linguistics 2 语音学与音位学
linguistics
1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成
2.辅音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.
3.辅音的发音方式爆破音 complete obstruction鼻音 nasals破裂音 plosives部分阻塞辅音 partial obstruction擦音 fricatives破擦音 affricates等
3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).
5.互补性分布；如果两个基本相似的音段绝不会出现在相同的语音环境中，那么它们之间就是互补性分布的关系，如送气p绝不会出现在s之后，不送气的p绝不会出现在词首
6.音节syllable，分为节首onset，节峰peak，节尾coda
7.辅音群:一般作为音节节首的辅音群不能超过三个福音，节尾不能超过4个
4. The Scope of Linguistics General linguistics is the study of language as a whole. Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provid
语言学概述
语言学概述这就是综述一下，不过下面提到的名词的都是考过的知识点。
一、定义：什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.二、语言学研究的核心（下面的术语要尽量全都认识，不然做题时可能看不懂选项）1、Phonetics 语音学2、Phonology 音位学3、Morphology 形态学4、Syntax 句法学5、Semantics 语义学6、Pragmatics 语用学三、语言（Langue）和言语（Parole）这个考过的。
Parole这个概念是F. de Saussure（索绪尔）提出的。
Langue指语言系统的整体，“所有（语言使用）个体头脑中存储的词语-----形象之总和”，这个整体相对较为稳定；Parole 指某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语，它是随时间和地点变化的一个动态的实体。
四、语言的功能Functions of Language（这个也考过的。
考过the informative function，就是高速公路指示牌的那道题）1、The instrumental function2、The regulatory function3、The heuristic function4、The interactional function5、The personal function6、The imaginative function7、The informative function五、语言的普遍特征Design Features这个也考过的，这五个特征由美国语言学家Charles Hockett提出。
弱弱地说一句：如果真的在临时抱佛脚，那就不要管这五个术语的具体含义了，只要能强行记下来应付考试就是了。
>_<1、Arbitrariness 任意性2、Productivity 多产性3、Duality 双层结构4、Displacement 移位性5、Cultural Transmission 文化传播性六、语音学和音位学（一）语音学Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language.1、三大分支（1）Articulatory Phonetics发音语音学（2）Auditory Phonetics 听觉语音学（3）Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学2、辅音和元音（这个考过的，考过二者的区别）（二）音位学Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form pattern and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.1、三个术语（1）Phone音素（2）Phoneme音位（3）Allophone音位变体2、Suprasegmental Phonology超音段音位（考过的）包括Stress重音、Tone音调、Intonation语调七、形态学Morphology: refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.（一）两类词汇1、Closed class words封闭性词汇2、Open class words开放性词汇（二）Morpheme词素1、Free morpheme自由词素2、Bound morpheme粘着词素3、Stem词干4、Root词根（三）Word-formation构词法（四）Inflection屈折变化八、句法学Syntax: studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.九、语义学Semantics: is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.1、Synonymy同义关系2、Polysemy一词多义3、Homophones同音异义&Homogragh同形异义&Complete homonyms同形同音异义4、Hyponymy上下义关系5、Antonymy反义关系6、Analysis of meaning语义分析（1）Componential analysis成分分析（2）Predication analysis述谓分析7、Two-place predicate二向谓词、one-place predicate一向谓词、no-place predicate 零向谓词8、Sense relations between sentences（1）Entailment（2）Presupposition十、语用学1、Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. (Or it refers to the study of natural language understanding, and specifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings.)2、区分语义学和语用学的最本质因素是：是否考虑了语言使用过程中的语境。
《语言学教程》第 2 章 语音学与音位学1(课堂PPT)
7
Phonetics studies speech sounds,
made,
how speech sounds transmitted are actually
that
and received,
is,
speech sounds,
the description and classification of
words
and connected speech，
etc.
8
语音学研究的是语音，
发出、
传递 语音如何
和感知
即
语音
以及对
词 连续性语音
的描写 和分类。
9
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
的规则。
以及 音节的形式 音位学以音位为起点来研究语言的语音系统。
13
音位学的定义
Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to “discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.” （Crystal, 1997: 162）
第 1 学期 第6 讲 第 2 章 语音学与音位学（1）
第二章 语音学与音位学
The criteria of vowel description:
1）Position of tongue: the raised part of the tongue, front, center, or back 2）Height of tongue: the extent to which the tongue rises to the palate, high, mid-high, mid-low, low 3）Rounded or unrounded: degree of lip rounding or spreading, rounded, unrounded (lip-rounding)
Consonants (辅音) are speech sounds with some obstruction of the airstreams There are 22 consonants in all, which can be classified into voiced sounds and voiceless sounds. When the vocal cords vibrate, the sound produced is a voiced sound (浊辅音). When the vocal cords do not vibrate, the sound produced is a voiceless sound (清辅音) (see the table on page 44, Table 2.1). How to describe English speech sounds?
4）Tense or lax: a long vowel (represented as [:]) requires more tension of the muscles, so is often referred to as a tense vowel; a short one, as a lax vowel. For instance, [i:]: high, front, tense, unrounded vowel; [u]: high, back, lax, rounded vowel;
Linguistics 2
Chapter 2Sound and sound system: phonetics and phonology2.1 The phonic medium of language•Language is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound. •Speech and writing are two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the 2 media of language, speech is more basic than writing. •Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds----sounds that convey meaning in human communication.•Human language displays a wide variety of sounds, but not all the sounds that humans are capable of producing occur in speech.•Any human is able to produce the possible speech sounds, regardless of racial or cultural background.•We first begin with the study of sounds, which is called …phonetics‟ and then go on to the study of sound patterns called …phonology‟.2.2 Phonetics----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop.Scope of Phonetics•Phonetics is the scientific study of speech and is concerned with defining and classifying speech sounds.•It’s the study of the phonic medium of language.•It has 3 separate fields (branches):•(1) Articulatory phonetics （发音语音学）•(2) Acoustic phonetics （声学语音学）•(3) Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学）•Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) studies the human speech organs, and the way in which the speech sounds are produced. It deals with the identification and classification of individual sounds.•Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) deals with the physical properties of the speech sounds; It studies the sound waves through the use of such machines as a spectrograph. •Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）is the study of the perception of sounds by the human ear. Three branches of phonetics•Articulatory phonetics----from the speakers‟ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”•Auditory phonetics----from the hearers‟ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”•Acoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.•The 3 branches are closely related to each other. Speech sounds can not be divorced from the organs that articulate them and a sound wave does not exist in isolation from the source that generates it.•All the approaches are indispensable to an understanding of phonetics. Phoneticians are concerned with an objective description of how speech works, measuring speech characteristics as accurately as possible, and providing an account using agreed and understood terminology.Speech organs (vocal organs)The vocal organs consist mainly of the lungs, windpipe, the throat, the nose and the mouth.Speech organs: three important areasThree resonating cavities(1) The pharyngeal cavity--The vocal cords (vocal folds) are either(a) apart (b) close together or (c) totally closed•When the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is voiceless. Eg: [p] [t] [s]•When they are close together, the air stream causes them to vibrate against each other and the sound produced is voiced. Eg: [b] [d] [z]•When they are totally closed, no air can pass between them and the result is the glottal stop (?). Thus the sound is inaudible, but it has its effect on surrounding segment. In English it is often occurs initially to produce a word like idiot which begins with a vowel. Three resonating cavities(2) The oral cavity--The tongue (the tip, the blade, the front, the back and the root), the softpalate (velum), the hard palate, the uvula, the alveolar ridge, the teeth and the lips.(3) The nasal cavity--The soft palate may be lowered so that the air can go through the nasalcavity, then the sound produced will have a nasal resonance called a nasal.S e g m e n t s（音段）a n d d i v e r g e n c e sSegment—In the production of the word egg,we recognize2 sound segments [e] and [g] for e and g, the other g is silent; lake has 3 sound segments [l] [ei] and [k] for l, a, and k ,the e is silent.•Divergence---The English spelling doesn‟t represent its pronunciation. （异化现象）George Bernard Shaw pointed out the lack of precision in English orthography by spelling fish as ghoti, as gh is pronounced as [f] in enough, o as [i] in women and ti as [∫] in nation.Spelling and SpeechThe diagram of speech organs●Lips●Teeth●Teeth ridge (alveolar)●Hard palate●Soft palate (velum)●Uvula●Tip of tongue●Blade of tongue●Back of tongue●Vocal cords●Pharyngeal cavity●Nasal cavityOrthographic representation of speech sounds---- A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.•Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. clear [ l ], [ pit ]•Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ]Narrow and broad transcriptions（严式与宽式音标）•broad transcription ──the system of symbols used generally in dictionaries and language books. ( adequate enough )•narrow transcription ──the phonetic transcription with diacritics (not always necessary). Some major articulatory variables---- dimensions on which speech sounds may vary:•Voicing---- voiced & voiceless•Nasality ---- nasal & non-nasal•Aspiration ----- aspirated & unaspiratedArticulation of SoundsVoice•All languages have both voiceless and voiced sounds contrasting in their phonological systems.•In English, all vowels are voiced, as are some consonants (e.g. /d, b, g, m,…./)•When describing individual sound segments, phoneticians often employ two perspectives to examine how sounds are articulated: manner of articulation and place of articulation. Classification of English speech sounds---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories:•Vowels•ConsonantsNote: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the airstream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.Classification of consonants---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions:The manner of articulation•---The manner or the way in which obstruction is created.•The place of articulation•---The place where obstruction is created.The manner of articulation•stops/plosives: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g];•fricatives: [f], [v], [s], [z], [W], [T], [F], [V], [h];•affricates: [tF], [dV];•liquids: [l](lateral), [r];•nasals: [m], [n], [N];•glides/semivowels: [w], [j].Manner of Articulation (发音方法)classification of English consonants, according to the manner of articulation:stops (6) （塞音）: /p, b, t, d, k, g/fricatives (9)（摩擦音）: /f, v, s, z, , ❆, ☞, ✞, h/affricatives (6)（破擦音）: / ♦☞, ♎✞, tr, dr, ts, dz/liquids (2)（流音）: /l, r/nasals (3)（鼻音）: /m, n, ☠ /glides (2)（滑动音）: /w, j/The place of articulation•bilabial: [p], [b], [ ], [w];•labiodental: [ ], [v];•dental: [ ], [ ];•alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r];•palatal: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ];•velar: [k], [g], [ ];•glottal: [h].Place of Articulation (发音部位）Classification of English consonants, according to the place of articulation:•bilabial (4)（双唇音）: /p, b, m, w/•labiodental (2)（唇齿音）: /f, v/•dental (2)（舌齿音）: / , ❆,/•alveolar (9)（齿齦音）: /t, d, n, s, z, l, r, ts, dz/•post-alveolar(2)（齿后音）: /tr, dr/•palatal (5)（硬颚音）: /☞, ✞, ♦☞, ♎✞, j/•velar (3)（软颚音）: /k, g, ☠/•glottal (1)（声门音）: /h/The place of articulation●Bilabial;●Labiodental;●Dental or interdental;●Alveolar;●Palatoalveolar;●Palatal;●Velar;●Uvular;●Glottal.The description of English consonantsClassification of vowels---- English vowels can be divided into two large categories:•Monophthongs or pure/single vowels•Diphthongs or gliding vowelsMonophthongs or pure/single vowels----According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as:•front vowels: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ]•central vowels: [ ], [ ], [ ];•back vowels: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ].VowelsTwo ways of classification:According to the position of the tongue (13):•front vowels (5)（前元音）: /i:, i, e, ✌, /•back vowels (5)（后元音）: /u:, u, :, , :/•central vowels (3)（中元音）: / ☜:, ☜, ✈/According to the openness of the mouth•Close: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ].•Semi-close: [ ], [ ];•Semi-open: [ ], [ ];•Open: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ];The diagram of single vowel classification by applying the two criteria so far mentioned:According to the shape of the lips orthe degree of lip rounding•rounded: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ];•unrounded: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ].According to the shape of the lips:•unrounded vowels (8)（非圆唇音）/i:, i, e, ✌ , ☜:, ☜, ✈, :/ •rounded vowels (4) （圆唇音）/u, u:, :, /According to the length of the vowels•long:[ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ]•short: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ].Diphthongs/gliding vowels•[ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ].Exercises: underline the words that begin with a sound as required.• A bilabial consonant: mad sad bad cad pad had lad work• A velar consonant: nod god cod pod rod drink•Labiodental consonant: rat fat sat mat chat vat pat•An alveolar consonant: nick lick sick tick kick quick risk nod• A palato-alveolar consonant: sip ship tip chip lip zip measure ridge• A dental consonant: lie buy thigh thy tie rye• A glide: one war yolk rushUnderline the words that end with a sound as required:• A fricativepay horse tough rice breath push sing wreathe hang cave message• A nasaltrain bang leaf limb• A stopdrill pipe fit crab fog ride laugh rack throughtip•An affricate: rack such ridge boozeUnderline the words that contain the sound as required:• A central vowel:mad lot but boot word• A front vowel:reed pad load fate bit bed cook• A rounded vowel:who he bus her hit true boss bar walk• A back vowel:paid reap fool top good fatherDescribe the underlined consonants according to three dimensions:vd/vl place mannerLetterBrotherSunnyHopperItchingLodgerCallingSingingRobbereitherCharacteristics of English Speech Sounds•Each language has its own sound patterns. English is no exception.•English has many words with the pattern consonant-vowel-consonant, as in the words fit, dig, net, sit, and rid, and many others containing consonants clusters, as in stream, glimpse, task, spray, and shred.•However, no more than three consonants may occur at the beginning of a word. If threeconsonants do occur, the first must be /s/.2.3 Phonology•Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.•音系学(phonology) 研究的是语音的记忆状态和语音使用和组合成语言单位的规律。
Linguistics-2(共40张)
Phonetics Phonology
第1页，共40页。
2.1 Phonetics
A. Definition
The study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages is called phonetics. The task of phonetics is to identify what are speech sounds in a language and then to study their characteristics;
seal/zeal
choke/joke
It is the phonetic feature that distinguishes between word pairs.
第9页，共40页。
2.2.3 Nasal and Oral sounds
The soft palate can be lowered or raised to allow air to pass or not pass through the nasal cavity. When the velum is raised all the way to touch the back of the throat, the passage through the nose is cut off. The air stream can only pass through the oral cavity.
第7页，共40页。
2.2.2 Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
◆ When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air can pass easily and the sound produced is said to be ___.
语言学考试要点(考试重点整理)
Chapter 1 Introduction1. What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study oflanguage.2.The scope of linguistics:(1 ). phonetics 语音学；phonology 音位学；morphology 形态学；syntax 句法学；pragmatics 语用学(2). sociolinguistics 社会语言学；psycholinguistics 心理语言学；applied linguistics应用语言学3.Some important distinction in linguistics(1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性与规定性①If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language peopleactually use, it is said to be descriptive;②If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for” correct and standard”behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say andwhat they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.(2)Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性①A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily,the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.②Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.(2)Langue & parole 语言与会话①Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all themembers of a speech community.②Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.(4)Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用①A language user's unconscious knowledge about the system of rules iscalled his linguistic competence.②Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.(5)speech and writing 语言与文字Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.(6)traditional grammar and modern linguistic 传统语法与现代语言学4.Definition of language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistics symbol and what the symbol stands.Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.5.Design features of language6.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)(2) Productivity(creativity)能产性Language is productive in that it makes possiblethe construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) duality双重性The property of having two levels of structures, such that units ofthe primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(4) displacement移位性Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.(5)cultural transmission 文化传承性7.Functions of language(1) referential (to convey message and information),(2) poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),(4) conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),(5) phatic (to establish communion with others)(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).①Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in asociety.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status)③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certainactions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of thespeaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions toestablish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. (health, weather)⑥Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.8.9.Chapter 2 Phonology1.Phonetics（语音学）is the study of the phonic medium of language; it isconcerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.2.Orthographic representation of speech sounds：broad transcription（宽式标音）and narrow transcription（严式标音）A broad transcription（宽式标音）is the transcription with letter-symbols only.A narrow transcription（严式标音）is a transcription with letter symbols togetherwith diacritics.3.Phonology（音位学）is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems oflanguages.4.The differences between phonetics and phonology:（语音的正字表征）①Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. Butthey differ in their approach and focus.②Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in allhuman languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.③Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.5.Phone（音素）, phoneme（音位）, allophone（音位变体）A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produceduring linguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit,not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context6.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.（音位对立，互补分布，最小对立体）7.Some rules of phonology（音位学规则）Sequential rules 序列规则Assimilation rule 同化规则Deletion rule省略规则8.Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）：stress重音，tone音调，intonation语调9.10.Chapter 3 Morphology1.Classification of words（1）Variable vs. invariable words:可变词类和不可变词类Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, matsInvariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.（2）Grammatical words vs. lexical words:语法词类和词汇词类Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronounsLexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.（3）Closed-class words vs. open-class words:封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbsGrammatical---lexical words closed-class---open-class words2.Morphere(词素)：the minimal meaningful unit of language.3.Linguistics use the term morphology to refer the part of the grammar that isconcerned with word formation and word structure.4.Free morpheme & bound morpheme(自由语素和黏着语素)A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme; a morphemethat must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.5.The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.(词素变体)6.Inflectional affix & derivational affix(屈折词缀和派生词缀)pound: those words that consist of more than one free morphemes, the way tojoin two separate words to produce a single form.In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.pounds can be further divided into two kinds:the endocentric compound (向心复合词) the exocentric compound(离心复合词)9.Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; egself-control: a kind of control armchair: a kind of chair10.Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, egscarecrow: not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neck11.Chapter 4 Syntax1.What is Syntax （句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences. 句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2.Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:relations of position 位置关系relations of substitutability 替代关系relations of co-occurrence 同现关系3.4.5.Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2.The conceptualist view①The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic formand what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.②This is illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significancesuggested by Ogden and Richard.Thought/reference/conceptSymbol/form referencentword/phrase/sentence③The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words andphrases);The referent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated withthe form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked atfrom this point of view is the meaning of the word.3.The contextualismMeaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:Situational context: spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.4.BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.5.Lexical meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.6.Major sense relations（1）Synonymy 同义词①Dialect synonymy 方言同义词②Stylistic synonymy 文体同义词③Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning④Collocational synonyms⑤Semantically different synonyms（2）Antonym 反义词①Gradable antonyms 等级反义词②Complementary antonyms 互补反义词③Relational opposites 关系反义词（3）Polysemy 一词多义（4）Homonymy 同形异义词（5）Hyponymy 上下义关系①Superordinate 上义词②Hyponyms下义词ponential analysis 成分分析法——a way of analyze lexical meaningIt is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The.word可编辑.approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.8.. 专业.专注.。
语言学考试要点 考试重点
Chapter 1 Introduction1. What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.The scope of linguistics:(1 ). phonetics 语音学；phonology 音位学；morphology 形态学；syntax 句法学；pragmatics 语用学(2). sociolinguistics 社会语言学；psycholinguistics 心理语言学；applied linguistics应用语言学3.Some important distinction in linguistics(1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性与规定性①If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use,it is said to be descriptive;②If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for” correct and standard” behaviorin using language, . to tell people what they should say and what they should notsay, it is said to be prescriptive.(2)Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性①A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, thepresent) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.②Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.(2)Langue & parole 语言与会话①Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community.②Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.(4)Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用①A language user's unconscious knowledge about the system of rules is called hislinguistic competence.②Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.(5)speech and writing 语言与文字Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.(6)traditional grammar and modern linguistic 传统语法与现代语言学4.Definition of language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system, ., elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistics symbol and what the symbol stands.Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.5.Design features of language6.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)(2) Productivity(creativity)能产性Language is productive in that it makes possible theconstruction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) duality双重性The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of theprimary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(4) displacement移位性Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, eventsand concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.(5)cultural transmission 文化传承性7.Functions of language(1) referential (to convey message and information),(2) poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),(4) conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),(5) phatic (to establish communion with others)(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).①Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age,sex, language, background, accent, status)③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions.(name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establisha comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factualcontent. (health, weather)⑥Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.8.9.Chapter 2 Phonology1.Phonetics（语音学）is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with allthe sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.2.Orthographic representation of speech sounds：broad transcription（宽式标音）and narrow transcription（严式标音）A broad transcription（宽式标音）is the transcription with letter-symbols only.A narrow transcription（严式标音）is a transcription with letter symbols together withdiacritics.3.Phonology（音位学）is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.4.The differences between phonetics and phonology:（语音的正字表征）①Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But theydiffer in their approach and focus.②Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all humanlanguages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ fromeach other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.③Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.5.Phone（音素）, phoneme（音位）, allophone（音位变体）A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce duringlinguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not aparticular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context6.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.（音位对立，互补分布，最小对立体）7.Some rules of phonology（音位学规则）Sequential rules 序列规则Assimilation rule 同化规则Deletion rule省略规则8.Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）：stress重音，tone音调，intonation语调9.10.Chapter 3 Morphology1.Classification of words（1）Variable vs. invariable words:可变词类和不可变词类Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, matsInvariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.（2）Grammatical words vs. lexical words:语法词类和词汇词类Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronounsLexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.（3）Closed-class words vs. open-class words:封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbsGrammatical---lexical words closed-class---open-class words2.Morphere(词素)：the minimal meaningful unit of language.3.Linguistics use the term morphology to refer the part of the grammar that is concerned withword formation and word structure.4.Free morpheme & bound morpheme(自由语素和黏着语素)A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme; a morpheme thatmust be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.5.The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.(词素变体)6.Inflectional affix & derivational affix(屈折词缀和派生词缀)pound: those words that consist of more than one free morphemes, the way to join twoseparate words to produce a single form.In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.pounds can be further divided into two kinds:the endocentric compound (向心复合词) the exocentric compound(离心复合词)9.Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg self-control:a kind of control armchair: a kind of chair10.Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, egscarecrow: not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neck11.Chapter 4 Syntax1.What is Syntax （句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences. 句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2.Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:relations of position 位置关系relations of substitutability 替代关系relations of co-occurrence 同现关系3.4.5.Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2.The conceptualist view①The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form andwhat it refers to . between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.②This is illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested byOgden and Richard.Thought/reference/conceptSymbol/form referencentword/phrase/sentence③The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words and phrases);Thereferent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with theform of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from thispoint of view is the meaning of the word.3.The contextualismMeaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:Situational context: spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.4.BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.5.Lexical meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.6.Major sense relations（1）Synonymy 同义词①Dialect synonymy 方言同义词②Stylistic synonymy 文体同义词③Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning④Collocational synonyms⑤Semantically different synonyms（2）Antonym 反义词①Gradable antonyms 等级反义词②Complementary antonyms 互补反义词③Relational opposites 关系反义词（3）Polysemy 一词多义（4）Homonymy 同形异义词（5）Hyponymy 上下义关系①Superordinate 上义词②Hyponyms下义词ponential analysis 成分分析法——a way of analyze lexical meaningIt is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.8.。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Note that all consonants except the glides and /h/ are [+CONSONANTAL]. Nasals, liquids, and approximants are [+SONORANT], while fricatives, liquids, and approximants are [+CONTINUANT]. The four major classes of consonants can be differentiated as follows: stops [–CONTINUANT] nasals [–CONTINUANT] [–SONORANT] [+SONORANT] fricatives [+CONTINUANT] approximants [+CONTINUANT] [–SONORANT] [+SONORANT]
Sounds that contrast “bat” & “cat” , “pen” & “pin”, “fine” & ”vine”
• The difference between phonemes are distinctive. • Substituting one for the other changes the meaning of a word.
Phoneme: (of French origin, means speech-sound) 音位
a phonological unit of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It’s represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.
(Note: N/A= not applicable, where the rule does not apply.) The Elsewhere Condition 剩余位置条件 The more specific rule applies first.
distinctive features
• Nasalization rule: [- nasal] [+ nasal] / _____ [+ nasal]
The rule reads:
An oral vowel is transformed into the corresponding nasal sound when it appears before a nasal consonant. e.g. can, came, bin, sound, etc.
• a hotel, a boy, a use, a wagon, a big man, a yellow rug, a white house • an apple, an honor, an orange curtain, an old lady • Epenthesis (Insertion) Rule:
The rule reads:
A voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound. e.g. love to, has to etc.
context.
E.g. dark and clear [l] as in “kill”, “like” aspirated and unaspirated [p] as in “pink”, “speak”
• Apart from complementary distribution, a phoneme may sometimes have free variants （自由变体）. • Free variation e.g. economic [i], [e] either [ai] [i:] direction [ai] [i] 新闻[v, w] in Chinese
The arrow represents the devoicing process
Focus bar: indicates the position of the target segment.
e.g. voiced fricative → voiceless/_______ voiceless
The slash specifies the environment in which the change takes place
Minimal pair（最小对立体）:
a pair of words between which the phonological difference is minimal because they are identical in form except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string.
e.g. sip/zip, pair/bare, bit/bet, full/fool, seed/soup, bar/rod?
The allophones: the variants of a phoneme 音位变体
They must be phonetically similar and in complementary distribution.
[p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative
Ex.[ð] [f] [h] [l] [m] [t∫]
ə
Vowels
Human language displays a wide variety of sounds, but not all the sounds that humans are capable of producing with the vocal tract in speech. The class of possible speech sounds is not only finite, but also universal. Any human is able to pronounce these sounds, regardless of racial or cultural background. In English, *[lbki], *[bkil], *[ilkb] and so on are not possible in the language. Our knowledge of English tells us that certain strings of phonemes are permissible and others are not. After a consonant like [b], [g], [k], or [p], another similar consonant is not permitted by the rules of the grammar. If a word begins with an [l] or an [r], every English speaker knows that the next segment must be a vowel.
binary features They can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without. Binary features have two values or specifications denoted by “+” “-”. (See p.46) E.g. [+/- voiced]: [p] & [b] [+/-nasal]: [b] & [m]
suprasegmental features: the aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.
• Phonological process:
a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environmental process must have three aspects to it:
Phonetics: the study of speech sounds, which is part of phonology and provides the means for describing speech sounds, and it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received. Phonology is concerned with the linguistic knowledge of speech and the ways in which these speech sounds form systems and patterns in human language.
(1) a set of sounds to undergo the process; (2) a set of sounds produced by the process; (3) a set of situations in which the process applies.