语言学教程[第五章意义]山东大学期末考试知识点复习

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胡壮麟语言学教程期末考试复习专用笔记(老师画的重点-自己整理的)

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 Arbitrariness1.3.2 Duality1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 Displacement1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. What is contextualism?“Contextualism” is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, observable context: the “situational context” and the “linguistic context”. Every utterance occurs in a particular spatial-temporal situation, as the following factors are related to the situational context: (1) the speaker and the hearer; (2) the actions they are performing at the time; (3) various external objects and events;(4) deictic features. The “linguistic context” is another aspect of contextualism. It considers the probability of one word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another, which forms part of the meaning, and an important factor in communication.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions: According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 Informative1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily tochange the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive function1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content. 1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to tal k about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the languageof all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics,Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say thatthe linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronicstudy. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competenceis stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics –the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis ofseveral factors. The most important of these factors are: 1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford E nglish” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.A chart of English consonantsManner of articulation Place of articulationBilabial Labio-dental Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar GlottalStopNasalFricativeApproximantLateralAffricateIn many cases there are two sounds that share the same place and manner of articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal [n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral [j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative [r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally, three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips – various degrees of lip rounding or spreading.4. The position of the soft palate – raised for oral vowels, and lowered for vowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.] Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[], CV2[], CV3[], CV4[], CV5[], CV6[], CV7[], CV8[].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for a give position: CV9 –CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced withoutany noticeable change in vowel quality.Vowel glides: Vowels where there is an audible change ofquality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as onedistinctive vowel of a particular language but really involvestwo vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[] high front tense unrounded vowel []high back lax rounded vowel[] central lax unrounded vowel [] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulationof two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more likethe following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known asanticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays theinfluence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, itis perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonantsbecome nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a languagesystematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. in English, when the phoneme // occurs at the beginning of the word like peak //, it is said with a little puff of air, it isaspirated. But when // occurs in the word like speak //, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Both the aspirated [] in peak and the unaspirated [=] in speak have the same phonemic function, i.e. they are both heard and identified as // and not as //; they are both allophones of the phoneme //.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation. Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation. Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change isconditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspects to it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a set of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicates the position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used todescribe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be //. It shouldn’t be // or // according to this principle.Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different formsin actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map –maps, mouse –mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “theminimum free form,” the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows –following –followed. Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical words Grammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negative marker “not,” and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,” “do up,” “look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements in a sentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are usedbefore the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into three subclasses: predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 Types of morphemes1. Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes. Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed. An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that partof the word left when all the affixes are removed. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. All words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound. E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive, conceive and perceive. A few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tence form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. E.g. friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root anda derivational affix.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affix Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tellthe difference between them with the following ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2) Infle ctional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter.(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguistic factors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence. E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions.E.g. The choice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talk about the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of being clever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, etc. Butderivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. InflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formationWord formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).(1) CompoundCompounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbal compound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participant of the process verb.。

语言学概论（本科）期末复习要点.

语言学概论（本科）期末复习要点.语言学概论(本科期末复习要点导言一、语言学、语言学的对象和任务1.语言学是以语言作为研究对象的科学,它以人类的语言为研究对象。

语言学的基本任务是研究语言的规律,具体地说,语言学研究语言的性质、作用、结构,语言的发展变化,使人们懂得有关语言的理性知识,从而提高学习语言和运用语言的水平。

2.中国、印度、希腊-罗马是语言学的三大发源地。

3.我国的小学:小学是我国古代语文学的统称,由训诂学、文字学、音韵学三部分组成。

训诂学解释字义,文字学分析字形,音韵学研究字音。

二、语言学在科学体系中的地位1.语言的研究和其它科学的关系十分密切,不仅与社会科学有联系,而且与自然科学也有十分密切的联系。

语言学是一门古老的科学,又是一门年轻的科学。

2.语言交际的过程:语言交际过程可分“编码-发送-传递-接收-解码”五个阶段。

三、语言学的基本类别根据研究的对象的不同,语言学可以分为以下几类:共时语言学和历时语言学、专语语言学和普通语言学、。

各类语言学下面还可以进一步细分,如专语语言学下面可分汉语语言学(例如现代汉语、古代汉语、近代汉语、汉语史等、英语语言学、俄语语言学等等,普通语言学下面可分语音学、词汇学、语义学、语法学、修辞学等等。

四、语言学流派比较重要的语言学流派主要有:历史比较语言学、结构语言学、布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学派、转换-生成学派、系统-功能学派、社会语言学。

各个语言学流派的观点、代表人物有所了解即可,注意布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派以及美国结构语言学派(也称美国描写语言学都属于结构主义学派,是这一学派的三个分支。

关于语言学流派的具体内容阐述,请浏览《语言学网络课件》中的“望远镜”板块。

第一章语言的社会功能本章需要明确的要点是:第一,语言的两大社会功能;第二,语言是一种社会现象。

第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具1.语言的交际功能:语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带。

2.语言是一种社会现象:弄清楚语言是一种社会现象的内涵,语言不是自然现象,而是社会现象,是一定社会的产物,同社会的关系非常密切。

现代汉语[第五章语法]山东大学期末考试知识点复习

第五章语法第一节语法概说一、语法和语法体系语法是词、短语、句子等语言单位的结构规律。

一般了解语法的两个含义。

一个指语法结构规律本身。

另一个指语法学，又分为词法和句法两个部分。

前者的研究范围包括词类和各类词的构成、词形变化(形态)；后者的研究范围是短语、句子的结构规律和类型。

了解语法体系的两个含义。

一个是语法系统，即客观存在的语法事实、语法规律的系统性，语法是各种规则交织成的整体。

另一个是语法学体系，指语法学说的系统性。

二、语法的性质重点掌握语法的性质，即与语音、词汇相比，语法具有更明显的抽象性、稳固性和民族性。

三、语法单位和句法成分重点掌握语法单位，能够区分句法成分及各级单位。

1．语法单位可以分为四级：语素、词、短语、句子。

语素是语言中最小的音义结合的构词单位，是构词的备用单位。

语素可以组合成词，有的可单独成词。

词是最小的能够独立运用的语言单位，是构成短语和句子的备用单位。

一部分词加上句调可以单独成句。

短语是语义上和语法上都能搭配而没有句调的一组词，是造句的备用单位。

句子是具有一个句调、能够表达一个相对完整的意思的语言单位。

2．句类和句型，单句和复句，主谓句和非主谓句。

句类是根据语气划分出来的句子类型。

依此划分汉语句子共有四种：陈述句、疑问句、祈使句、感叹句。

句型是根据句子的结构划分出来的类型。

它共分成两个大类：单句、复句。

单句由带上一个句调的短语或词构成。

可分成主谓句、非主谓句。

复句则有两个以上的分句组成。

分句是类似单句而没有完整句调的语言单位。

3．句法成分一般了解各种句法成分。

句法成分是短语和句法结构的组成成分。

第二节词类(上)一、词类的划分理解词类是词的语法性质的分类。

了解划分词类的目的是说明语句的结构和各类词的用法。

了解分类的依据是词的语法功能、形态和意义，主要是词的语法功能。

理解词的语法功能是指词与词的组合能力的三种表现：词在语句里充当句子成分的能力；实词与另一类实词的组合能力；虚词依附实词和短语的能力。

语言学教程[第一章语言学导论]山东大学期末考试知识点复习

语言学教程[第一章语言学导论]山东大学期末考试知识点复习第一章语言学导论复习笔记Ⅰ．语言的定义语言是人类以口头交流的任意的符号系统。

该定义揭示了语言的五个要素：系统，任意，口头，符号，人类。

Ⅱ．语言的定义特征语言的定义特征是人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点。

1．任意性二重性是指拥有两层结构的这种属性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。

二重性只存在于这样的系统之中，既有元素又有它们组合成的单位。

3．创造性创造性指语言的能产性，它能够使人造出和理解无穷的长句，其中很多句子是以前从未听过的。

4．移位性移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、事件和观点。

移位性赋予人们的概括和想象力使人类受益无穷。

5．文化传递性语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。

6．互换性互换性是指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。

Ⅲ．语言的起源1．圣经的记载语言是上帝的恩赐。

2．“汪汪”理论语言是模仿自然的声音，例如动物的叫声，如(鸭子)的刮刮声，嘎嘎声，布谷鸟的叫声。

3．“噗噗”理论语言起源于原始人共同劳动时发出的有节奏的哼哟声。

5．进化理论语言起源于劳动的过程，满足了社会的需求。

Ⅳ．语言的功能1．信息功能语言用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理。

信息功能是语言最重要的功能，一般出现在陈述句中。

2．人际功能人际功能是语言最重要的社会功能。

人们由此建立和维持他们的身份和社会地位。

3．施为功能语言的施为功能主要是用来改变人的社会地位，例如在婚礼、判刑，为孩子祈福和在首航仪式上为船命名、诅咒敌人。

在这些言语行为中，语言通常是非常正式的，甚至是仪式化的。

4．感情功能语言的感情功能是语言最有用的功能之一，因为它在改变听者赞成或反对某人、某物的态度上作用非常关键。

5．寒暄功能寒暄功能是指那些有助于确立和维持人际关系的表达，例如俚语、玩笑、行话、礼节性的问候、社会方言或地域方言的转用等。

语言学教程[第五章意义]山东大学期末考试知识点复习

第五章意义复习笔记I．语义学语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。

II.意义1．意义在语言学中，意义是指语言所表达的关于现实世界或者想象中的世界的想法。

2．内涵按照哲学界的用法，内涵和外延相对，指的是一个词所指称的实体的特性。

3．外延外延涉及语言单位跟非语言实体之间的关系。

在这个意义上，它跟指称意义是一样的。

4．意义的不同类型(1)概念意义逻辑的、认知的、外延的内容。

(2)联想意义①内涵意义：通过语言所指所传达的意义。

②社会意义：所传达的关于语言使用的社会环境的意义。

③感情意义：所传达的关于说话人／整理感情、态度方面的意义。

④反射意义：通过同一表达方式的其他意思所传达的意义。

⑤搭配意义：通过词语的常用搭配而传达的意义。

(3)主位意义通过顺序和重音这种组织信息的方式所传达的意义。

主位意义是最边缘的意义，因为它只由语序及重音所决定。

5．语境论语境论是建立在如下假设之上：意义源于语境，存在于语境。

语境有两种：情景语境和上下文。

所有的话语都是在特定的时空情景下产生的，除了话语产生的时间地点以外，情景因素还包括说话人和听话人、他们当时的行为以及情景中所存在的物与事。

上下文不仅涉及词与其他词的搭配，这种搭配构成词义的一部分，即搭配意义，它也涉及特定话语的前后部分。

6．行为主义行为主义理论把意义定义为说话者说话的环境以及听者的反应。

Ⅲ．指称理论1．定义把词语意义跟它所指称或所代表的事物了解起来的理论，叫做指称理论。

2．语义三角奥格登和理查兹在《意义的意义》一书中提出了语义三角的理论。

他们认为词与所指事物之间没有直接的关系。

它们是以概念为中介的。

概念是抽象的，没有物质存在，只能通过我们的思维来感知。

3．涵义与指称涵义与指称的区别类似于内涵和外延：前者指一个实体的抽象属性，后者指拥有这些属性的具体实体。

换句话说，Leech的概念意义包括两个方面：涵义和指称。

然而涵义和指称还有其他的不同。

在某种程度上，我们可以说每个单词都有涵义，即概念内容；但并非每个单词都有指称。

(完整)《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)

语言学教程笔记第1章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。

1.任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。

例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pen/。

任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。

（2）句法层面上的任意性。

（3）任意性和规约性。

2.二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。

话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。

因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。

二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。

3.创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。

利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。

4.移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。

因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。

语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。

移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。

词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。

他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。

5.文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。

6.互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。

元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。

比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。

这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考”。

所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？语言学的一些重要区别1.“描写式”和“规范式”描写式：客观系统地记录一种语言的模式和用法或变化。

语言学教程[第八章语言的使用]山东大学期末考试知识点复习

语言学教程[第八章语言的使用]山东大学期末考试知识点复习语言学教程山东大学期末考试知识点复习第八章语言的使用在语言学的学习中，了解语言的使用是非常重要的一部分。

语言的使用即指语言在日常生活中的应用和运用，研究语言的使用可以帮助我们理解语言的功能和作用，以及影响语言使用的因素。

本章将重点介绍语言的使用以及相关的知识点。

一、交际行为与语言使用交际行为是人类社会中的一种基本行为，通过交际行为可以实现人际关系的建立、信息的传递和社会化的发展。

而语言正是人们进行交际行为所必需的一种工具。

语言使用包括语言的产生、理解和运用。

语言的产生是指人们根据特定的语言规则和环境，将思维转化为语言形式；语言的理解是指人们通过对语言信息的解码，理解并把握他人所表达的含义；语言的运用是指人们在交际情境中运用语言，实现交流的目的。

二、语言交际的特点语言交际具有以下几个特点：第一，语言交际是双向的。

在交际过程中，既有信息的发送者，也有信息的接收者；第二，语言交际是有目的性的。

人们在交际中常常有明确的目的，希望通过语言来实现某种目标；第三，语言交际是依赖语言系统的。

语言系统是指一种特定的语言结构和规则，人们在交际中依据语言系统来组织语言的表达；第四，语言交际是情境依存的。

语言的使用是受到情境的制约的，包括交际环境、社会背景、语言参与者的身份等。

三、语用学与语言使用语用学是研究语言使用的学科，它探讨人们在交际中如何通过语言来表达意义和实现交流。

语用学研究的内容包括意义的构建、上下文的作用、会话结构、言语行为等。

语用学从很多方面拓展了我们对语言的理解，使我们能够更好地理解语言在交际中的功能和运作方式。

四、言语行为与言外行为在日常生活中，人们的言语行为常常不仅仅是字面上的意思，还包含了其他一些含义，这就是言外行为。

言语行为指的是人们通过言语来传递信息和表达意思；言外行为则是言语行为之外的非语言行为，例如语调、肢体语言、眼神表情等。

言外行为在交际中起到了非常重要的作用，可以帮助我们更好地理解他人的意图和情感。

胡壮麟语言学教程笔记重点

《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

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第五章意义
复习笔记
I．语义学
语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。

II.意义
1．意义
在语言学中，意义是指语言所表达的关于现实世界或者想象中的世界的想法。

2．内涵
按照哲学界的用法，内涵和外延相对，指的是一个词所指称的实体的特性。

3．外延
外延涉及语言单位跟非语言实体之间的关系。

在这个意义上，它跟指称意义是一样的。

4．意义的不同类型
(1)概念意义
逻辑的、认知的、外延的内容。

(2)联想意义
①内涵意义：通过语言所指所传达的意义。

②社会意义：所传达的关于语言使用的社会环境的意义。

③感情意义：所传达的关于说话人／作者感情、态度方面的意义。

④反射意义：通过同一表达方式的其他意思所传达的意义。

⑤搭配意义：通过词语的常用搭配而传达的意义。

(3)主位意义
通过顺序和重音这种组织信息的方式所传达的意义。

主位意义是最边缘的意义，因为它只由语序及重音所决定。

5．语境论
语境论是建立在如下假设之上：意义源于语境，存在于语境。

语境有两种：情景语境和上下文。

上下文不仅涉及词与其他词的搭配，这种搭配构成词义的一部分，即搭配意义，它也涉及特定话语的前后部分。

6．行为主义
行为主义理论把意义定义为说话者说话的环境以及听者的反应。

Ⅲ．指称理论
1．定义
把词语意义跟它所指称或所代表的事物联系起来的理论，叫做指称理论。

2．语义三角
奥格登和理查兹在《意义的意义》一书中提出了语义三角的理论。

他们认为词与所指事物之间没有直接的关系。

它们是以概念为中介的。

概念是抽象的，没有物质存在，只能通过我们的思维来感知。

3．涵义与指称
涵义与指称的区别类似于内涵和外延：前者指一个实体的抽象属性，后者指拥有这些属性的具体实体。

换句话说，Leech的概念意义包括两个方面：涵义和
指称。

然而涵义和指称还有其他的不同。

在某种程度上，我们可以说每个单词都有涵义，即概念内容；但并非每个单词都有指称。

语法词如and，if，but不指称任何事物。

4．涵义关系
(1)同义关系
同义关系是相同关系的专业术语。

完全的同义关系是很少的。

所谓的同义词都是依赖语境的，它们总是在这方面或那方面有所不同。

(2)反义关系
反义关系是对立关系的专业术语，它有三个主要次类：等级反义关系，互补反义关系和反向反义关系。

①等级反义关系：等级反义关系是反义关系中最普通的一种。

等级反义词是分等级的，也就是说，每个反义词的成员表示性质是程度上的差别。

对一方的否定并不一定是对另一方的肯定。

②互补反义关系：跟第一种反义词相反，这种反义词的成员彼此互补。

也就是说它们把一个语义领域完全切分成两半。

不但对一方的肯定意味着对另一方的否定，而且对一方的否定也意味者对另一方的肯定。

③反向反义关系：这是反义关系的一种特殊类型，因为其中的成员并不构成肯定或否定的对立，而只表现两实体间的一种反向关系。

这种反义关系典型地表现在两两相对的社会角色、亲属关系、时问和空间系等方面；在这种意义上，它叫做关系对立。

它总是涉及两个实体，一个预设了另一个。

这是它和前面两种反义关系的主要区别。

④上下义关系：是指意义内包关系或者说一种类和成员间的关系。

位于这种意义关系上位的词语，即类名，叫做上坐标词；居于下位的是成员，叫做下义词。

一个坐标词通常有很多下义词。

同类中的成员叫做同下义词。

有时一个上坐标词同时是它自己的上坐标词，有时上坐标词会缺损。

⑤多义关系：不同的词可以有相同或相似的意义，同一个词也可以有一个以上的意义，这就是我们所说的多义关系。

具有多义关系的词叫做多义词。

从历史上看，一词多义可以看作是词义的发展或变化。

⑥同音／同形异义关系：同音／同形异义关系指的是不同意义的词具有相同的形式这样一种现象，即不同的词发音或者拼写相同，或者发音与拼写都相同。

发音相同的词称为同音异义词；拼写相同的词称为同形异义词。

发音和拼写都一样的词叫做完全同音同形异义词。

Ⅳ．成分分析法
词义并非不可分析的整体。

它可以看作由不同语义特征组成的复合体，有比词义更小的语义单位。

通过这样来分析一一个词的语义成分，能够更好地说明涵义关系。

语义分析是词义分析法。

这种方法所给予的观点是：词义可以分成不同的意义成分，叫做语义特征。

这和把音位分析成更小的、被称之为区别性特征的成分的方法是一样的。

加号或减号用来表示词义中是否具有某种语义特征，这些语义特征的标记通常以大写字母写出。

例如“woman”这个词可以认为包含下列特征：+HUMAN， +ADULT，+ANIMATE． +FEMALE
V．句子意义与话语意义
句子是一个语法概念，句子意义经常被看作是句子本身所具有的抽象的内在特征。

但是如果把句子看作是人们在交往过程中实际所说的话，它就成了话语，话语应在其实际运用的场景中予以考虑。

因此句子意义是抽象的，是不依赖语境的；而话语意义是具体的，是依赖语境的。

话语意义基于句子意义，是句子意义在特定交际情境或者语境中的具体体现。

话语意义会随着语境的变化而变化。

Ⅵ．句子之间的语义关系
1．蕴含
如果知道一个句子的真假能够判断另一个句子的真假，那么第一个句子就蕴含了第二个句子。

蕴含只与句子自身的意义相关。

它不依赖于句子所处的语境。

从诊治角度看，如果a蕴含b，那么它们存在着如下的真值关系：当a为真时，b也一定为真；
当b为假时，a为假；
当a为假时，b或真或假；
当b为真时，a或真或假。

2．预设
说话者或作者通常会假定听众或读者对其所讲的或所写的已经有了一定的了解。

这种东西就成为了一个句子预设的部分。

在真值方面，它们存在着如下关系：
当a为真时，b也一定为真；
当a为假时，b仍为真；
当b为真时，a或真或假；
当b为假时，无真假值可言。

3．同义关系
两个句子拥有同样的意思，即在真值方面，a与b真值相同。

若a为真，b 亦为真；若a为假，b亦为假；反之亦然。

4．自相矛盾
我们可以对自相矛盾有这样一个复杂但又非常清晰的定义：a与b自相矛盾，即若a为真，b为假；同样当b为真，a亦为假。

这种关系就叫做不一致或自相矛盾，因为两个句子之间的真值互相矛盾。

5．含意
会话含义是另一种句子之间的语义关系。

例如，如果我们能从句子a中得到
结论b，那b就是a的含意，通常是一种语用含义的关系。