专八考试知识语言学部分
专八语言学考点
专八语言学考点语言学概论一.语言的甄别特征（Design Features）：语言的甄别特征（Design Features）包括：1. 任意性（Arbitrariness）2. 能产性（Productivity）3. 双层性（Duality）4. 移位性（Replacement）5. 文化传承（Cultural transmission）二．语言学的主要分支（the Main Branches of Linguistics）：1. 语音学（phonetics）：用以研究语音的特点，并提供语音描写、分类和标记方法的学科。
2. 音系学（phonology）：研究语言中出现的区别语音及其模式是如何形成语音系统来表达意义的学科。
3. 形态学（morphology）：研究词的内部结构和构词规则。
4. 句法学（syntax）：用以研究词是被如何组成句子，以及支配句子构成的学科。
5. 语义学（semantics）：研究语言意义的学科。
6. 语用学（pragmatics）：研究语言的意义在语境中如何被理解、传递和产出的学科。
7. 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）：主要包括社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）、心理语言学（Psycholinguistics）、人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics）、计算机语言学（Computational Linguistics）。
三．语言学的流派（Different Approaches of Linguistics）：1. 结构主义语言学（Structural Lingustics）：1.1 布拉格学派（The Prague School）1.2 哥本哈根学派（The Copenhagen School）1.3 美国结构主义学派（American Structuralism）以上三个学派都受到索绪尔（Saussure）的影响，例如都区分语言和言语（Langue vs. Parole），共时和历时（Synchronic vs. Diachronic）。
专八人文知识--语言学
第一章概述一、什么是语言？1.Definition of language （语言的定义）Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.（语言是人类用来交流的一套具有任意性的声音符号系统。
）2.Design/distinctive feature of language（语言的定义/本质特征）1)2)3)4)（移位性指语言可以让使用者谈论不在说话之时、说话之地存在的物体、事件和观点）例如：我们在中国可以谈论美国的物体和事件。
5)Cultural transmission（文化传播/文化传递性）Language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.（文化传播指语言是靠文化传播的，而不是靠父母遗传。
虽然人类的语言能力是天生的，但是语言系统的细节不是靠遗传传递，而是靠学习掌握的。
）二、什么是语言学？Linguistics is a scientific study of language.（语言学是对语言的科学研究）语言学的研究对象不是某特定的语种，而是人类所有的语言，在考察分析大量语言现象的基础上总结语言规律。
语言学家想要回答的基本问题是：什么是语言？语言的机制是什么？人们是如何使用语言实现各种目的的。
三、语言学的重要概念1.descriptive vs. prescriptive（描述性与规定性）描述性研究是现代语言学家采取的基本立场，注重观察分析语言中的事实，目的通常是描述人们一般是怎么说话、写作的。
规定性研究注意总结语言中的标准，目的通常是规定人们应该如何说话、写作。
例如：规定只能用单数、复数2.synchronic vs. diachronic（共时性与历时性）synchronic: the study of a language through the course of its history（共时研究以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象）例如：莎士比亚时代语言研究diachronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation（历时研究则研究语言各个阶段的发展变化，研究语言的历史发展规律）ngue vs. parole（语言与言语）该区分是现代语言学鼻祖Saussure提出的。
英语专八人文知识之语言学(详细简化版)
专八加油↖(^ω^)↗语言学（缩略版）1 语言的四个特征:任意性（Arbitrariness），二重性（Duality），创造性（Creativity），移位性（Displacement）2 语言的七个功能：信息功能（Informative），人际功能（Interpersonal Function），施为功能（Performative），感情功能（Emotive Function），寒暄功能（Phatic Communion），娱乐功能（Recreation Function）元语言功能（Metalingual Function）3 语言学的主要分支：语音学（Phonetics），音系学（Phonology）形态学（Morphology），句法学（Syntax)，语义学（Semantics），语用学（Pragmatics），4 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）的分支：心理语言学（Psycholinguistics），社会语言学（Sociolinguistics），人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics，计算机语言学（Computational linguistics）5 规定式（Prescriptive）---描述事情应该是怎样的（describe how things ought to be）描写式（Descriptive）---描述事情本是怎样的（describe how thing are）6 共时研究（Synchronic）---以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象（takes a fixed instant as its point of observation）历时研究（Diachronic）---研究语言各个阶段的发展变化（Study of a language through the course of its history）7 语言（Langue）---说话者的语言能力(the linguistic competence of the speaker）言语（Parole）---语言的实际现象或语料（the actual phenomena or data of linguistic）----索绪尔（Saussure）区分8 语言能力（Competence）---理想语言使用者关于语言的知识储备（underlying knowledge)语言运用（Performance）---真实的语言使用者在实际场景中语言的使用（Actual use ofLanguage)----乔姆斯基（Chomsk）区分9 语音学主要分支:发音语言学（Articulatory Phonetics），声学语言学（Acoustic Phonetics）。
英语专八人文常识 语言学
词义演变（Semantic Change）
1. widening of meaning/generalization（词义扩大） 2. narrowing of meaning/specialization（词义缩小） 3. meaning shift（词义转移）：
degradation（词义降格）
creativity（多产性）
displacement（移位性） interchangibility（可交替性）
cultural transmission（文化传输性）
2. prescriptive and descriptive（规定性和描述性研究） synchronic and diachronic（共时与历时研究） 3. competence and performance（语言能力与应用） 4. langue and parole （语言与言语）
语义学（Semantics）
2. semantic triangle（语义三角）
3. synonymy（同义关系） 4. antonymy（反义关系） 5. hyponymy（上下义关系） 6. polysemy（一词多义） 7. homonymy（同形/同音异义关系）
1. Leech’s seven types of meaning（利奇的七种意义）
1. Context（语境） 2. Speech Act Theory（言语行为理论）： a) John Austin: Locutionary act（言内行为） Illocutionary act（言外行为） Perlocutionary act（言后行为） indirect speech act b) John Searle: representatives（阐述类） directives（指令类） commissives （承诺类） expressives（表达类） declarations（宣一、对知名的语言学家及其基本理论的重点考查
专八语言学知识要点
第三章英语语言学第一节语言学基本概念知识点较多，但是多集中于基本概念和运用，不需要深入挖掘，记住基本概念即可。
1 语言的特点和功能特点：Creativity 可创造性Duality 两重性（声音和意义）Arbitrariness 任意性Displacement 移位性Cultural Transmission 文化传递性Interchangeabilty 可交换性Reflexivity 自反性人类的语言可以描述语言本身功能：Informative 信息功能（功能语言学中称之为ideational function）Interpersonal 人际功能通过语言来建立社会联系Performative 施为功能通过语言来完成任务，来自于语用学Emotive 感情功能可以改变听者的感情Phatic Communion 交感功能特定的表达方式来维护关系，例如打招呼Recreational 娱乐功能，例如唱歌Metalingual 元语言功能可以用语言来谈论语言本身2 语言学的主要分支内部分支：Phonetics 语音学Articulatory Phonetics 发音语音学语音产生Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学研究物理特性Auditory Phonetics 听觉语音学发音的潜在机制Consonants / VowelsPhonology 音系学研究语音和音节结构分布和排列Phone 音素语言的一个单元或是音段Phoneme 音位在语言中具有区别意义的最小的语言单位Allophones 音位变体put spanContrastive Distribution 对立分析能够找到的最小的语音对bear pearComplementary Distribution 互补分析从不在相同环境出现的音位变体peak speakFree Variation 自由变体同一个词由于某个原因发了两个音，这种差异可能来源于方言或是习惯increaseSuprasegemental Features 超音段特征（音节、重音、音调、语调）Morphology 形态学研究英语中最小单位——语素和成词过程，即单词的内部构造Morpheme 词素最小的有意义的语言单位Free Morpheme 自由语素（有自己构成英语单词的称为此，是单词root/stem）和BoundMorpheme 粘连语素（需要和自由语素联合构成单词的称为此，是词缀，进一步分为Inflectional Affixes 屈折词缀，在现代英语中主要指单复数，时态比较级等等和Derivational Affixes 派生词缀，这是形成新词的关键）。
英语专八语言学知识复习资料汇编
英语专八语言学知识复习资料汇编语言学知识在英语专业八级考试中占有重要地位，是单选题目的重要组成部分，掌握好语言学知识可有效提高专业八级考试成绩。
语言学知识共包括以下六个部分：语言学本质、语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学六个部分，这六部分从学习程度上分别以单词、句子、句群、段落知识依次递进，考生逐一理解掌握，才能打牢语言学基础知识，下面我们开始吧！第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）任意性Arbitratriness双层结构Duality多产性productive移位性Displacemennt文化传播性Cultural Transmission二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main functio n人际功能Interpersonal：establish and maintain their identity行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！” 等等元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学Core linguistic语音学Phonetics音位学Phonology形态学Morphology句法学Syntax.语义学Semantics语用学Pragmatics2. 边缘语言学Peripheral:·心理语言学psycho-linguistics·社会语言学socio-linguistics·人类语言学anthropo-linguistics·计算机语言学computer-linguistics四、语言学中几对基本概念1. 规定性研究Prescriptive与描述性研究DescriptivePrescriptive：着重于语言中“标准Standards”认为语言中存在着一种地位最高的语言形态，如标准语法/语音等，为规定人们如何说话、写作Descriptive：着重于语言中“事实Facts”，目的是描述人们一般是怎样说话、写作的2. 共时研究Synchronic和历时研究Diachronic3．语言Langue和言语Parole（由Ferdinand de Saussure索绪尔提出）Langue：指语言系统的整体the whole linguistic system，所有语言使用个体头脑中存储的word-image的总和，这个整体相对比较稳定。
专八语言学知识Linguistics
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
语言学复习资料
Lecture 11. Why do linguists tend to be so critical to traditional grammar?Traditional Grammar---broadly refers to the study of language covering the period from ancient times to the end of the 18th century .Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. Linguistics regarded the spoken language as primary, not the written. It lacked autonomy. It was modeled on ancient Greek, Latin grammar. It was based on logical concepts from meaning to form, not from form to meaning. Emphasis was laid on written language. The attitude was prescriptive not descriptive.2. What is the difference between the descriptive and the prescriptive approach to the investigation of language? Which is to be preferred and why?Descriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as it is actually used by speakers and writers. Prescriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as certain people think it should be used. Both kinds of grammar are concerned with rules--but in different ways. Specialists in descriptive grammar study the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. On the other hand, prescriptive grammarians lay out rules about what they believe to be the “correct” or “incorrect” use of language. Descriptive grammarians generally advise us not to be overly concerned with matters of correctness: language, they say, isn't good or bad; it simply is. As the history of the glamorous word grammar demonstrates, the English language is a living system of communication, a continually evolving affair. Within a generation or two, words and phrases come into fashion and fall out again. Over centuries, word endings and entire sentence structures can change or disappear.3. What are features of modern linguistics?Linguistics is descriptive not prescriptive. Priority of spoken language. Priority of synchronic description. The linguist is interested in all languages.Lecture 21. What branches does general linguistics include? What these branches study?Phonetics: it studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sound of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.Phonology: it studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.Morphology: it is concerned with the internal organization of words it studies the minimal units of meaning—morphemes and word-formation processed. Syntax: it is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences.Semitics: it examines how meaning is encoded in a language.Pragmatic s: it is the study of meaning in context. it deals with particular utterance in particular situation and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation.3. (1)Langue vs. parole Langue was considered to be the totality of a language. It was a “storehouse”, the sum of word-images stored in the minds of individuals. We may put it loosely in a formula like:In Saussure's theory, parole refers to the individual side of speech, i.e. speaking is psychophysical, it being the actual, concrete act of speaking on the part of an individual. Parole is thus not a collective instrument; its manifestations are individual and momentary. Langue is code, parole is messag e Langue and parole are closely connected, each dependent on the other: the langue of a community can be arrived at only by a consideration of a large number of paroles, whereas parole can only be intelligible with langue in the minds of all the community members. To a linguist, langue is of primary importance as he wants to make statements which apply, not just to the speech of individuals but to the language as a whole.(2)Synchronic vs. Diachronic linguistics.Synchronic study of language---- refers to the study of language as a whole and the description of a particular state of a language at a given point of time in the development of language without considering its evolution and change in history.Diachronic study of language ---- refers to the study of the process of evolution of language at various histories (historical). A diachronic description of a language traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time.(3)Microlinguistics vs. MacrolinguisticsMicrolinguistics ---- refers to the study of the structure and systems of language, including the various subjects of study of the internal structures of language, such fields as phonology, morphology, syntax.Macrolinguistics ---- refers to the study of language from a broad angle in variou s interdisciplinary subjects, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguisticsLecture 31. Define language. How can you understand it?To give the definition, language is a means of verbal communication .it is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language learning and use are determined by the intervention of biological, cognitive, psychosocial and environmental factors .in short ,language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.2. Illustrate the differences between human language and animal communication system in terms of displacement and cultural transmission.Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. With language, we can recall the past or anticipate the future. For example, we can refer to the first has been dead for over 2500 years .Most animals respond communicatively as soon as they are stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest. For instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger. Such animals are under “immediate stimulus control”. Human language is, unlike animal communication systems, stimulus free. What we talk about need not be triggered by any external stimulus in the world or any internal state.Cultural transmission ---- refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. They are not biologically transmitted from generation to generation. Though the capacity for language in human being has a genetic basis, the particular language a human being learns is a cultural fact, not a genetic one. Simply, while you may inherit brown eyes and dark hair from your parents, you do not inherit their language. You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes. e.g. An infant born to Korean parents, who is adopted and brought up from birth by English speakers in the U.S, may have physical characteristics inherited from its natural parents, but it will inevitably speak English. And if the child is isolated from the society, he can’t acquire the language successfully. So language is acquired in a socio-cultural context.3. Why is language human specific?Firstly, human language has “design features” which animal communication system do not have, at least not in the true sense of them. Secondly, linguistshave done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees. Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to do so4. List basic functions of language and define each of them by their aimsReferential Function whenever we ask people for information or tell others about our circumstances and things alike, we are using language in an attempt to share what we know and exchange what we have in our minds. This is often called "referential", or "ideational".Interpersonal Function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in a discourse situation and the addresser's attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.Textual Function relates our abilities to construct texts out of our utterances and writings.The performative function is primarily to change the social status of persons; the performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.Emotive function is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress.For example, swear words, obscenities are probably the commonest signals to be used in this way, especially when we are in an angry or frustrated state.Phatic Communion language can serve the function of creating or maintaining social relationship between speakers.Identifying function Our use of language can tell our listener or reader a great deal about ourselves, in particular, about our regional origins, social background, and level of education, occupation, age, sex, and personality.The recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems restrictive in purpose and supposedly limited in usefulness. However, no one will deny the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.5. Arbitrariness, Duality of structure, Displacement,Discreteness, Cultural transmission.Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Take the case of the English word “man”. In Chinese “rén”Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization.For instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language.Creativity----the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never produced or heard before. Creativity is a universal property of human language. For example, we can write a sentence like the following and go on endlessly:This is the dog that chased the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Tom built.Lecture 41. How do phonetics and phonology differ from each other? And how are they related to each other?Phonetics-- general, descriptive, and classificatory. It studies speech sounds as they are.Phonology-- concerned with the sound system of language, studies the functioning of the speech sounds. Phonetics provides the means for describing speech sounds; phonology studies the ways in which speech sounds form system and patterns. Phonetics is of general nature; it is the branch of linguistics ,studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description ,classification , and transcription without reference to the function of speech sounds in a particular language ,while phonology is language specific . It deals with speech sounds within the context of a particular language; it is concerned with the working and functioning of speech sounds in a language. Phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind. Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.2 Illustrate phone, phoneme and allophone by examples. How is a phone different from a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning.When we hear the following words produced: pit, spit, tip, feel, leaf, the phones we have heard are [ph] (as in pit), [p] (as in spit), [p¬] (as in tip), [s], [t], [f], [i:], [i], [l].A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. So a phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. We use slant lines “/ /” pan and ban differ only in their initial sounds /p/ and /b/.Allophone: the different phones that represent or are derived from one phoneme are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example: /p/ is a phoneme, but it may be pronounced as phones [ph], [p], [p¬] .So [ph], [p], [p¬] are the allophones of the same phoneme /p/.3. Explain the sequential rules, assimilation rules and deletion rule by examples.Assimilation rule It assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. When a phoneme is realized differently in actual connected speech from what it usually is, as a result of being near some other phonemes belonging to a neighboring word, assimilation takes place “in” may be pronounced differently as [in], or [i?] or [im], when occurring in different phonetic contexts: indiscrete alveolar [in], inconceivable velar [i?] ,input bilabial [im]The deletion rule It tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. e.g. “g” is mute in “sign”, “design”. It is pronounced in their corresponding derivat ives “signature”, “designation”. The rule is: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.4 Minimal pairsWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are said to have formed a minimal pair.Lecture 51 What does morphology study?It studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they combine in word formation (the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed).2 What are the main features of morpheme?(1) Morphemes cannot be broken down any further into recognizable or meaningful parts. In other words, a morpheme can’t be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.(2) A word may consist of one morpheme or more than one morpheme, while a morpheme may not necessarily represent a word.(3) Morpheme is also a two-fact language unit, which possesses both sound and meaning.(4) Morpheme is not identical with a syllable for syllable has nothing to do with meaning.3 Free morpheme, Bound morphemeFree morpheme, if a morpheme can constitute a word (free form) by itself, it is called a free morpheme.Bound morpheme, If a morpheme has meaning only when connected with at least another morpheme, it is bound. Traditionally, these prefix and suffix morphemes have been called bound morphemes.Lecture 61 Do you think that morphology and syntax should be treated as separate areas of study? Give your views and support them with reasons.Morphology & Syntax(1) A principle distinction between morphology and syntax, is that the former is concerned with the internal composition of a word, whereas the latter is concerned with combinations of words(2) From a nineteen-century linguistic perspective,morphology is the science of the forms of language and more abstractly, of the formatives(构形成分) that give form to words.Syntax, by contrast, is concerned not with formation or forms or formatives but with comparatively insubstantial notions of order or arrangement, in keeping with the etymology of the term. Syntax is thus outside the scope of linguistic morphology, because of the abstract nature of the elements whose arrangement it deals with.(3) Morphology is considered to be part of syntax, both may be grouped together as grammar.(4) Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the center of grammatical study.(5) Different linguistics theories differ in their treatment of sentence structure. Conclusion: There are arguments in favor of morpheme-based grammar and there are arguments against it. The same is true of the more traditionalword-based grammar.2. Explain and exemplify IC analysis.IC analysis is one of the structuralist grammars. It is a major feature of Bloomfieldian descriptivism.This approach works through the different levels of structure within a sentence in a series of steps.At each level, a construction is divided into its major constituents, which are termed immediate constituents, and the process continues until no further divisions can be made. The constituents in the last step are called ultimate constituents. In general, the division is binary. IC analysis can be represented in different ways.3. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic: a linear relationship between the signs present in the sentence. (the relation between one item and others in a sequence) .Paradigmatic is a particular one in that it denotes a relationship between a sign in a sentence and a sign not in a sentence. (A word may be said to have paradigmatic relations with words that could be substituted for it in the sentence.)4. Rheme vs. ThemeRheme refers to information that is new. The nucleus, or the core of the utterance ---- what the speaker states about, or in regard to the starting point of the utteranceTheme the known (or given) information --- information that is not new to the reader or listener.5. TG-grammar in1957 in Syntactic Structures, which has transformed linguistics from a relatively obscure discipline of interest mainly to language teachers and future missionaries into a major social science of direct relevance to psychologists, sociologists, philosophers and others.Lecture 71. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? (1). Referential theory of meaning (the naming theory) .The meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or stands for. Expressions or words are "names" or "labels" for things. E.g. man, furniture, fish, China --- whose main function is precisely that of naming or labeling. They are meaningful in that they each refer to an individual or a collection of living beings or objects existing in the reality. There is a one-to-one correspondence between name and object.(2). Mentalist theory of meaning, There has been a tendency to adopt a mentalist approach in their treatment of meaning by a group of modern linguists headed by Chomsky since 1960's. They view the primary function of language as the communication of ideas and have adopted the assumption, as a working basis for linguistic inquiry, that the data needed about language can be supplied by direct resort to intuition. It states that the meaning of an expression is the idea, or concept associated with it in the mind of anyone who knows it. It attempts to explain the meaning of words in terms of the image in the speaker's / hearer's mind. Two of the best-known theories of it are the “sign " theory of Saussure and the semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards. According to Saussure's sign theory, a linguistic sign consists of a signifier and a signified. They can be more strictly regarded as a sound image (signifier) and a concept (signified) , which are linked by a psychological associative bond, that is, both the noise we make and the objects of world we talk about are mirrored in some way by conceptual entities. Two of the best-known theories of it are the “sign " theory of de Saussure and the semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards.When we hear a sound, e. g. dog, the image or concept of the dog will be mirrored in our mind, and the image will be the meaning of the expression(3)Behaviorist theory of meaning. This theory was very popular during the 1920's to 1960's. It has great influence in the fields of psychology, philosophy and linguistics. Its representat ive is L. Bloomfield of America. This theory states that the meaning of an expression is either the stimulus that evokes it or the response that it evokes, or a combination of both, on particular occasions of utterance. He illustrated his views with a famous account of Jack and Jill, trying to define meaning in terms of the behaviorist point of view ---stimulus-and-response point of view. E.g. Jill is hungry. She sees an apple and gets Jack to fetch it for her by speaking to him. He interpreted this in terms of stimulus and response with the diagram.Jill JackS------------r~~~~~s----------RHere S means practical events (physical) which precede the act of speech, i.e. Jill's hunger. It is termed as a stimulus. And r refers to a linguistic response of Jill to this stimulus. Jill expresses this response by speaking to Jack. The sound waves reaching Jack result in creating a linguistic stimulus in him, which is indicated by a small letter s. R refers to the eventual physical response Jack makes in getting the apple for Jill. Thus, Bloomfield argued that meaning consists in the relation between speech (which is shown by r----- s) and the practical events S and R that precede and follow it. In this way, he wanted to contrast his theory with the mentalistic theories which involve thoughts, concepts, images, etc.But to interpret meaning in terms of the relation between speech and physical entities and events needs to know other 'predisposing factors' concerning thespeaker and hearer. This is a task Bloomfield found too difficult to accomplish and thus he did not pursue.(4)Contextual theory of meaning. The Operational theory or Meaning-is-use Theory of meaning. Representatives--- L. Wittgenstein, S. Chase and J. R. Firth. Explains that the meaning of an expression is determined by, if not identical with, its use in language. The famous English linguists Chase and Firth advocated that the true meaning of a word is to be found by observing what a man does with it, not what he says about it. The German philosopher Wittgenstein goes a step further. He boldly asserted that the meaning of a word is its use.2. How do you understand ambiguity?Ambiguity refers to the linguistic phenomenon in which one linguistic expression allows more than one understandings or interpretations. E.g. the office of the president is vacant.Basically, ambiguity can be classified into two types: A. Lexical ambiguity:1) words with more than one sense. She can’t bear children. 2) Some words are ambiguous. He put it in the boot.3) A single word, with several different meanings which are not closed related. Mug-- He had a mug./ He had an ugly mug. 4) A word with several very closely related senses is ambiguous.B. Syntactic ambiguity. Structural ambiguity is concerned with the syntactic representation of sentences. It occurs when more than one syntactic structure can be associated with a sequence of words. E.g. 1) American history teacher 3. How would you describe the oddness of the following sentences, using semantic feature?A. The television drank my water.B. His dog writes poetry.4. synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, homonymy, hyponymy Polysemy: The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as polysemy; such a word is polysemic.Homonymy: Lexical items which have the phonological or spelling norm, but differ in meaning are called homonyms. Such a linguistic phenomenon, i.e. identity of form and diversity of meaning is referred to as homonymy.Hyponymy: It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a specific word. The word is more general in meaning is called the superordinate and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. E.g flower-----rose, tulip, carnation, lily. Animal----dog, cat, tiger, lionAntonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms. Oppositeness can be found on different dimensions. Root contrast derivative contrast semantic contrast (1) gradable (2) complementary (3) converses~Synonymy---sameness of meaningStyle: the same cognitive meaning but different stylistic meaning.(1) cast (literary, biblical) .throw (general). Chuck (slang)Dialect---geographical variationRegister—varieties of a language according to their topic and context of use.E.g. you can’t cancel your room reservation. No cancellations can be accepted.Lecture 81. What does pragmatics study?P20How does pragmatics differ from semantics, and utterance meaning from sentence meaning? How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other? Traditional semantics studied meaning, but the meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent, i.e. a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all studied in an isolated manner, detached from the context in which they were used. Pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning . If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning? A sentence meaning is often considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a dog at the door”. The speaker could utter it as a matter- of- fact statement, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, t he understanding of the utterance meaning of “There is adog at the door” de pends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.2. What are the five illocutionary speech acts Searle specifies? (1) Representatives(阐述类)---- stating or describing ,saying what the speaker believes to be true.The earth is flat.（2）directives (指令类)----trying to get the hearer to do somethingDon’t touch that.(3) commissives (承诺类) -----committing the speaker himself to some future course of actionE.g: I promise to come.(4) expressives ( 表达类) ----expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.e.g : I’m sorry for the mess I have made.(5) declaration ( 宣布类)---- bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingPriest: I now pronounce you husband and wife.Referee: you are out!Lecture 91. what contributions has sociolinguistics provided to the field of language teaching?。
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语素可以分为自由语素free morpheme 和粘着语素bound morpheme. 自由语素可以单独出现或单独构成词语，比如 pleasant, cell. 粘着语素必须与其他语素一起出现，不能独立成词，比如 dis- ex- con-
上下义：例如animal-the pole bear, kangaroo, crocodile。其中animal是上义词super ordinate, 剩下的词叫下义词 hyponyms.
句子之间的语义关系semantic relations between sentences 有以下几种：1、蕴含entailment 例如：A.他去了中国。B.他去了亚洲。A蕴含于B。A entails B. 判断方法：A真B真，B假A假，A假B不一定，B真A不一定。 2.、预设 presupposition 例如：A.我的自行车需要修理。B.我有自行车。A预设于B。A presupposes B. 判断方法：其中的一个句子以另一个为前提条件。A真B真，A假B还真。
is called ______. (2008) A. hyponymy. B. synonymy. C. polysemy. D. homonymy. 考点：考察词汇之间的涵义关系sense relations.
记忆：涵义关系有5个：同义关系synonymy, 反义关系antonymy, 一词多义
①① 语用学 1. The speech act theory was first put forward by ______. (2005) 2. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is the notion of
_____. (2006) A. Reference. B. meaning C. antonymy D. context 3. When a speaker expresses his intention of speaking, such as asking someone
语言学部分
①① 语言与语言学 1, which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language ? (2005) A. arbitrariness. B. productivity. C. cultural transmission. D. finiteness. 考点: 语言的区别性特征（design features） 记忆：CD PAD. Cultural transmission. Displacement. Productivity (creativity). Arbitrariness. Duality. 2. The distinction between parole and langue was made by _____. (2006) A. Halliday. B. Chomsky. C. Bloomfield D. Saussure. 考点：语言流派的主要代表人物、四对儿概念的区分。 记忆：四对概念分别是：descriptive & prescriptive. Synchronic & diachronic. Langue & Parole. Competence & performance. 代表人物：Saussure对应parole & Langue。 Chomsky对应 Competence & performance 3. language is a tool of communication. The symbol “high way closed” on a high way serves _____. (2010) A. an expressive function. B. an informative function. C. a performative function. D. a persuasive function. 考点：语言的基本功能。信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、感情功能、寒暄功能、娱 乐功能。其中最重要的是信息功能。
词根、词缀和词干：词根root可以是自由的，也可以是粘着的。例如 internationalism 中词根nation是自由的，而transmit 中，词根mit是粘着的。 词缀affix分为前缀prefix 后缀suffix和中缀infix，词缀都是粘着的。 词干stem是指可添加屈折词缀的语素，它等于一个词根或一个词根加上一个派 生词缀。
搭配同义 collocational synonymy.
反义关系分为：等级反义 gradable antonymy 如 strong-weak. 互补反义
complementary antonymy 如 innocent-guilty. 关系反义 relational antonymy or converse antonymy. 如 borrow-lend, parent-child.
形态学可分为屈折形态学和派生形态学。其中，屈折形态学inflectional morphology需要掌握屈折变化inflectional change. 屈折变化是指词语通过增加屈折词缀inflectional affix 而导致其语法关系发生变化的表现。例如：our-ours 格，class-classes 数。 另外，派生形态学derivational morphology 研究词的构成word formation. 其下可分为两类，一类叫复合词compound words 例如 landlady, bookstore, 另一类叫派生词 derivation，它指的是通过在词干stem 上增加词缀affix而产生的新词汇。例如 courage-discourage, tract-detraction.
记忆：并列句coordinate sentence 标志：逗号加and but for or nor so yet. 从属句subordinate sentence.
①① 语义学 1① The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form
利奇的意义七分法 G. Leech
指称论 Referential theory， I.A. 理查兹在《意义的意义》The Meaning of Meaning 中提出了“语义三角理论”。
涵义和所指 sense and reference. 涵义是特征的集合，所指是物质世界中的实物。例如：人的sense是没有羽毛，两 条腿的的哺乳动物。人的reference是世界上的任何一个人。
构词法：新创词Invention 如 Codak。混成法 blending 如 sitcom， smog。截短法或缩略法 clipping or abbreviation 如 flu。 首字母拼音法 Acronym 如 UNESCO. 注意与首字母拼写法Initialism进行区别 例如 WTO
语义变化的几种类型：词义扩大broadening, 词义缩小narrowing, 词义转移shifting （仅列出常见的三个）
①① 语音学和音位学 此部分尚未在历年真题中出现。 考点和记忆：语音学（phonetics）的三大分支：发音语音学（articulatory phonetics）听觉语音学（auditory phonetics）声音语音学（acoustic phonetics）
辅音和元音的区别在于：有无气流的源自碍（the obstruction of air stream）
记忆：Syntax is the study of structure and formation of sentence.
2. what type of sentence is “Mark likes fiction, but Tim is interested in poetry.”? (2008) A. A simple sentence. B. A coordinate sentence. C. A complex sentence. D. None of the above. 考点：句子类型
同音（或）同形异义：例如：同形不同音lead-lead, 同音不同形meet-meat, 既同音又同形 pupil-pupil, scale-scale. 一词多义，注意与同音同形异义词区分。个人认为，一词多义中的“义”之间从词 源角度上来说存在关联，比如question这个词，n.问题，v.质问；pass v. 递给，通过。这些词本质上、词源上是一样的。所以叫一词多义。 而同音同形异义词 例如pupil 的两个意思之间没有联系。 综上所述，两个单词，它们的发音和拼写都一样，如果其不同的意思之间有联系 ，就是polysemy，如果没有联系，就是homonymy。
辅音描述：根据发声位置的描述：双唇音bilabials: p b m. 唇齿音 labialdentals: f v. 齿音dentals: . 齿龈音 aveolars: t d s z n l。 软腭音 velors: k g n. 声门音glottal：h 根据发声特征的描述：爆破音stops、鼻爆破 nasals、边音 laterals、 摩擦音 fricatives、 破擦音 affricates. 几个重要概念： 最小对立体minimal pairs: when two different forms are identical expect for one sound segment in the same place. The two words are said to form a minimal pair. 例如：man和men。 音位变体allophones: the different realization of the same phoneme in different phonetic environment are called allophones. 例如：lady 和 well。 Sit 和 besides