入门欧洲文化 中文
欧洲文化入门Europe Culture3 The Middle Ages
b) Church Fathers and Early Monasticism
St. Jerome
Augustine of Hippo
St. Benedict Benedictine Rule
c) the power and influence of the Catholic Church
under feudalism, people of western Europe were mainly divided into three classes: clergy, lords and peasants.
After a knight was successful in his trained and tournaments， there was always a special ceremony (选择) to award him with a title， knight. This special ceremony is called dubbing.
People pay taxes to churches.
nobles and Kings often gave lands, crops or cattle to support the church.
Many high church officals were themselves big landowners and influencial nobles.
knight trained for war by fighting each other in mock battles called tournaments.(模拟战场)
2. The Church After 1054， the church was divided into the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.
欧洲文化入门讲义二
欧洲⽂化⼊门讲义⼆第九章1、RealismIn art and literature the term realism is used to identify (区分) a literary movement in Europe and the United States in the last half of the 19th century and the early years of the 20th century. But the practice of realism is very old and can be traced back to ancient times. This is fundamentally the difference between romanticism and realism.In Europe，the Realist movement arose in the 50s of the 19th century and had its origin in France. It centred in the novel (侧重于⼩说的创作) and lay emphasis on fidelity (准确的)to actual experience. (⽤现实主义创作现实)2、Realism is a literary movement In Europe. (错) and also in United States3、The spirit of realism lies in (在于) the literary area.4、The realist literary focus on (侧重于) novel writing.5、The character realistic Stendhal (司汤达) of the method used by the realists.6、―A novel is a mirror walking along the road‖said Stendhal.(司汤达) ⼩说是映射现实的镜⼦7、By the 1850s the term realism was applied to the art of Gustave Courbet. (哥斯塔王)8、现实主义与浪漫主义的区别Ralism can be track back to the ancient times，but romanticism can not.And the realist…s language was usually simple，clear and direct.9、The European Communist movement，armed (武装) with Marxist thought in realism.10、Germany and Italy，achieved their unification (完成统⼀) in realism.11、Stendhal —→ ArmanceFrench —→ The Red and the Black—→ The Charterhouse of Parma (帕尔玛⼤教堂)12、Balzac —→ The Human Comedy (⼈间喜剧)—→ Divine comedy (神曲) 受但丁神曲影响—→ Eugenie Grandet (葛朗台)—→ Le Père Goriot (⾼⽼头)—→ La Cousine Bette (贝蒂姨妈)13、The novels contented in the Human Comedy mark the beginnings of French realism. (标志着法国现实主义的开端)14、Balzac has been called ―the French Dickens‖ as Dickens has been called ―the English Balzac‖15、Flaubert —→ Madame Bovary (包法利夫⼈)⊙写作特点：the right word or phrase (⽤词恰如其分)⊙Flaubert is called ―the first French realist‖ (法国现实主义第⼀⼈)16、Zola —→ Les Rougen-Macquarts (罗根。
欧洲文化入门
阿凡达“白人至上主义” （White Supremacy）是一种种族分子的形态意识，主张白色人种优越于其他族裔，根植于为我中心主义（Ethnocentrism）和对霸权的欲望，有着不同程度仇外（Xenophobia）意识。
其中很多人认为某些“白人”也是低等的（如：非基督教徒、无神论者和同性恋者）。
其原因在贝尔・胡克看来，在于白人至上主义与男性占统治地位的资本主义社会现实紧密相连。
因此，白人至上主义包含了种族歧视、男权至上、等级尊卑等内容。
二、《阿凡达》角色创作中“白人至上主义”潜意识分析影片为观众呈现视觉特效盛宴的同时，潜意识里也在演绎着根深蒂固于美国社会的白人至上主义思想，其本质是美国种族歧视的化身。
1．白人至上主义中的种族歧视在电影《阿凡达》角色创作中，地球人虽然也包括黑人等少数民族，但以白人居多；而且白人上校和公司负责人是影片中的最高领导，这样的安排就体现了白人至上主义中的种族歧视。
“哈利路亚山”的原型是好莱坞摄影师在张家界拍摄的“南天一柱”。
“哈利路亚”（Hallelujah）是基督教的欢呼语，意为“赞美神”。
影片将中国人的“乾坤柱”命名为“哈利路亚”；将纳威星球命名为“潘多拉”（希腊神话中，主神宙斯命火神用黏土造的第一个女性）；模仿Eve（夏娃，基督教中上帝创造的第一个女性）的读音，纳威人的神称为“Eywa”。
纳威人相信生命能量都是借来的，所以对待猎物也要报以感激之心（这是北美印第安人的习俗）。
这些设计以基督教、古罗马古希腊神话为主，将其他文化纳入其中，以欧洲文明为中心，暗藏白人至上的潜意识。
潘多拉星球上的纳威人体格雄壮健硕、纯朴自然，但在智力谋略上远不如白人。
虽然杰克残疾，但是他的思想、意识、意志却可以通过机器进入到阿凡达（人类基因和纳威人基因的杂交物）身体里。
电影里，与阿凡达合一的杰克按捺不住冲动，恣意奔跑，感觉双脚指头插入泥土的激动，生动地刻画了重新站立起来的人物形象。
这样，白人的心智有了强壮的躯体，也就有了对付纳威人的基础，为白人杰克打入纳威部落创造了条件。
《欧洲文化入门》复习指南
《欧洲文化入门》复习指南Division One: Greek Culture and Roman Culture(European culture is made up of many elements.Two of these elements are considered to be more enduring and they they are: the Greco-Roman element, and the Judeo-Christian element.) I. Greek Culture 。
1.The Historical Context1). In a more remote period of Greek history, probably around 1200B.C. , a war was fought between Greece(希腊)andTroy(特洛伊) 。
2). Greek culture reached a high point of development in the 5th century B.C.What marked the high point of development in Greek culture in the 5th century B.C.?1). The high point of development in Greek culture was marked by (a) the successful repulse of the Persian invasion early in the 5th century B.C., (b) the establishment of democracy and (c) the flourishing of science, philosophy, literature, art and historical writing in Athens(雅典). 。
欧洲文化概论课程提纲(中英文含参考书目)
欧洲文化概论课程大纲教材：王佐良等编：《欧洲文化入门》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1992年。
教师：任显楷E-mail: renxiankai@欢迎提问！课程描述和学习目的：“欧洲文化概论”以欧洲文化为学习对象，讨论欧洲自古希腊、罗马以来，直至20世纪的文化变迁和文化实绩，同时对20世纪美国文化亦予以一定的关注。
该课程以历史发展线索为纵轴，同时涉及文化领域中的多个门类，包括历史、政治、哲学、宗教、文学、音乐和美术等。
详细介绍欧洲各国在上述门类中的所取得的发展与成就。
本课程的教学目标分为三个层次。
首先，通过对欧洲文化史实的介绍，学生应当了解并识记欧洲文化史上具有重要意义的事件、线索、思潮、人物，并熟读、熟知相关的文学、艺术作品等。
其次，在认知史实的基础上，对欧洲文化史中的若干重要节点（如古希腊文化、圣经及其影响、文艺复兴、浪漫主义运动、现实主义以及现代主义诸流派）有更为深入的理解。
能够对这些节点问题做出一定的讨论和分析。
第三，通过对欧洲文化史的学习和讨论，初步了解学术研究的方法与模式，并能够尝试着进行浅显的学术研究实践。
课程要求：本课程为中英文双语授课，以英语为主、汉语为辅。
课程作业和考试均使用英语。
学生应当具备良好的英语听力和阅读能力，以及基本的英语口语和写作能力。
结合课程内容，教学中将开展小型讨论活动。
学生应当积极参与这类活动，以获得相应的成绩。
本课程是对欧洲文化的初步介绍，因此并不要求学生对欧洲文化具有丰富的知识准备。
但如果学生对欧洲文化的相关内容具有一定的基础，则将能够更好地掌握课堂教学的内容，并获得更好的学习效果。
课时安排：第一讲：欧洲文化概述：课程概述及课程要求等，基本概念及历史，参考书目介绍第二讲：古希腊文化：概述，文学（戏剧为主），建筑和雕塑第三讲：罗马文化：概述，诗歌，建筑和雕塑第四讲：希伯来或犹太传统（一）：犹太民族和《圣经·旧约》第五讲：希伯来或犹太传统（二）：《圣经·新约》和基督教第六讲：中世纪：希伯来传统的影响第七讲：新世纪的开端：文艺复兴与宗教改革运动，莎士比亚第八讲：十七世纪：科学的进步与地理大发现，巴洛克艺术第九讲：另一个转折点：启蒙运动时期，哲学与文学第十讲：浪漫主义运动（一）：概述，文学成就第十一讲：浪漫主义运动（二）：音乐和绘画第十二将：对社会和人的新知识：马克思主义和达尔文主义第十三讲：现实主义（一）：概述，文学成就第十四讲：现实主义（二）：音乐和绘画第十五讲：20世纪西方文化（一）：现代主义思潮及文学成就第十六讲：20世纪西方文化（二）：现代主义艺术诸流派（第十七讲：总结及答疑）注：行课时间：2009年9月10日——2009年12月31日（因国庆放假所缺课程不补），共约17周/讲。
欧洲文化入门Europe Culture4 Renaissance and Reformation
David
David
David
ii)Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519): known as a painter but his out put was actually relatively small and included ‘The Last Supper’ and ‘The Mona Lisa’. He was also an inventor who even designed potential flying machines
The Rise of Humanism
i) Due to the increase in wealth caused by increased trade there was a new moneyed class with a new philosophy. Intellectuals who used to help train priests and spread Christianity focused their energy on providing these people with a philosophy. ii) Shakespeare accurately sums up humanist philosophy when he says in Hamlet:
Reformation
The Reformation was a 16th century religious movement as well as (同时) a socio-political (社会政治) movement. It began as Martin Luther posted on the door of the castle church at the University of Wittenberg (机智) his 95 thesis 。 This movement which swept over the whole of Europe was aimed at opposing the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing it with the absolute authority of the Bible. The reformists (改革者) engaged (使用) themselves in translating the Bible into their mother tongues. 宗教改革的实质是：反对罗
王佐良《欧洲文化入门》课后习题详解-第1~10章【圣才出品】
王佐良《欧洲⽂化⼊门》课后习题详解-第1~10章【圣才出品】第1章希腊罗马⽂化Greek CultureQuestions for Revision:1. What are the major elements in European culture?Key: There are two main elements—the Greco-Roman element and the Judeo-Christian element.2. What were the main features of ancient Greek society?Key: In Greek society, only adult male citizen had real power and the citizenship was a set of rights which a man inherited from his father. The economy of Athens rested on an immense amount of slave labor. Slaves worked for their masters. The exploitation was a serious social problem. The Greeks loved sports. They often took part in the contests of sports in Olympus Mount, thus Olympic Games came into being.3. What did Homer do? Why is he important in the history of European literature? Key: He depicted the great Greek men who lived in the period 1200-1100B.C. and wars happening at that time. As an author of epics, he employed fine literary language to describe wars and men, even though they were dull. He stood in the peak of Greek literature and exerted a great influence on his followers.4. Who were the outstanding dramatists of ancient Greece? What important plays did each of them write?Key: Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides were three outstanding dramatists of ancient Greece.Aeschylus: Prometheus Bound, Persians, Agamemnon.Sophocles: Oedipus the King, Electra, Antigone.Euripides: Andromache, Medea, Trojan Women.5. Were there historians then? Who were they? What did each of them write about? Key: Yes, there are. They were Herodotus and Thucydides. Herodotus wrote about the wars between Greeks and Persians. Thucydides wrote about the war between Athens and Sparta and between Athens and Syracuse.6. Would you say that philosophy was highly developed then? Who were the major philosophers?Key: No, I wouldn’t. Because those philosophical ideas were only idealism or simple materialism or metaphysics. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle were the major philosophers at that time.7. Did Socrates write any book? How then do we know about him? What distinguished his philosophy?Key: No, he didn’t. We know Socrates chiefly through what Plato recorded of himin the famous Dialogues written by Plato. He considered that philosophy rested with the dissect of oneself and virtue was high worth of life. His method of argument, by questions and answers, was known as the dialectical method.8. Tell some of Plato’s ideas. Why do people call him an idealist?Key: (1) Men have knowledge because of the existence of certain general “ideas”, like beauty, truth, and goodness.(2) We should not look at the things which are not seen: for the things which are not seen eternal. Because he emphasized the importance of “ideas” and believed that “thought” had created the world, people call him an idealist.9. In what important ways was Aristotle different from Plato? What are some of Aristotle’s works that are still influential today? Key: (1) Aristotle emphasized direct observation of nature and insisted that theory should follow fact. This is different from Plato’s reliance on subjective thinking.(2) He thought that “idea” and matter together made concrete individual realities in which he differed from Plato who held that ideas had higher reality than the political world. His significant works includes: Ethics, Politics and Rhetoric.10. Who were some of the other philosophers active in that period? Does the word“Epicurean” in its modern sense convey the true meaning of the philosophy of the ancient Epicureans? What were their views on pleasure?Key: (1) They were Heracleitue, Democritus, Diogenes, Pyrrhon, Epicurus and Zeno.(2) No, it doesn’t. The ancient Epicureans believed pleasure to be the highest worth of life, but by pleasure they meant, not sensual enjoyment but that attained by the practice of virtue. But this idea was misled by modern people, in their sense, the word “Epicurean” has come to mean indulgence in luxurious living.11. Say something about Greek sculpture, pottery and architecture. What was themost famous Greek temple? Is it still there?Key: (1) Along with the formation of Greek civilization, Greek sculpture, pottery and architecture got many great achievements. Greeks put into works of art the things they admired and worshiped, the scientific rules they discovered. Greek art evolved from the archaic period to the classical period which marked its maturity.(2) The most famous temple was the Acropolis at Athens.(3) Yes, it is still there.12. Give some examples to show the enormous influence of Greek culture on English literature.Key: (1) A Freudian term “Oedipus Complex” of 19th century originating from a Greek tragedy in which king Oedipus unknowingly killed his father and married his mother.(2) In the early part of the 19th century, in England alone, three young Romantic poets expressed their admiration of Greek culture in works which havethemselves become classics: Byron’s Isle of Greece, Shelley’s Hellas and Prometheus Unbound and Keats’s Ode on a Grecian Urn.(3) In the 20th century, there are Homeric parallels in the Irishman James Joyce’s modernist masterpiece Ulysses.Roman Culture1. What did the Romans have in common with the Greeks? And what was the chief difference between them?Key:(1) The Romans had a lot in common with the Greeks. Both peoples had traditions rooted in the idea of the citizen-assembly, hostile to monarchy and to servility. Their religions were alike enough for most of their deities to be readily identified—Greek Zeus with Roman Jupiter, Greek Aphrodite with Roman Venus, and so on—and their myths to be fused. Their languages worked in similar ways and were ultimately related, both being members of the Indo-European language family which stretches from Bangladesh to Iceland.(2) There was one big difference. The Romans built up a vast empire. The Greeks didn’t, excepted for the brief moment of Alexander’s conquests, which soon disintegrated.2. Explain Pax Romana.Key: In the year 27 B.C., Octavius took supreme power as emperor with the title of Augustus. Two centuries later, the Roman Empire reached its greatest extent in theNorth and East. The emperors mainly relied on a strong army—the famous Roman Legions and an influential bureaucracy to exert their rules. Thus the Romans enjoyed a long period of peace lasting 200 years. This remarkable phenomenon in the history is known as Pax Romana.3. What contribution did the Romans make to the rule of law?Key: In Roman’s earliest stage, only a number of patricians knew the customary legal procedure when the rules were put into writing in the middle of the third century B.C. It marked a victory for the plebeians. There was further development of law under the emperors until it was codified, eventually to become the core of modern civil and commercial law in many Western countries.4. Who were the important prose writers in ancient Rome? What does “Ciceronian” mean? Did Cicero write that kind of rhetorical prose all the time? Key: (1) Marcus Tullius Cicero and Julius Caesar were two important prose writers.(2) Ciceronian means Cicero’s eloquent oratorical manner of writing, which has had an enormous influence on the development of European prose.(3) No, he didn’t. Because Cicero appears as a different man with a different style, far less rhetorical, but colloquial and intimate.5. Give an example of the terse style of Julius Caesar’s prose.Key: An example: I came, I saw, I conquered (models of succinct Latin).。
欧洲文化入门Europe Culture 1 Greek Culture and Roman Culture
最後，奧德賽得神助，乘坐一艘在一夜之間可到達世界 各地的奇異船，在睡眠中回到故鄉伊他開。在那裡， 奧 德賽得到雅典娜女神的鼓勵，還有兒子和兩位忠實部下的 協助，並得知其妻對其的忠貞，從武器倉庫裡取出古時候 留傳下來的大弓箭，將那些惡劣的求婚者一一射殺。貝尼 蘿蓓亞以為奧德賽在特洛伊陣亡，見丈夫平安歸來驚喜萬 分，一家人終於團圓。
Athens was a democracy
Democracy means “exercise of power by the whole people”.
Athens was a democracy
Democracy means “exercise of power by the whole people”.
Athens was a democracy
Democracy means “exercise of power by the whole people”.
Greeks loved sports
Olympus Mountain---Olympic Games Modern Olympic Games revived in 1896 顾拜旦 （法国）
此時霍克得雖然擔心自己死後國家和妻子的命運，但為了名譽， 單獨出城和阿奇里斯決一死戰。最後，阿奇里斯有雅典娜女神 的幫忙，將霍克得殺死，達到報仇的心願。阿奇里斯並將霍克 得的屍體縛在戰車上拖著走。特洛伊的老王普利亞摩斯，為了 要回兒子的遺體，親自訪問阿奇里斯的營地，於是兩人共嘆命 運的悲哀。老王將兒子的遺體運回充滿悲傷的特洛伊城舉行葬 禮。
希臘方面為了奪回海倫，公元前1194年，亞該亞希臘人組織 一千艘的船對進攻特洛伊，以斯巴達王的長兄邁 錫尼王亞格門 能 (亞金面羅王) 為統帥。經過十年悠久歲月，仍然不能攻下 特洛伊城。「伊里亞德」就是歌 詠這十年當中最後數十天所發 生的事。
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第一章希腊罗马文化希腊罗马文化可以说是欧洲文明的起源，所以这一章节应该是比较重要的章节。
我们先看希腊的发展。
希腊文明分为几个时期，她形成于公元前800－500年，经历了古典时代（也就是公元前500到公元前336年）和希腊化时代（也就是公元前336年到公元前31年）。
希腊文明达到顶峰是公元前5世纪。
公元前146年，希腊被罗马攻克。
希腊文明也就被罗马文明所取代。
这段历史的重要大事有：1、公元前12世纪，随着特洛伊人的入侵，希腊堕入“黑暗时代”。
荷马史诗描述的正是希腊人与特洛伊人之间的战争（《以利亚特》和《奥得赛》）。
这里要注意的是，荷马史诗描述的时代并非荷马生活的时代。
荷马生活在公元前700年。
2、公元前6世纪，希腊世界开始有了全面改变，为后来的古典时代打开了通途。
其中两个重要的城邦国家是雅典和斯巴达。
雅典发展起一个完全不同类型的社会，公元前594年，梭伦成为雅典的首席执行官，他的贡献在于，在组织上为以后建立著名的雅典民主奠定了基础。
雅典之所以在当时拥有卓越的地位，是因为它在打败庞大的波斯帝国这场重大战争中起了最主要的作用。
历史之父希罗多德在他的历史书中进行了详尽的描述。
3、由于雅典的不断扩张引起了斯巴达的恐慌，因而在公元前431年爆发了伯罗奔尼撒战争。
战争最终以雅典的失败而告终。
修昔底得这位历史上最伟大的历史学家在其作品中，详尽描写了这一战争。
4、伯罗奔尼撒战争后，斯巴达专横跋扈，底比斯和雅典为求相互保护而结成新的联盟。
公元前371年，马其顿国王腓力二世打败了底比斯和雅典联军，他的闻名世界的儿子亚历山大大帝统治了希腊。
至此，古典时代结束，希腊化时代即将开始。
古典时代的希腊造就了一批哲学家和剧作家。
哲学家主要以苏格拉底、柏拉图和亚里士多德为代表。
苏格拉底提出自由辩论的重要性。
柏拉图的目标是要实现一个既能维持贵族特权，又可为贫苦阶级接受的社会，并构件了唯心主义的根基。
亚力士多德寻求自然界和人类社会各个方面的秩序。
剧作家有埃斯库罗斯、阿里斯托芬、索福克勒斯。
这一时期希腊也造就了像阿基米德和欧几里得这样的数学家，以及像希罗多德和修昔底得这样伟大的历史学家。
希腊的艺术和建筑在神庙上得到最高体现。
著名的雅典卫城的圣地帕台侬神庙就是卫雅典娜女神建造的。
接下来我们从希腊文明走向罗马文明。
希腊化时代与罗马时代前期相互交融，最终过渡到罗马时代。
罗马时代经历了早期共和国（公元前509－公元前264年）、后期共和国（公元前265－公元前27年）、早期帝国（公元前27年－公元284年）和后期帝国（284－476年）。
公元前500年，罗马开始了独立城邦的生涯。
经过三次布诺战争，罗马渐渐地满足了它的征服欲。
战争中尤里乌斯恺撒声名鹊起。
公元前27年，元老院授予屋大维“奥古斯都”和“大元帅”的尊称，罗马早期帝国形成。
在此后的两个世纪中，罗马帝国的疆域达到最大范围，其文化处于极盛时期。
这段历史时期被成为“罗马和平”。
但罗马的伟大也就仅至于此。
罗马的伟大时代随着公元180年马可奥勒留的去世而告终。
公元395年，罗马帝国彻底分裂为东罗马帝国和西罗马帝国。
公元476年，西罗马帝国陷落。
公元1453年，东罗马帝国被土耳其人占领。
说到罗马的文化，它基本源于希腊，但罗马人在思想意识方面也有重大贡献。
罗马人对欧洲文化所作的最重要的贡献是它所创立的罗马法律。
在政治文化方面，罗马出现了以下比较重要的人物：1. 恺撒他是古代罗马政治家、军事家。
他在文学方面也颇有建树。
传世之作有《高卢战记》、《内战记》。
对于他，我们要记住一句名言：也就是“I came, I saw, I conquered.”2.西赛罗他是古罗马政治家、哲学家和最重要的演说家。
主要成就在演说词和书信。
3. 卢克来修他是罗马共和国末期主要诗人之一，提倡唯物论、无神论和原子论。
作品有哲理诗《物性论》。
4. 维吉尔他是罗马文学中最重要的作家。
代表作品是《阿尼德》。
在建筑、艺术方面，罗马人也做出了突出的贡献。
如：圆形大剧场和建于公元前27年的罗马万神殿以及女狼雕塑等。
以上是对希腊罗马文化的综述，下面我们来一起看两个问答题。
1. How did the Ancient Greek philosophy develop?希腊哲学是如何发展起来的？回答这个问题，我们要掌握1. 三个哲学奠基人及其理论：毕达哥拉斯，赫拉克里特，德谟克里特。
2. 三位思想家及其理论：苏格拉底，柏拉图和亚力士多德。
3. 其它思辩流派，如诡辩派、犬儒派等。
这样才能完善这个问题。
具体的答案我们可在练习册上找到。
2. What’s the difference between Plato and Aristotle in terms of their philosophical ideas (system)？柏拉图和亚力士多德的哲学体系有何区别？回答这个问题，首先要阐述柏拉图的哲学体系包含什么，亚力士多德的哲学体系包含什么。
然后再进行对比。
他们两个最主要的一个区别在于亚力士多德强调理论联系实际，而柏拉图强调万物依赖主观思维。
这是必须提到的一点。
具体的答案见练习册。
以上是对第一章希腊罗马文化的讲解。
刚才我们谈到要研究欧洲发展的历史，除了要研究希腊和罗马文化历史这条线索之外，精神宗教形成线索，即犹太教和基督教历史也很重要。
在第二章中我们要看一下基督教和圣经的发展及其内容。
第二章基督教和圣经这一章的重点是：犹太教与基督教的关系，基督教的教义核心，旧约的摩西五经，十诫，列王记，罗马帝国衰亡的原因，基督教与罗马帝国政府的关系的发展，基督教教士对维系和发展西方文明的贡献，圣经对西方的影响或贡献。
在学习这一章中，大家应努力将2－4章关于基督教的知识连成线，从而理解和记忆欧洲文化的另一个重要源头的发展脉络――犹太教和基督教，彻底认清圣经在欧洲文化中的核心作用。
基督教是在西方最具影响力的宗教。
犹太教是世界各地犹太人信仰的宗教。
是基督教的前身。
这一教派的经典《旧约》记载了犹太人的历史。
犹太人以前叫Hebrews希伯莱人，在大约公元前3800前在中东一带沙漠流浪。
约在公元前1300前，他们逐渐在伽南地区定居下来，并形成了小王国。
基督教与犹太教关系密切。
它与犹太教同发源于巴勒斯坦。
基督教的核心是耶稣基督，其教义是：一、耶稣基督是上帝的儿子，上帝派他到人间来，跟人类一起受苦受难，最终拯救人类。
二、基督是上帝唯一的儿子，任何信仰基督的人最终得到永生。
耶稣基督生活在第一个罗马帝国。
他教导人们热爱上帝、信仰上帝。
由于他获得越来越多的人的爱戴，当时的统治者就收买了他十二个门徒中的犹大，在耶稣与他的弟子去往巴勒斯坦的路上，将他钉死在十字架上。
由于耶稣的门徒圣保罗和圣彼得拒绝把罗马皇帝作为上帝来敬奉，而宣称只有真正的上帝才能受到崇拜，所以基督教一开始就被认为是一个具有反叛性的宗教受到包括罗马皇帝尼禄、多米提安在内的皇帝的迫害的宗教。
尽管如此，基督教还是越来越受到人们的信奉，并开始从早期穷人信奉的宗教演变为各个阶层的人都能接受的宗教。
成为一支显著的社会力量。
统治者对它的态度也开始转变。
公元305年，戴克里先放弃了摧毁基督教的企图。
不久，君士坦丁一世由于相信上帝帮助他赢得战争而在313年发布“米兰赦令”宣布人人都有宗教信仰的自由，从此基督教取得了合法地位。
392年，迪奥多西一世宣布基督教为罗马国教，而其它宗教不合法。
至此，基督教从一个受压迫的对象转变为统治阶级的统治武器。
基督教的主要经典是《圣经》。
《圣经》由《新约》和《旧约》两部分构成。
在前面已经谈到《旧约》是希伯莱人的文献。
《旧约》共39部，写了从1000B.C.---100A.D.的事情，最重要的前五本是《摩西五书》，包括《创世纪》, 《出埃及记》, 《利未记》, 《民数记》, 《申命记》。
《新约》成于基督教兴起之后，共27卷，其中前四卷福音书《马太福音》、《马可福音》《路加福音》《约翰福音》内容包括了有关耶稣言行的传说、耶稣使徒的传说。
接下来我们看一下《圣经》的翻译：现存的最早的《旧约》希腊版本被成为旧约圣经。
传说是应埃及王之请，由72位犹太学者在72日之内译成。
现存最早的《圣经》拉丁文全译本是瓦尔盖特译本，是公元383－405年由圣杰罗姆所译，是罗马天主教认为唯一可信的拉丁语译本。
其它英文译本及欧洲其它语种译本大都以瓦尔盖特译本为基础。
当1500’s发明印刷术时，拉丁圣经是第一部被全文印刷的作品。
继拉丁文译本之后，出现了现代语言的译本。
第一部英文全文译本是1382年由约翰威克利夫在瓦尔盖特拉丁文译本基础上译成。
之后，出现了英国宗教改革家丁道儿的英文译本。
他的译本是直接根据希伯莱和希腊原文译成。
后来出现的《大圣经》The Great Bible 就部分参照丁道儿的译本。
1539年在亨利八世命令所有英国教堂中都必须供奉《大圣经》。
但最重要的也是最具影响力的圣经译本是最初发表于1611年的官方版圣经或詹姆斯王圣经。
它的翻译是在詹姆斯国王的命令下由54为圣经学者翻译而成，语言简洁，使用高雅的安各鲁萨克森语言。
这一译本被认为是英语语言中最伟大的作品。
圣经修订本The Revised Version 出现在1885，1901年出现了标准美语版本圣经修订本。
1979年，新版詹姆斯王圣经出版。
对圣经的翻译有重大意义，英语圣经和莎士比亚的作品被成为现代英语的两大源头。
后世的文学深受圣经的影响。
如：Miltion’s Paradise Lost (失乐园), Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, Byron’s Cain, up to the contemporary (同时期的) Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises, and Steinbeck’s East of Eden. They are not influenced without the effect of the Bible.以上是对希腊罗马文化的综述，下面我们来一起看一个问答题。
1. How was Christianity spread to Europe and became the official religion? 基督教是如何传到欧洲并成为统治性宗教的？其实这个问题我们在综述总已经谈到。
只要搞清基督教发展的历史阶段，每一阶段的社会状况，它为什么会从被迫害变成成为统治阶级的工具，统治阶级又是如何一步步将它从摈弃、迫害变为合法、变为国教的就可以了。
这其中的重要人物是戴克里先、君士坦丁一世、迪奥多西一世。
具体的答案请参见练习册。
第三章中世纪 The Middle Ages本章重点：封建土地制和分封制，天主教会的影响（包括教会组织，教会学术和哲学，教会艺术，教会影响），三种文化的融合，民族文学。