Chapter-5-Semantics(语义学)
语言学_Chapter 5_Semantics
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天亮前后，东方地平线上有时会看到一颗 特别 明亮的“晨星”，人们叫它“启明 星”；而在 黄昏时分，西方余辉中有时会 出现一颗非常明 亮的“昏星”，人们叫它 “长庚星”。这两颗 星其实是一颗，即金 星．在中国民间称它为 “太白”或“太白 金星”。古代神话中，“太 白金星”是一 位天神。古希腊人称金星为“阿 佛洛狄 忒”，是代表爱与美的女神。而罗马人 把 这位女神称为“维纳斯”，于是金星也被 称 为维纳斯了
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M is conventional
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What is meaning? M is conventional
A green light means ...
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What is meaning?
Pavlov (巴甫洛夫) Meaning is Stimulus-response
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M is flexible and imitational
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4. Problems with the naming theory
1. The theory seems applicable to nouns only. 2. There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world at all. 3. There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects, but abstract notions. 4. Some words may have different meanings in different contexts. 5. The same reference may have different names.
Charpter 5 Semantics 语义学
3.2 major sense relations
Pairs of words can be formed into certain patterns to indicate sense relations. sow/boar, ewe/ram, mare/stallion etc. form a pattern indicating a meaning related to gender.
S
r
s
R
Events before
Speech
Events after speech
speech
EXERCISE TIME 3. The well-known formula: S r…..s R was put forward by____. A. Bloomfield B. Firth C. Hockett D. Harris Answer: A
Comments on the theory: 1) Meanings don’t reside in words, but in people’s minds 2) Individual people have differences in their experiences and personal backgrounds, which affect how people think.
3.2 major sense relations
Duck/duckling, pig/piglet, dog/puppy, lion/cub, etc. form another pattern indicating a relationship between adult and young.
chapter5semantics语言学
chapter5semantics语言学语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子意义的研究。
1.“意义”的意义G.Leech提出7种意义：概念意义，内涵意义，社会意义，感情意义，反射意义，搭配意义，主题意义。
G.Leech的概念意义包括两个方面：涵义和指称。
涵义和指称的区别类似内涵与外延：前者指一个实体的抽象属性，后者指拥有这些属性的具体实体。
每个单词都有涵义，即概念意义，否则他们无法使用或理解，但并非每个单词都有指称。
2.指称论（命名论）：该理论把词语意义与词所指或词所代表的事物联系起来。
该理论对于解释专有名词或在现实中有所指的名词时很有效。
但其无法指称抽象概念。
有时同一东西会有不同词语的表达。
3.概念论。
代表是语义三角说。
该理论认为，词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，而是以抽象的概念为中介。
4，语境论认为应该在具体语境中研究词的意义. 语境包括情景语境和上下文两种。
5.行为主义理论认为词的意义是说话者说话得情景及听话人的反应6.意义关系词语词之间的主要意义关系：相同关系，相反关系，包含关系a.同义关系。
完全同义关系很少，所谓的同一都依赖语境，并总在某方面不同。
（方言，内涵，文体等）b.反义关系主要包括：等级反义关系，互补反义关系，关系反义关系。
1）等级反义的特点：第一，否定一方并不必然是肯定另一方，还有中间状态；第二，没有绝对评判标准，标准随对象而改变。
第三，通常用其中表示较高程度的词来覆盖整个量级。
覆盖性词被称为“无标记的”，即一般性的；被覆盖词被称为“有标记的”，即特殊的。
一般使用覆盖性词语。
一旦使用被覆盖词语，表示有某种特殊的、不一般的情况。
第四，可用very修饰，可有比较级最高级2）互补反义关系，第一，肯定一方意味着否定另一方。
反之亦然。
第二，不用very修饰，没有比较级最高级。
第三，评判标准绝对。
没有覆盖性词语3）关系（反向）反义关系，表现两个实体间的一种反向关系，不构成肯否定对立。
一个预设着另一个的存在。
语言学整理的资料Chapter 5 semantics
Chapter 51.Semantics:自测： __________ can be defined as the study of meaning.术语：Semantics 语义学解释：语义学可以简单的定义为对意义的研究。
术语：semantics is the study of meaning of linguistics units, words and sentences in particular.语义学是对语言单位尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。
解释：Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studies meaning. Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other words, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences out of context. 语义学被定义为对意义的研究，然而，却不仅仅是对语言的意义研究。
语义学回答了“这句话有什么意义”这样的问题。
换句话说，它研究语境外词语和句子的传统意义。
2.Sense:自测：Which of the following is NOT true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.术语：Sense 涵义解释：涵义指一个实体的抽象属性。
Chapter5Semantics
Chapter5SemanticsChapter 5 Semantics5.1 Definition of SemanticsSemantics is the study of meaning in language.Meaning has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers, logicians and linguists. E.g. Plato & Aristotle.Scholars with different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning.Philosophers concentrate on the relation between linguistic expressions and things, persons and events in the world to which these expressions refer.Linguists aiming to study the way in which meaning in a language is structured; different types of meaning.C. K. Ogden & I. A. Richards (1923). The Meaning of Meaning.5.2 Approaches to Meaning5.2.1 Meaning as namingproposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.The meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or names, is often called referential theory or naming theory.Words are names or labels for things.5.2.2 Meaning as ConceptThe conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning, forms and real things are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.The symbol or word signifies an object by the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker;and the concept viewed in this way is the meaning of the word.5.2.3 Meaning as behaviorBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.the story of Jack and JillS r--------s RMeaning consists in the relationship between speech indicated by the small letters r……s and the practical events represented by the capitalized letters S and R that precede and follow them respectively.5.2.4 Meaning as context The contextualismMeaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. (J. R. Firth)Two types of contexts are recognized:Situational context: spatio-temporal situationLinguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation. Linguistic context, some times known as co-text, is concerned with the probability ofa word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning”of the word, and also the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance.Situational context refers to the particular spatiotemporal situation in which an utterance occurs, including a the place and time of the speaking, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are performing at the time, the various objects and events existent in the situation.5.3 Word Meaning5.3.1 Sense and referenceSense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the way people relate words to each other within the framework of their language.Reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. What a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.（词与外部事物之间的关系）Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations; on the other hand, linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense, e.g. the morning star and the evening star, black tea and black hair.5.3.2 Seven types of meaningLeech (1974:23) recognizes 7 types of meaning in his book Semantics: The Study of Meaning.e.g.He is a real man.human, adult, male: conceptual meaning (meaning in the dictionary)1. Conceptual meaning(logic, cognitive, denotative)2. Connotative(内涵) meaning3. Social(社会) meaning4. Affective(情感) meaning5. Reflected(反映) meaning6. Collocative(搭配) meaning7. Thematic meaning (order and emphasis)5.3.3 Semantic fieldsa set of words with an identifiable semantic connection. (lexical field)e.g. vegetable: tomato, onion, cucumber, eggplant…fruit: ___ ___ ___ ___ ___color: ___ ___ ___ ___ ___The meaning of a word is decided not by the word itself, but by relationships with other words in the same semantic field.5.3.4 Componential analysis (CA)Componential analysis---- a way to analyze lexical meaning.The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dismantledinto meaning components, called semantic features (语义特征).For example,Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT,+ANIMATE, +MALE]Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]The attraction of CA is that it allows a highly explicit and economical account of meaning relations such as hyponymy and incompatibility.5.3.5 Semantic relationships between words1. Homonymy (同形异义)(good for humor):bank/lie: homonyms2. Polysemy (多义)：point3. Homophony (同音异义)：know/no (homophones)homography (同形异音异义): sow, wind4. Synonymy (近义)：big/large5. Antonymy (反义)：good/bad (gradable), boy/girl (complementary),sell/buy (converse)6. Hyponymy (上下义)：vegetable/potato7. Meronymy (部分义/整体部分义)：car/wheel4. SynonymyIt is the technical name for the sameness relation. English is said to be rich in synonyms.1> They may differ in style.2.> They may differ in connotations.3> They may differ in dialect.5. AntonymyAntonymy is the name for oppisiteness relation. There are three subtypes: gradable antonymy, complementary antonymy, and converse antonymy.1>Gradable AntonymyGradable antonymy is the commonest type of antonymy.They have three characteristic.First, they are gradable. That is, the denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. There is something in between.Secondly, there is no absolute criterion. They are graded against different norms. Thirdly, one member of a pair, usually the term for the higher degree, serves as the cover term.2> Complementary Antonymy(互补反义关系)It also has three characteristics.1 it divides up the whole semantic field. That is to say, the assertion of one means the denial of the other, and the denial of one means the assertion of the other. There is no intermediate ground between them.Secondly, the norm of this type is absolute. It doesn’t vary with the thing a word isapplied to.Thirdly, there is no cover term for the two members of a pair.3> Converse Antonymy(反向反义关系)Converse antonymy is known as relational opposites. This is a special type of antonymy in that the members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities. There are always two sides of the same relationship. One presupposes the other.For example, buy/sell, precede/ follow, husband/wife.buy/sell-----X buys something from Y.= Y sells something to X.precede/follow-----Jack precedes Bill.= Bill follows Jack.husband/wife-----Mike is Mary’s h usband.= Mary is Mike’s wife.Note: It is the same relationship seen from two different angles.6. Hyponymy(上下义关系)Hyponymy is meaning inclusiveness or a matter of class membership. The upper term in this sense relation is called superordinate; the lower terms, the members are called hyponyms.A superordinate has several hyponyms. The members of the same class are co-hyponyms.Both superordinates and hyponyms have the same word class.Notes:1> Sometimes a superordinate may be a superordinate to itself or a hyponym of itself, and may be called autohyponym(自我下义词).2> Superordinates or hyponyms may also be missing.In English, there is no superordinate for the color term red, green, yellow, blue, white, black, etc. The term color is a noun, and doesn’t belong to the same word class of its members.In English, there is only one word “uncle”to express “伯伯，叔叔，舅舅，姑父，姨夫.5.4.Sentence Meaning5.4.1 Sentence and Propositionsentence is “something that expresses a complete thought”.Sentences are more knowable than thoughts. In spite of individual differences, speakers of a language generally agree on what is or is not a sentence in their language.They have the same semantic content but different grammaticality. The semantic content shared by the three expressions (1a, b, c) is a proposition which may be judged by truth conditions. A proposition can be expressed in different sentences:(2) a. John broke the glass.b. The glass was broken by John.c. It was John who broke the glass.形式为简单陈述句的一个陈述，其主要内容构成一个意义单位。
新编简明英语语言学教程05Chapter-5-semantics
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Note:
Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations; on the other hand, there are also occasions, when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense, e.g. the morning star and the evening star,
用符号或单词表示物体是通过言语者思 维中单词的形式与概念联系起来实现的。 从这个观点看，概念就是单词的意义。
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Contextualism (语境论)
Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context — elements closely linked with language behavior.
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Naming theory (Plato)命名论
Words are names or labels for things.
词语只是代表物体的名字或标记。
Limitations:
1) Applicable to nouns only.
2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix…
chapter 5 Semantics
Chapter 5 Semantics5.1 What is semanticsSemantics —the study of language meaning.Meaning is central to the study of communication.语义的研究工作最早可算是对古代典籍中词语的诠释和注疏，如古希腊对荷马史诗的注释，古印度对吠陀经文的注释。
在中国，这样一门学科被称为训诂学。
训诂学着眼于对古代书面语中各个词的研究，目的在于推求词源，注释古书，实际是词汇学的一个分支，但它对语义学中词义的研究提供了大量宝贵材料和研究方法。
语义学的研究对象是语言的意义，理应和语言的音系、形态、和句法等研究一样，构成语言学范畴中一个相对独立的研究层面。
但这在实际上至少有两个困难：一个是意义无所不在，涉及语言的许多方面，如我们说话的声调可以影响意义，词语形态和句子结构的变换也影响意义，同一个单词用在不同的语境中在意义上也往往会有差异，等等。
另一个相关的问题是，语义研究一定会涉及到语言与思维的关系、语言与客观世界的关系，这给界定语义学的研究范围造成困难。
事实上，除语言学外，哲学、逻辑学、心理学、人工智能和认知科学等学科也都把语义作为本学科的重要研究课题。
值得注意得是，不同学科研究语义的目标和角度不同。
例如：意义是语言哲学研究的中心议题，这是因为语言哲学家们认为，对语义的研究是我们认识自己和客观世界的关键；心理学学者也对意义感兴趣，他们研究意义的心理表征形式，研究儿童如何在语言发展中习得意义等，目的是要了解人类心智的构造及其发展过程。
语言学范畴中的语义学与语言学的研究总目标一致，在于认识语言本身的结构和功能。
语义研究最早并非起始于语言学，而是哲学，可以说没有语言哲学就没有语义学。
语言学范畴内的语义学是个年轻的学科领域，十九世纪末到二十世纪初前期，语义学还谈不上是个学科，semantics 一词并不常见，偶尔出现在学术著作中，其含义多为词义的历史变迁。
语言学第五章5_semantics
Formal <------------------------------> Informal
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(4) Affective meaning
Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.
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Some words may have the same conceptual meaning, but have different social meaning and stylistic meaning.
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domicile: very formal, official residence: formal abode: poetic home: general
Pragmatics:
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• Three types of connotative meanings: • positive(褒义), neutral(中性),negative(贬义)
• A good meal, • A good car, • A good movie, • a good road, • A good child, • good weather • A good umbrella
• A fast road, • a fast typist • A fast book • A fast decision.
the hearer (stimulus—response)
Jill is hungry and wants Jack to pick the
apple for her from the tree:
Jill
Jack
• S-------------r…….s---------------R
• 证实论：一个句子只有得到经验证实才有 意义：John is outside。
Chapter 5 Semantics(语义学）
5.1 what is semantics
• Semantics（语义学）is the study of meaning.
• What is meaning? Love, friendship， truth, fact, democracy, good, chair, ghost, unicorn；真善美，justice, soul
hope, democracy 4 sentence , five, I, he
• 2 conceptualist view
• Meaning is the concept or idea in the mind: • “chair”does not refer to a specific chair,
• “we shall know a word by the company it keeps”
• “The meaning of a word is its use in the language” what is the meaning of “five”?
• It is raining: 取消比赛；客人不要走；进屋； • “以前我和你一样；以后你和我一样。”
• A heavy blow • Heavy traffic • A heavy heart(沉重的心情） • A heavy smoker • Heavy applause(热烈的掌声） • Heavy foliage(密叶） • Heavy invester
Synonymy(同义关系）
• Synonymy:two or more words have the same meanings.
• Philosophy • Psychology • Logic • Semiotics • computer science Anthropology
all study meaning
• sub-branches of semantics: in terms of
whether it falls within the scope of linguistics: linguistic semantics(语言语 义学)and non-linguistic semantics(非语 言语义学):philosophical semantics,
• Adj: right, wrong, tall, deep, • Verb:remember, dream, hate, • Conj: or. And, because, to of
• If you do not ask me “what is meaning” , I know the meaning. But if you ask me what is meaning, I do not know the meaning of sth.
• Denotation: the objects or state of affairs in the real world that linguistic expressions stand for.
• Denotation is invariant and utteranceindependent while reference is variable and utterance dependent, could be specific.
• Textual semantics: the meaning of a text or a piece of discourse.
5.2 theories of meaning
• 1 Naming(命名）: words are labels for things they stand for.
white smoking gun
4 Behaviorism(行为主义)
• Meaning is the behavior that language
evokes: the situation in which the speaker
utters it and the response it calls forth in
• Context: situational context(情景语 境):speaker, hearer, place and time of the
utterance, the actions they perform.
• Linguistic context or co-text(语言语境，上 下文）：black hair, black tea, black coffee (不加牛奶）black humour，black eye(青肿 眼眶。 Cultural context: dragon,dog,
• Conceptual meaning（概念意义）: the meaning given in the dictionary:
• Associative meaning(联想意义):the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning: connotative, stylistic, affective and collocative meanings（搭配意义）. Handsome man, handsome woman, cute girl VS cute man
• Referent: the entity(实体) or objects to which a linguistic expression refers to.
• Some words do not have referent: would, if, ghost
• Sense(意义） refers to the relationship inside language, the set or nework of relationship between an expression and other expressions in a language. Sense is interlexical（词汇之间） and intralingual（语 言内部） while reference is extralingual
• All misers are stingy. • All misers are rich. • All misers are miserable. • All bachelors are unmarried • All bachelors are happy. • All carnivores(食肉动物） eat meat • What about giant panda that bamboo
but to the concept of all the chair in the world.
• Semantic triangle(语义三角论) or semiotic triangle developed by Odgen and Richards: symbol, thought and referent(指称物) or sign,meaning, and object:
the referent, linguistic expressions relates to the real world only through their meaning
3 contextualism
• Meaning should be studies in terms of situation,context, use.
• Grammatical meaning: the part of meaning of a word which indicates grammatical function or relations. Like number, tense.
• Lexical meaning: the meaning that is codified in a lexicon or dictionary. Open class of elements
shoots. Birds VS bats
Basic concepts
• Reference(所指,指称): the relation between the linguistic expression and the object in extra-linguistic reality to which the expression refers to.