新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋9 Language and Culture知识讲解
7.8.language,culture_and_society 简明英语语言学 戴炜栋
Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939)
1884 1909 1925-31 1931-39
Born in Germany, Lauenberg PhD from Columbia University, University of Chicago Yale University
4. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Whorf are credited with developing the most relevant explanation outlining the relationship between thought and language, the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.
立春、雨水、惊蛰、春分、清明、谷雨、立夏、小满、芒种、夏至、小暑、
大暑、立秋、处暑、白露、秋分、寒露、霜降、立冬、小雪、大雪、冬至、 小寒、大寒。
3. The relationship between language and culture
Conclusion: On the one hand, language as an integral part of human being, permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. On the other hand, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(第10章 语言习得——第
第10章语言习得10.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Theories of child language acquisition儿童语言习得的理论2. Cognitive development in child language development儿童语言发展中的认知因素3. Language environment and the Critical Period Hypothesis语言环境和临界期假说4. Stages in child language development儿童语言发展的阶段5. Atypical development非典型发展本章考点：行为主义者预言习得观；语法天生主义者的习得观；语言环境和临界期假说。
本章内容索引：I. Theories of child language acquisition1. A behaviourist view of language acquisition2. An innatist view of language acquisition3. An interactionist view of language acquisitionII. Cognitive development in child language developmentIII. Language environment and the Critical Period HypothesisIV. Stages in child language development1. Phonological development2. Vocabulary development3. Grammatical development4. Pragmatic developmentV. Atypical developmentI. Theories of child language acquisition（儿童语言习得的理论）1. A behaviourist view of language acquisition（行为主义者的语言习得观）(1) Main content（主要观点）①A behaviourist view of language acquisition Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. A child imitates the sounds and patterns of the people around him; people recognize the child’s attempts and reinforce the attempts by responding differently, the child repeats the right sounds or patterns to get the reward(reinforcement)②So imitation and practice are preliminary, discrimination and generalization are key to language development in this theory. Imitation: word for word repetitionof all or part of an utterance.①传统的行为主义者把语言看作是行为，并且相信语言学习仅仅只是一个模仿和习惯形成的问题。
《新编简明英语语言学教程》PPT课件
Chomsky’s definition (1957)
“From now on I will consider language to be a
set of (finite or infinite) sentenБайду номын сангаасes, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”
• • • • •
Arbitrariness Productivity/Creativity Duality Displacement Cultural transmission
Arbitrariness
----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings. Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… ) Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy…
Language is arbitrary
Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)课后习题详解(第10章 语言习得——第12章 语言与大脑)
第10章语言习得1. Try to explain the terms:Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition DeviceCritical Period HypothesisKey: (1) Language acquisition refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.(2) Chomsky referred to children’s innate ability to learn their native language as Language Acquisition Device (LAD). The LAD was described as an imaginary “black box”existing somewhere in the human brain. The “black box”is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages. Children need access to the samples of a natural language to activate the LAD, which enables them to discover his language’s structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular language.(3) This hypothesis was put forward by Eric Lenneberg in 1967. It states that children have a special propensity for acquiring language, especially between the ages of 2 to 13. There are two versions of CPH. While the strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure, the weak one holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.2. Among the language acquisition theories mentioned in this chapter, which one do you think is more reasonable and convincing? Explain why.Key:There are three language acquisition theories mentioned in this chapter. Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. According to innatist view, human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking. The interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops.Behaviorists view sounds reasonable in explaining the routine aspects, the innatist accounts most plausible in explaining children’s acquiring complex system, and the interactionist description convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately from their environment.In my opinion, I think that the interactionist view is more reasonable, because environment plays a great role in our acquisition of language. Only when conversations provide the right level of language that children are capable of processing can they facilitate children’s language acquisition, otherwise, it is insufficient for children to learn the language’s structure.（答案不唯一，言之成理即可）3. Which of the following statements are TRUE and which are FALSE? Why?a. All normal children have equal ability in learning their first language.b. It is easy for parents to teach their children grammar.c. The young child is not taught to speak, or to understand his language. There isno formal learning of grammar or pronunciation practice.d. At first children do not inflect nouns or verbs.e. Children learn their native language well whenever they start and whateverkinds of language samples they receive.f. The ability to learn a second language as an adult may vary considerablybetween individuals.g. For a child to acquire his mother tongue the most basic requirement is that hehears people speaking this language. He will then begin to learn the language.h. Phonology and grammar are finite, tightly structured systems, the child mustmaster them before puberty in order to be a native speaker of the language. Key: a) True. (Language acquisition device explains it.)b) False. (Grammatical development is partly a matter of growing “competence”and partly a matter of increasing “performance”capacity. Some subtle grammatical distinctions may not be mastered much before the age of ten.)c) True. (Young children acquire their mother tongue.)d) True (At the beginning, children’s acquisition focuses on content.)e) False (Critical Period Hypothesis can explain it.)f) True (Different individuals are exposed to different language learning environment; and their learning abilities are affected by different motivation and personalities.)g) True. (When a child begins acquire his mother tongue, he must be exposed to the language environment.)h) True. (Critical Period Hypothesis can explain it.)4. Each of the following utterances comes from the speech of a child in thetwo-word state. Identify the semantic relation expressed by each of these utterances.Key:a) The child’s utterance “Jimmy swim”may have a lot of different semantic meanings such as “Jimmy can swim”, “Jimmy swims”, or “Jimmy is swimming”. For children have no concepts of tense at this age, he/she only use two words “Jimmy swim”to express his/her intended meaning “Jimmy is swimming?”, a interrogative question.b) The semantic meaning of “Ken book”is “Ken’s book”. The part which is omitted by the child is the possessive case of Ken, but it still can imply the meaning of “Ken’s book”.c) When the child sees his/her father in the office, the child may say “Daddy office”, which means “Daddy is at his office”.d) By omitting the subject of the sentence “You”, the child expresses the meaning using “Push baby”. Obviously the meaning is synonymous with “You push the babies”.e) When the child sees his/her mother reading, he/she simply says “Mommy read” instead of using the present tense.第11章第二语言习得1. To what extent is second language learning similar to first language learning? Can you list some proof from your own learning experiences?Key: Theoretically the new findings and advances in first language acquisition especially in learning theories and learning process are illuminating in understanding second language acquisition. The techniques used to collect and analyze data in first language acquisition also provide insights and perspectives in the study of second language acquisition. For example, we started to learn our native language from listening, then speaking.（答案不唯一，自由发挥即可）2. Try to observe yourself and pay attention to your own learning experience, what conclusions are you more likely to use or depend on Chinese in learning and using English?Key: When I first contacted with English, I often used Chinese to help me learn it. According to the pronunciation of some English words, I picked an approximate accent to mark an English word. Chinese played a great role as interlanguage in such an English learning process. Those Chinese markers helped me remember the English words better.（答案不唯一，自由发挥即可）。
《新编简明英语语言学教程》(戴伟栋+何兆熊编)
Chapter 1nguage can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system. Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.Language is arbitrary. Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.Language is symbolic in nature. Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare2. The design/defining features of human language(Charles Hockett)⑴ArbitrarinessNo logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings①Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… )②Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, p hotocopy…⑵Productivity/CreativityPeculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world.①A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible.②The bee dance does have a limited productivity, as it is used to communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee dance; bees do not “talk” about themselves, the hives, or wind, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desires⑶Duality①Lower level----sounds (meaningless)②Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning)③A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (We make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places.①A gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last year②There is something special about the bee dance though. Bees communicate with other bees about the food sources they have found when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the bee dance has a component of displacement. But this component is very insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future discoveries.⑸Cultural transmissionLanguage is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct).①Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees.②A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.③The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics⑴Prescriptive vs. Descriptive①Descriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern linguistic)②Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar)⑵Synchronic vs. diachronic①Synchronic study---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics)②Diachronic study---- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time)⑶Speech vs. writing①Speech ---- primary medium of language②Writing ---- later developed⑷Langue vs. parole (F. de Saussure)①Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.②Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.⑸Competence and performance (Chomsky)①Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language②Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.Chapter 21. Speech organs: three important areasPharyngeal cavity ---- the throat;The oral cavity ---- the mouth;Nasal cavity ---- the nose.2. The diagram of speech organsLips Tip of tongueTeeth Blade of tongueTeeth ridge (alveolar) Back of tongueHard palate Vocal cordsSoft palate (velum) Pharyngeal cavityUvula Nasal cavity3.Minimal pai r----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g. beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments5. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair6. Suprasegmental features⑴Stress①Word stressThe location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word:Verb: im’port; in’crease; re’bel; re’cord …Noun: ’import; ’increase; ’rebel; ’record …Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements:Compound: ’blackbird; ’greenhouse; ’hotdog…Noun phrase: black…bird; green ’house; hot ’dog…The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns:Modifier: ’dining-room; ‟readingroom; ‟sleepingbag…Doer: sleeping ’baby; swimming ’fish; flying ’plane…②Sentence stressSentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually notstressed.Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.He is driving my car.My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.⑵ToneTones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.mā妈(level)má麻(the second rise)mǎ马(the third rise)mà骂(the fourth fall)⑶IntonationWhen pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)For instance,“That‟s not the book he wants.”7. The manner of articulationStops/plosives: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g];Fricatives: [f], [v], [s], [z], [W], [T], [F], [V], [h];Affricates: [tF], [dV]; Liquids: [l](lateral), [r];Nasals: [m], [n], [N]; Glides/semivowels: [w], [j].Chapter 31.Morpheme--the minimal unit of meaningWords are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g.1-morpheme boy, desire 2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble3-morpheme boy+ish+ness 4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity 5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness 6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism ⑴Affix①Prefix ---- morphemes that occur only before others, e.g.un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc.②Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others, e.g.-ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.⑵Free morpheme & bound morpheme①Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.②Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc.2. Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme①Derivational morphemes---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.②Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.a) number: tables apples carsb) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talkedc) case: John/John’s3. Some points about compounds⑴Noun compoundsdaybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V) callgirl (V+N) windmill (N+N)⑵Verb compoundsbrainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)⑶Adjective compoundsmaneating (N+Ving) heartfelt (N+Ved) dutyfree (N+adj.)⑷Preposition compoundsinto (P+P) throughout (P+P)⑸①When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category, e.g. postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue-black…②When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound, e.g. head-s trong, pickpocket…③Compounds have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence, e.g. red coat, green house…④The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.Chapter 41.Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech)⑴Word-level categories①Major lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep.②Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, Auxi, Conj.⑵Phrase categories and their structures①Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called ⑵phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P).②The structure: specifier + head + complement③Head---- the word around which a phrase is formed④Specifier---- the words on the left side of the head s⑤Complement---- the words on the right side of the headsChapter 51. The conceptualist viewThe conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.2. The contextualism①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.④For example, “black” in black hair& black coffee,or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.3. Behaviorism①Behaviorists attempted to de fine meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R4. Sense and referenceSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5. Major sense relationsSynonymySynonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.1) Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects, e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol –gasoline…2) Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style, e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence…3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning, e.g. collaborator- accomplice…4) Collocational synonyms, e.g. accuse…of, charge…with, rebuke…for; …5) Semantically different synonyms, e.g. amaze, astound…Antonymy1) Gradable antonyms----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair,e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short …2) Complementary antonyms----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …3) Relational opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below …6. Sense relations between sentences(1) X is synonymous with Y①X: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never got married all his life.②X: The boy killed the cat. Y: The cat was killed by the boy.If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.(2) X is inconsistent with Y①X: He is single. Y: He has a wife.②X: This is my first visit to Beijing .Y: I have been to Beijing twice.If X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true.(3) X entails Y①X: John married a blond heiress. Y: John married a blond.②X: Marry has been to Beijing. Y: Marry has been to China.Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.(4) X presupposes Y①X: His bike needs repairing. Y: He has a bike.②Paul has given up smoking. Paul once smoked.If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.(5) X is a contradiction*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.*The orphan‟s parents are pretty well-off.(6) X is semantically anomalous*The man is pregnant.*The table has bad intentions.*Sincerity shakes hands with the black apple.7. Analysis of meaning⑴Componential analysis---- a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]⑵Predication analysis1) The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its component words, e.g. “The dog bites the man” is semantically different from “The man bites the dog” though their components are exactly the sam e.2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning, e.g. *Green clouds are sleeping furiously.*Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.3) Predication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G. Leech).4) Predication----the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.①An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.②A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.5) According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we may classify the predications into the following types:①One-place predication: smoke, grow, rise, run …②Two-place predication: like, love, save, bite, beat…③Three-place predication: give, sent, promise, call …④No-place predication: It is hot.Tom smokes.→ TOM (SMOKE) The tree grows well.→ TREE (GROW)The kids like apples.→KIDS (LIKE) APPLE I sent him a letter.→I (SEND) HIM LETTER Chapter 61. Context---- a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation (time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, etc.….Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him.2. Speech act theorySpeech acts is a term derived from the work of the philosopher J. L. Austin (1962) and now used to refer to a theory which analyzes the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communication. It aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language?”⑴Austin’s new model of speech act sAccording to Austin’s new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.①The locutionary act----an act of saying something, i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance);②The illocutionary act----an act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking).③The perlocutionary act----an act performed as a result of saying something: by saying X and doing Y, I did Z.Ⅰ.For example,“It is cold in here.”①Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is clod in here;②Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hear to shut the window;③Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window o r his refusal to comply with the request.Ⅱ.Analyze one more example: “You have left the door wide open.”Note: Of the three acts, what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.Ⅲ.Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple:----(the telephone rings)----H: That‟ the phone. (1)----W: I‟m in the bathroom. (2)----H: Okay. (3)Ⅳ.This seemingly incoherent conversation goes on successfully because the speakers understand each other’s illocutionary acts:① Making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone.② A refusal to comply with the request; issuing a request of her husband to answer the phone instead.③Accepting the wife’s refusal and accepting her request, meaning “all right, I‟ll answer it.”⑵Searle’s classification of speech acts (1969)①Assertives/representatives(陈述) Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true, e.g.I think the film is moving.I‟m certain I have never seen the man before.I solemnly swear that he had got it.②Directives(指令) Trying to get the hearer to do something, e.g.I order you to leave right now.Open the window, please.Your money or your life!③Commissives(承诺) Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action, e.g.I promise to come.I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.④Expressives(表达) Expressing the speaker’s psychological state about something, e.g.I‟m sorry for being late.I apologize for the sufferings that the war has caused to your people.⑤eclarations(宣布) Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs, e.g.I now appoint you chairman of the committee.You are fired.I now declare the meeting open.Note: (1) All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force, e.g.I guess / am sure / swear he is the murderer.Note: (2) In order to get someone open the door, we can choose one from a variety of the forms in below:Could you open the door, please!Can you open the door!Do you mind opening the door?Open the door!The door please!3. Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)Cooperative principle (CP)---- According to Grice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.Four maxims of CP①The maxim of quality----Do not say what you believe to be false.----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.②The maxim of quantity----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.③The maxim of relation----Be relevant ( make your contribution relevant).④The maxim of manner----Avoid obscurity of expression.----Avoid ambiguity.----Be brief.----Be orderly.Chapter 71. Addition of new words①coinage(创新词)----A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose, e.g.Walkman Kodak Xerox Ford Benz Toyota②clipped words(缩略词) ----The abbreviation of longer words or phrases, e.g. Gym—gymnasium memo—memorandum disco—discotheque fridge—refrigerator③blending(紧缩法) ----A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words, e.g. Smog—smoke + fog motel—motor + hotel camcorder—camera + recorder④acronyms(词首字母缩略词) ----Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words,e.g. CBS---- Columbia Broad casting systemISBN----International Standard Book NumberWTO WHO PLA AIDS UNESCO APEC OPEC CAD SARS⑤back-formation(逆构词法) ----New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix thought to be part of the old word.Edit ⇐ editor hawk ⇐ hawker beg ⇐ beggar baby-sit ⇐baby-sitter⑥functional shift ----Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes, e.g. Noun⇒verb: to knee, to bug, to tape, to brake…Verb⇒noun: a hold, a flyby, a reject, a retreat…Adj⇒verb: to cool, to narrow, to dim, to slow…Adj⇒noun: a daily, a Christian, the rich, the imposs ible…⑦borrowing ----When different cultures come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. The following are some of the loan words in English (see more in P100-101). Latin bonus education exitGerman beer waltz quartzChinese tea kowtow sampanRussian sputnik commissar vodkaArabic zero algebra alcohol2. Loss of wordsWords can be lost from a language as time goes by. The following words, taken from Romeo and Juliet, have faded out of the English language.Beseem →to be suitableWot →to knowGyve →a fetterWherefore →why3. Changes in the meaning of words①Widening of meaningHoliday: [+specific] holy day[+general] any rest dayTail: [+specific] tail of a horse[+general] tail of any animal②Narrowing of meaningHound: any doga special kind of dogGirl: young person of either sexyoung people of female sex③Meaning shiftinn: a small, old hotel or pubwell-known, nice hotelnice: ignorant (1000 years ago)good, fineChapter 81. The relatedness between language and societyThere are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society.①Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships. (e.g. greeting)②The use of language is in part determined by the user’s social background. (social class, age, sex, education level, etc.)③Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. (“snow” for Eskimo)④As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social ( the postvocalic [r] ).2. Speech community and speech variety①Speech community---- the social group that is singled out for any special sociolinguistic study is called the speech community.②Speech variety or language variety---- any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker ora group of speakers. In sociolinguistic study three types of speech variety are of special interest,i.e. regional dialects, sociolects and registers.3. Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies①Macro sociolinguistics, i.e. a bird’s-eye view of the languages used in society;②Micro sociolinguistics, i.e. a worm’s-eye view of language in use.4. Sociolect is a linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. (e.g. Received Pronunciation)5. Ethnic dialect----a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation (e.g. Black English).6. Register, in a restricted sense, refers to the variety of language related to one’s occupation.In a broader sense, according to Halliday, “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, mode of discourse.Three social variables:①Field of discourse: what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose (why) and subject matter (about what) of communication. It can beeither technical or non-technical.)②Tenor of discourse: the role of relationship in the situation in question: who are the participants in the communication and in what relationship they stand to each other. (customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.)③Mode of discourse: the means of communication. It is concerned with how communication is carried out. (oral, written, on the line…)7. Standard dialect①The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.②The standard variety has a number of featuresFirst of all, the standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language, usually it is the local speech of an area which is considered the nation’s political and commercial center.Second, the standard dialect is not a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. It is a superimposed variety; it is a variety imposed from above over the range of regional dialects. Then the standard dialect has some special functions.Chapter 91. The relationship between language and culture①The same word may stir up different associations in people under different cultural background,e.g. the word “dog”.②Language expresses cultural reality, reflects the people’s attitudes, beliefs, world outlooks, etc.③The culture both emancipates and constrains people socially, historically and metaphorically.④Culture also af fects its people’s imagination or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life.⑤On the one hand, language as an integral part of human being, permeates in his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality; on the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.2. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis⑴①Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave, i.e. different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity.②Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.⑵Strong version & weak versionStrong version bel ieves that the language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior; Weak version holds that the former influence the latter.----The study of the linguistic relativity or SWH has shed two important insights:①There is nowadays a recognition that language, as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.②More than in Whorf’s days, however, we recognize how important context is in complementing。
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第2版）课后习题详解（中）【圣才出品】
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》（第2版）课后习题详解（中）【圣才出品】第4章句法学1. What is syntax?Key: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that governs the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?Key: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is calleda phrase structure rule.3. What is category? How to determine a word’s category?Key: Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. T o determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely, meaning, inflation and distribution.4. What is coordinate structure? What properties does it have?Key: The structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction are called coordinate structures. It has four properties: first, there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories. Second, a category at any level can be coordinated. Third, coordinated categories must be of the same type. Fourth, the category type of the coordinate phrase isidentical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what rule does each element play? Key: The phrase elements are specifiers, complements and modifiers. Specifiers help make more precise the meaning of the head. They typically mark a phrase. The complements provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. Modifiers specifies optionally expressible properties of heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?Key: The structure that formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties is called the deep structure. The structure that corresponds to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformation is called surface structure.7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.b) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.c) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the school.d) This cloth feels quite soft.Key:8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesc) an augment against the proposalsd) already above the windowKey: a) rich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesc) the argument against the proposalsd) already above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Key: (The modifiers are represented by italics.)a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.Key: a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function ascomplements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry can’t believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.Key: a) You know that I hate war.。
圣才教育：戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》
内容摘要
实用性：这本书不仅注重理论知识的学习，还强调实际应用能力的培养。每一章节都附有大量实 例和案例分析，帮助学生更好地理解和掌握语言学知识。书中的关键词和思考题也为学生提供了 实际应用的指导。 时代性：这本书的内容紧跟时代步伐，反映了当今语言学研究的前沿。它不仅介绍了最新的语言 学理论和研究成果，还涉及了语言与文化、社会、认知等领域的交叉研究，有助于学生拓宽视野， 了解学科前沿。 内容丰富：这本书涵盖了语言学的各个方面，包括语音、词汇、语法、语义、语用等基础理论知 识和应用。同时，它还涉及了二语习得和语言习得的理论和实践，使得学生能够全面了解语言学 及应用。
该章节介绍了计算机与语言的、计算机与自然语言处理的关系以及自然语言处 理的基本任务和应用领域。
该章节介绍了认知科学的定义、认知科学的学科交叉性、语言与认知的关系以 及认知语言学的定义和基本原理。
该章节介绍了隐喻和转喻的定义、隐喻和转喻的认知功能以及隐喻和转喻在英 语词汇和表达中的应用。
该章节介绍了文化的定义、文化与语言的关系以及文化适应和文化休克的概念。 同时，还介绍了跨文化交际能力和跨文化意识的培养方法。
精彩摘录
语言是人类最重要的交际工具，是音义结合的符号系统。
语言的音和义、语素和词汇的意义是约定俗成的，语言的音义之间没有必然的 关系。
语言的底层是一套音位和音位的组合规则；上层是音义结合的语言符号。
语言具有创造性，它能够产生并理解无限量的语句。
语言具有创造性，它能够产生并理解无限量的语句。
该章节介绍了形态学的定义、词素和词根、词干和词缀、屈折变化和派生变化、 复合词和短语以及形态学在自然语言处理中的应用。
该章节介绍了句法学的定义、语法和句法的关系、短语、句子和句法结构、句 法规则的类型和应用、转换语法和句法分析的基本原则以及句法学在自然语言 处理中的应用。
新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版全解
新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版第1章导言本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究范围2. Important distinction in Linguistic语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义和识别特征4. Function of language语言的功能本章考点：语言学考点：语言学的定义，语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支及各自研究范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要扥只及各自的研究范畴。
语言的考点：语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的功能1,The definition of linguistics语言的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language(based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to general theory of language structure)2.The scope of linguistics语言学的范围A：micro-linguisticsPhonetics（语音学）: the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology（音系学）: the study of how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication.(语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式) Morphology（形态学）: the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.Syntax（句法学）: the study of rules in the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in language.Semantics（语义学）: the study of meaning.Pragmatics（语用学）: the study of the meaning in the context of language use. B：macro-linguisticsSociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with the society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics: the study of language and its relation with psychology.Applied linguistics: the study of application of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学中的重要区分A: Descriptive vs Prescriptive 描写式与规定式Descriptive: if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.Prescriptive: if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for ―correct and standard‖ behavior in using lan guage, i.e. to tell people what should they say and what they should not say, it is said to be Prescriptive.B: Synchronic vs Diachronic 共时性和历时性Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.C: Speech vs writing 言语和文学These are major media of communication.D: Langue vs parole 语言与言语(Saussure 索緖尔)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by the all the members of a speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.E: Competence vs performance 语言能力和语言应用(Chomsky乔姆斯基) Competence: refers to a user’s underlying knowledge about the system of the rules.Performance: refers to the actual use in concrete situations.乔姆斯基和索绪尔的区别：索绪尔采用的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的。
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Linguistic evidence of cultural differences
▪ Denotative meaning (指示的，外延的，表示的) ---- a meaning that can be found in a dictionary.
▪ In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture, etc.
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
▪ Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave, i.e. different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity.
▪ Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.
4. Culture also affects its people’s imagination or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life.
5. On the one hand, as an integral part of human being, language permeates (渗透) in his thinking and way of viewing the world, and language both expresses and embodies cultural reality; on the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.
two important insights (领悟) : ▪ There is nowadays a recognition that language, as
code, reflects cultural preoccupations (偏见，成见) and constrains the way people think. ▪ More than in Whorf’s days, however, we recognize how important context is in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.
▪ There are generally two types of culture: material and spiritual.
The relationship between language and culture
1. The same word may stir up different associations in people under different cultural background, e.g. the word “dog”.
2. Language expresses cultural reality, reflects the people’s attitudes, beliefs, world outlooks, etc.
3. The culture both emancipates (解放；解脱) and constrains people socially, historically and metaphorically.
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二 版 戴炜栋9 Language andቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱCulture
What is culture?
▪ In a broad sense, culture means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, institutions, techniques, language and etc. that characterizes the life of the human community.
Two Interpretations about SWH
▪ Strong version believes that the language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior;
▪ Weak version holds that the former influence the latter. ----The study of the linguistic relativity or SWH has shed