conditions, possibilities, uncertainties, or ambiguous tones or attitudes.双语例句：1. I think, maybe, it could be possible that he will come to the party.（我认为，也许，他有可能会来参加派对。

）2. We might need to consider some changes in the plan.（我们或许需要考虑一些方案的改变。

）3. She seems to be somewhat upset about the news.（她似乎对这个消息有点不高兴。

）4. I'm not entirely sure, but it could potentially rain tomorrow.（我并不完全确定，但明天有可能会下雨。

）5. It's possible that the package got lost in transit.（很可能是包裹在运送过程中丢失了。

）6. He probably won't finish the project on time.（他很可能无法按时完成这个项目。

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杨忠语言学词汇

杨忠语言学笔记

杨忠---语言学概论中文版学习指导东北师范大学

杨忠--语言学概论 课后综合测试题及中文版答案

杨忠---语言学概论中文版学习指导东北师范大学

语言学杨忠第一章

杨忠--语言学概论 课后综合测试题及中文版答案(仅供借鉴)

最新杨忠--语言学概论-课后综合测试题及中文版答案

2011年翻译硕士MTI参考书目

2021东北师范大学外国语言学及应用语言学考研参考书真题经验

hedge名词解释杨忠语言学

杨忠--语言学概论课后综合测试题及中文版答案

杨忠--语言学概论课后综合测试题及中文版答案(仅供借鉴)