医学英语综合教程第二版课文翻译1到4
医学英语综合教程Unit 4 译文

Unit 4 病理学简介病理学是研究疾病的科学。
在临床实践和医学教学中,病理学的含义更为广泛:病理学由一系列的知识、观点和研究方法构成,它们对理解现代医学及医学实践至关重要。
病理学不等同于疾病组织的形态学,把两者等同起来是一种过时的看法。
病理学包括对疾病功能及结构的认识和理解,包含从分子水平到对个体的影响。
随着新科学方法的应用,人们更深入地了解疾病,病理学所涵盖的内容也会不断地改变、更新和拓展。
病理学的最终目的在于确定疾病的原因,从而达到防治疾病的基本目标。
病理学的范围病理学是医学科学和实践的基础。
没有病理学,医学实践也将无从谈起。
临床病理学和实验病理学人们对疾病的认识来自于对病人的观察,同样也来自于对动物和细胞培养的实验性研究。
而最大的贡献则来自于对病体组织和体液的深入研究。
临床病理学临床医学以对疾病的纵向研究为基础,即研究病人病史,检查、研究和治疗疾病。
而临床病理学更关注疾病本身的现况分析,深层次研究发病原因和机制,以及疾病对人体各个器官和系统的影响。
两者相辅相成、不可分割。
不理解病理学,临床医学无从开展;而没有了临床意义,病理学也就失去了存在价值。
实验病理学实验病理学观察诸如疾病动物模型或细胞培养等实验系统的操作效果。
幸运的是,细胞培养技术在进步,所以在医学研究和实验病理学中,人们对实验动物的使用减少了。
然而,通过细胞培养复制完整人体中普遍存在的生理环境仍然是一种极其困难的尝试。
病理学的分支病理学是一门拥有庞大分支的学科。
在实践中,病理学包含以下几大分支:组织病理学:通过对组织的检查研究和诊断疾病。
细胞病理学:通过对单个细胞的检查研究和诊断疾病。
血液病学:对血液中细胞成分和可凝结成分的异常进行研究。
微生物学:对传染性疾病及相关生物体进行研究。
免疫学:对机体特殊防御机制进行研究。
病理化学:从组织和体液的变化中研究和诊断疾病。
遗传学:对异常染色体和基因进行研究。
毒理学:对已知或疑似毒物的作用进行研究。
代医学英语综合教程Ⅱ—关注健康英汉翻译

1. Snaking on nutritious food can keep your energy level high and your mind alert without taking up a lot of time(而不占用许多时间). 蜿蜒在营养的食物可以保持你的能量水平高和你的警觉心没有占用了大量的时间(而不占用许多时间)。
2. You can keep plenty of fresh fruit and veggies at home so you can grab them on the go(你能在忙碌时带上它们). 你可以保持足够的新鲜水果和蔬菜在家里所以你可以抓住他们去(你能在忙碌时带上它们)。
3. Tests have shown that girls tend to opt for languages (往往选择语言) whereas boys are more likely to study science or maths. 测试表明,女孩往往选择语言(往往选择语言)而男孩更容易学习科学和数学。
4. Many factors can contribute to high cholesterol(促使胆固醇增高), but the good news is there are things you can do to control them 很多因素能导致高胆固醇(促使胆固醇增高),但好消息是你可以做有些事情来控制他们5. Researchers have discovered that stress can predispose people to heart attacks(会使人易于心脏病发作) .5。
研究人员发现,压力会使人容易心脏病发作(会使人易于心脏病发作)。
6. If people aren't getting enough calcium in their diet, the body takes calcium from the bones to ensure normal cell function, which can lead to weakened bones (导致骨质变弱).7. Once you start keeping an eye out for (一旦你开始留意) recipes, you'll find them everywhere!6。
综合英语第二版 1,2,3 三册全部课后翻译

Book 1Unit 11. George has been assigned to the newspaper's Paris office.2. There is a possibility that his wish to become a writer will come true.3. She had a clear image of how she would look in twenty years' time.4. When the officer gave the command the soldiers opened fire.5. As long as people keep buying bikes we'll keep turning them out.Unit 21. It seemed that his failure in the examination was still on his mind.2. He was completely choked up by the sight of his team losing in the final minutes of the game.3. She was so lost in study that she forgot to have dinner.4. Something has come up and I am afraid I won't be able to accomplish the project on time.5. The cost of equipping the new hospital was estimated at $2 million.Unit 31. Winning the match today has ensured their team a place in the Cup Final.2. Susan was not informed of the reasons why she was dismissed.3. These computer games entertain as well as educate the learner.4. No living thing can do without air and water.5. The election is likely to be held in June.Unit 41. Efforts to look for survivors were abandoned after it had been/was determined that all people in the sunken ship had died.2. I was amazed that Bob left a well-paid job to travel around the world.3. Her request for a loan has been turned down by many a bank as her business is small and she could provide no guarantee.4. The home network system on display was found to be very helpful in freeing people from trivial housework.5. Nothing will weaken our determination to modernize our country in the shortest possible time.Unit 51. The extent of the human body's response to a drug depends on the amount taken.2. Mary stopped corresponding with Henry after the death of her mother.3. A radio transmitter is best located at an isolated place far from cities.4. I was so absorbed in the game on TV that I didn't hear Martin come in.5. The rough surface of the basketball helps players grip the ball.Unit 61. There used to be a long / long-running controversy over whether the book should be published or not.2. Kate felt relieved after her first meeting with Tom had gone smoothly.3. Something suddenly went wrong with my computer when I was in the middle of writing the essay.4. It's a miracle that she survived the air crash when it brought about 109 deaths.5. She is determined not to give in until they give her a pay rise.Unit 71. The comet is visible to the naked eye as a fuzzy ball in the western sky.2. Application papers may be sent via e-mail.3. The city government feeds and shelters the homeless children.4. He was warned by his brothers to keep clear of the street gang.5. I'd like to draw your attention to the fact that the students' enthusiasm about the project has cooled down.Unit 81. The cost of electricity is likely to be seriously affected by the rise in gas prices.2. There has been a decline in the number of people borrowing from public libraries, but book sales are rising.3. They made a suggestion at the meeting that an assistant be appointed to help Mr. Green.4. The local history group was astonished when they heard of/to hear of a plan to build an office building right next to the castle.5. They had run out of water by the time they got to the camp.Book 2Unit 11. It takes an enormous amount of courage to make a departure from the tradition.2. Tom used to be very shy, but this time he was bold enough to give a performance in front of a large audience.3. Many educators think it desirable to foster the creative spirit in the child at an early age.4. Assuming (that) this painting really is a masterpiece, do you think it’s worthwhile to buy/purchase it?5. If the data is statistically valid, it will throw light on the problem we are investigating.Unit 21. The company denied that its donations had a commercial purpose.2. Whenever he was angry, he would begin to stammer slightly.3. Education is the most cherished tradition in our family. That’s why my parents never took me to dinner at expensive restaurants, but sent me to the best private school.4. Shortly after he recovered from the surgery, he lost his job and thus had to go through another difficult phase of his life.5. In contrast to our affluent neighbors, my parents are rather poor, but they have always tried hard to meet our minimal needs.Unit 31. Have scientists found proof of water on Mars?2. The planning committee has narrowed down the possible locations for the nuclear power plant to two coastal towns.3. Sam not only lost his job but also both legs; he had to live on welfare for the rest of his life.4. A jury consisting of 12 members voted in unison that Mary was guilty.5. Sean felt humiliated ti hear his talent being questioned.Unit 41. Research shows that laughter can bring a lot of health benefits.2. A slow Internet connecting speed is really annoying.3. As the law stands, helping someone commit suicide is a crime.4. In her report, Mary tries to interpret the data from a completely different angle.5. Sue is a girl of great talent. Her amazing memory sets her apart from her classmates.Unit 51. It is the creativity and dedication of the workers and executives that turned the company into a profitable business.2. The prices of food and medicine have soared in the past three months.3. We plan to repaint the upper floors of he office building.4. His success shows that popularity and artistic merit sometimes coincide.5. I don’t want to see my beloved grandmother lying in a hospital bed and groaning painfully.Unit 61. He is a man of few words, but when it comes to playing a computer games, he is far too clever for his classmates.2. Children who don’t know any better may think these animals are pretty cute and start playing with them.3. There is no way to obtain a loan, so to buy the new equipment, I will just have to grit my teeth and sell my hybrid car.4. The hunter would not have fired the shots if he hadn’t seen a herd of elephants coming towards his campsite.5. I find it ironic that Tom has a selective memory --- he does not seem to remember painful experiences in the past, particularly those of his own doing.Unit 71. Many small businesses have sprung up in the city since the new policy went into effect.2. On hearing the news, she smiled briefly, and then returned to her habitual frown.3. He paused for effect, then said: “We can reach/enter these markets through new channels.”4. The addition of a concert hall to the school will help it nourish young musical talents.5. We have no way to protect our personal liberties until we have established a sovereign state,/We can’t protect our personal liberties unless we, first of all, establish a sovereign state.Unit 81. This is a prosperous town, but there is still poverty in the midst of wealth and abundance.2. The Brown family was stricken with one misfortune after another, but their children never complained.3. The museum is designed in such a way that it stands in perfect harmony with its surroundings.4. It was a miracle that these flowers did not wither at all in the blazing sun.5. Flocks of sheep feed on the patches of vegetation that rise above the winter snow. Book 3Unit 11. We have a problem with the computer system, but I think it’s fairly minor.2. My father died when I was too young to live on my own. The people of my hometown took over (responsibility for) my upbringing at that point.3. The toys have to meet strict/ tough safety requirements before they can be sold to children.4. Radio and television have supplemented rather than replaced the newspaper as carriers of news and opinion.1. When it comes to this magazine, it is/ carries a digest of articles from many newspapers and magazines around the world.Unit 21. Though greatly affected by the consequences of the global financial crisis, we are still confident that we can face up to the challenge and overcome the crisis.2. Under threat of constant sand storms, we were compelled to leave our cherished village and move to the new settlement.3. According to a recent online survey, a lot of consumers say they may be motivated to consider buying products shown in TV commercials.4. Having spotted a truck driver dumping contaminated waste alongside the river, the old man reported to the police at once.5. Some scientists hold to the firm conviction that people will come to like genetically modified crops someday since they can increase yields and help combat hunger and disease in the developing world.Unit 31. The Internet is changing the way people live, (no matter) whether they are in urban or rural areas.2. Medium-sized and small companies are more vulnerable to the threat of the global economic crisis than large ones.3. With regard to our term paper, the professor asked us to analyze the unemployment chart first, and then provide critical reflections on the nations economic development.4. It never occurred to him that their team would win the basketball match by a large margin.5. Looking back on my twenty years' teaching in high school, I attribute my success to patience, talent, and the constant pursuit of knowledge.Unit 41. The volunteers sent/assigned by the Red Cross disinfected, with great caution, the drinking water in the village so as to avoid an outbreak of plague.2. Einstein spent many years trying to unify the theories of electromagnetism and gravity but failed.3. Professor Wang received/won the Presidential Award for his excellence in stimulating students' creative imagination.4. As there were some major design flaws, the board of directors didn't approve of the economic stimulus package.5. Having realized that nobody could help him, Jordan finally came to the conclusion that he had to face reality and take up/meet the challenge by himself.Unit 51. Grandma took it for granted that food prices would soar, so she bought a lot of rice.2. I can quote you several instances of her dedication to science.3. The 1980s saw the start of the swift development of some special economic zones in China.4. Tension between the two countries stemmed in part from the latest spy affair.5. Peter has worked in a law firm for many years. You can consider having him as your lawyer to act on your behalf when you need legal help.Unit 61. The red house stands out against the old trees that reach high up to the sky.2. The salary in/for my new job is great, but for the res t, I’m not satisfied.3. The waters of the two streams mingle near our village.4. We should not mock at other people’s religious beliefs.5. The curtains of the room are not quite in tune with the style of the furniture.Unit 7I. I grew terribly scared when I heard sound of footsteps echoing round the hallway at midnight yesterday.2. The name-brand sports shoes are guaranteed for 12months.3. Snowstorms threw communications and transportation into disorder.4. I’ve been suffering a lot of stress from wo rk lately, I feel like taking a vacation at the seaside.5. Living in an apartment is all right, but it has its limitations--- for example, you don’t have your own gardens.Unit 81. Medical experts debated whether the cloning of human beings should be permitted and what its potential effects on society might be.2. Eighty-five percent of the people in the local area in full-time employment; only 3% describe themselves as unemployed.3. The departments concerned in China will speed up legislation to protect rights of migrant workers.4. In recent years, some psychologists have tried to explain intelligence from a biological standpoint.5. The global financi al crisis has had a huge impact on that country’s export industry. In no more than six months, many factories have closed down by necessity.。
02医学英语课后翻译(完整)

目录1 Unit1 (2)1.1 中翻英 (2)1.2 英翻中 (2)2 Unit2 (2)2.1 中翻英 (2)2.2 英翻中 (3)3 Unit3 (3)3.1 中翻英 (3)3.2 英翻中 (3)4 Unit4 (4)4.1 中翻英 (4)4.2 中翻英 (4)5 Unit5 (4)5.1 中翻英 (4)5.2 英翻中 (5)6 Unit6 (5)6.1 中翻英 (5)6.2 英翻中 (5)7 Unit7 (5)7.1 中翻英 (5)7.2 英翻中 (6)8 Unit8 (6)8.1 中翻英 (6)8.2 英翻中 (6)9 Unit9 (7)9.1 中翻英 (7)9.2 英翻中 (7)10 Unit10 (7)10.1 中翻英 (7)10.2 英翻中 (8)11 Unit11 (8)11.1 中翻英 (8)11.2 英翻中 (9)12 Unit12 (9)12.1 中翻英 (9)12.2 英翻中 (9)13 Unit13 (10)13.1 中翻英 (10)13.2 英翻中 (10)14 Unit14 (10)14.1 中翻英 (10)14.2 英翻中 (11)1Unit11.1中翻英1.干预intervention2.预测因素predictions3.极度疲惫burnout4.队列cohort5.主要结果评估指标main outcome measures6.线性回归linear regression7.随访follow-up8.基线base line9.代表性样本representative sample10.工作时间的减少the reduce of work time1.2英翻中1. in dimensions of 在某方面2. Maslach burnout inventory Maslach疲惫量表3. emotional exhaustion 情绪性疲惫4. linear regression 线性回归5. be independently associated with 和。
医学英语综合教程主课文(u1-u7)翻译

Unit1肺和肾的功能肺的血管系统肺从两个血管系统----支气管循环系统和肺循环系统获得血液供应。
它的营养血液来自于支气管循环系统,流向肺部除肺泡外的所有组织,因为支气管循环系统始于主动脉及上肋间动脉,接受大约1%的心输出量。
大约三分之一的支气管循环的静脉输出流入全身静脉,然后回到右心房。
剩余的输出流入肺静脉,并在心脏最小静脉的作用下,在正常情况下,以1%-2%的量自右向左分流。
肺动脉系统沿着气道从肺门向外周延伸,向下连接下段气道(直径大约2毫米)的动脉,它们壁薄且富有弹性。
从这儿开始,动脉成肌肉化发展,直至其达到30微米,此时肌层消失。
因为这些小肌肉动脉起着积极控制肺部血流分布的作用,所以大部分动脉压降产生在这些小肌肉动脉中。
肺小动脉将血液排空,送入广泛分布的毛细血管网,进入肺静脉。
肺静脉的壁很薄,它们最终在肺门处与动脉和支气管汇合,出肺进入左心房。
肾结构成分人类肾脏在解剖学上位于腹膜后隙,与下胸椎和上腰椎平行。
每个成年人的肾脏大约重150克,长、宽、厚分别为12厘米、6厘米以及3厘米。
肾脏的冠状部分分为/由两个明确的区域(组成)。
外周部的皮质大约1厘米厚,深部的髓质由几个肾锥体构成。
这些锥体状结构的底部位于皮髓质结合处。
锥体的顶部伸入肾门,称为肾**。
每个肾**被一个肾小盏包裹。
肾小盏与肾大盏相聚组成肾盂。
经肾**流出的尿液汇集在肾盂,通过输尿管排入膀胱。
由主动脉分支出来的肾总动脉为两肾输送血液。
肾总动脉通常分为两个主侧支,这两个侧支又进一步分为叶动脉,为肾脏上、中、下区域供应血液。
当这些血管进入肾实质,变成叶间动脉通向肾皮质时,(这些血管)又进一步细分。
细分后的更小血管在皮髓质结合处成为竖支--弓状动脉。
从弓状动脉伸出的叶间动脉进入皮质。
由于传入小动脉始于这些末端叶间动脉,所以为肾小球毛细血管输送血液。
组织学上,肾脏是由一个叫做“肾单位”的基本单位组成。
每个肾脏约含有一百万个肾单位,“肾单位”有两个主要成分:过滤成分―紧包着毛细血管网(肾小球)和一个附着在上面的小管组成。
医学英语综合教程课文和翻译

医学英语综合教程课文和翻译Unit2. Cells and AgingAging is a normal process accompanied by a progressive alteration of the body’s homeostatic adaptive responses; the specialized branch of medicine that deals with the medical problems and care of elderly person is called geriatrics.衰老是一种正常的生理过程,伴有机体内环境稳定适应性应答的进行性改变。
研究老年人的健康问题和保健的一门特殊医学分支被称作老年病学The obvious characteristics of aging are well known; graying andloss of hair, loss of teeth, wrinkling of skin, decreased muscle mass, and increased fat deposits. The physiological signs of aging are gradual deterioration in function and capacity to maintain a constant internal environment (homeostasis) in response to changes in temperature, diet, and oxygen supply. These sings of aging are related to a net decrease in the number of cells in the body and to the dysfunctioning of the cells that remain.衰老的明显特征众所周知:头发花白和脱落,牙齿脱落,皮肤起皱,肌肉减少,脂肪积存增加。
医学英语教程课文翻译Unit1
Unit 1Reading A The Human complex— A Never –failing Source of Wonderment(人类的复杂性——一个永远不会失去惊叹的话题)“ In my view, ” wrote Thomas Jefferson in 1814 , “no knowledge can be more satisfactory to a man that of his own frame, its parts, their functions and action s. ” Distinguished thinkers before and since Jefferson have held this belief, but curiously, it is not one that the average person wholeheartedly shares.Man’s attitude toward his own body—his single most precious possession—is decidedly ambivalent. At one and the same time he is fascinated by it and fearful of it, partly in echo of ancient taboos, partly in the conviction that the body is too complicated to understand.( “在我看来,”托马斯杰佛逊于1814年写道:“对人来说,没有什么知识会比了解自身的架构、部件、功能和作用更能使他满足。
”包括杰佛逊在内的杰出思想家均持有这个观点,但有趣的是,这个观点并不为普罗大众所由衷地接受。
人们对自己的身体,这个对他自身来说最为宝贵的财富,态度其实是充满矛盾的。
医学学术英语课文翻译Unit4
第四单元替代医学如果患病而常规疗法不起作用,或者如果患有慢性病症,你可以将传统或替代疗法作为最后的手段。
这种疗法有何好处?西方研究者如何看待这种疗法?本单元回顾了美国替代疗法,讨论了整合医学的未来发展。
TEXT A 融合传统中医和现代西医美国各界都对传统医学和补充医学感兴趣——医疗界、政府部门、媒体和公众。
越来越多的保险公司和管理式医疗机构为传统医学报销,大多数美国医学院开设传统医学课程。
艾森伯格全国研究表明,更多人在接受补充疗法。
为了便于研究替代疗法的有效性,美国国家补充与替代医学中心(NCCAM)于1999年获得五千万美元预算。
意识到需要提升植物药材科学数据的质量和数量,也为了对饮食补充剂安全性和有效性进行系统性评估,同年设立两个研究中心以研究植物药材的生物学作用。
许多患者同时接受传统和现代的疗法,需要将两种医学恰当且平稳地结合。
传统中医(TCM)的理论和技术涵盖了美国称为补充医学的多数做法,在医疗保健体系中日益重要。
若运用得当,传统中医费用合理,技术含量低,安全且有效。
针对针刺、草药、按摩和太极的研究正全球展开,可揭示传统中医的一些理论和实践。
雄心勃勃的研究设计和巨大的患者需求推动传统中医和现代医学在临床层面的结合,而学术研究者和学术机构对两种治疗体系的结合潜力越来越感兴趣。
针刺基于1997年NIH专家共识会议审查的证据,NIH专家共识发展小组保守建议,在多个情形下,针刺可以作为辅助疗法,替代疗法或综合管理方案的一部分。
该小组确认,针刺可用于治疗手术后和化疗引起的恶心和呕吐,也可治疗术后牙痛。
同时也建议针刺作为辅助疗法或可接受的替代疗法治疗成瘾、中风康复、头痛、经痛、网球肘、纤维肌痛、肌筋膜疼痛、骨关节炎、下背痛、腕管综合症和哮喘。
未来针刺临床试验将置于传统中医框架。
和主要以生物医学角度评估疗效的当代临床试验相比,这有可能对针刺疗效进行更恰当更有临床意义的评估。
现行的临床研究的科学严谨必须保持。
[整理版]医学英语原文翻译1至5单元
1. 生理学是研究生物体正常功能的一门科学。
它研究生物体如何进行各种活动,如何饮食,如何运动,如何适应不断改变的环境,如何繁殖后代。
这门学科包罗万象,涵盖了生物体整个生命过程。
生理学成功地解释了生物体如何进行日常活动,基于的观点是生物体好比是结构复杂而灵巧的机器,其操作受物理和化学规律控制。
尽管从生物学整个范畴看,生物体某些活动过程是相似的,如基因编码的复制,但许多过程还是某些生物体群组特有的。
鉴于此,将这门学科分成不同部分研究如细菌生理学,植物生理学和动物生理学是有必要的。
Physiology is the study of thefunctions of living matter. It is concerned with how an organism performs its varied activities: how it feeds, how it moves, how it adapts to changing circumstances, how it spawns new generations . The subject is vast and embraces the whole of life. The success of physiology in explaining how organisms perform their daily tasks is based on the notion that they are intricate and exquisite mac hines whose operation is governed by the laws of physics and chemistry. Although some processes are similar across the whole spectrum of biology—the replication of the genetic code for example —many are specific to particular groups of organisms. For this reason it is necessary to divide the subject into various parts such as bacterial physiology, plant physiology, and animal physiology. 2.正如要了解一个动物如何活动,首先需要了解它的构成,要充分了解一个生物体的生理学活动就必须掌握全面的解剖学知识。
学术英语(医学)Unit1~4课文翻译课件.doc
Unit 1 Text A神经过载与千头万绪的医生患者经常抱怨自己的医生不会聆听他们的诉说。
虽然可能会有那么几个医生确实充耳不闻,但是大多数医生通情达理,还是能够感同身受的人。
我就纳闷为什么即使这些医生似乎成为批评的牺牲品。
我常常想这个问题的成因是不是就是医生所受的神经过载。
有时我感觉像变戏法,大脑千头万绪,事无巨细,不能挂一漏万。
如果病人冷不丁提个要求,即使所提要求十分中肯,也会[新版@^~%*]让我那内心脆弱的平衡乱作一团,就像井然有序同时演出三台节目的大马戏场突然间崩塌了一样。
有一天,我算过一次常规就诊过程中我脑子里有多少想法在翻腾,试图据此弄清楚为了完满完成一项工作,一个医生的脑海机灵转动,需要处理多少个细节。
[新^%版&新@]奥索里奥夫人56 岁,是我的病人。
她有点超重。
她的糖尿病和高血压一直控制良好,恰到好处。
她的胆固醇偏高,但并没有服用任何药物。
她锻炼不够多,最后一次DEXA 骨密度检测显示她的骨质变得有点疏松。
尽管她一直没有爽约,按时看病,并能按时做血液化验,但是她形容自己的生活还有压力。
总的说来,她健康良好,在医疗实践中很可能被描述为一个普通患者,并非过于复杂。
以下是整个20 分钟看病的过程中我脑海中闪过的念头。
她做了血液化验,这是好事。
血糖好点了。
胆固醇不是很好。
可能需要考虑开始服用他汀类药物。
她的肝酶正常吗?她的体重有点增加。
我需要和她谈谈每天吃五种蔬果、每天步行30分钟的事。
糖尿病:她早上的血糖水平和晚上的比对结果如何?她最近是否和营养师谈过?她是否看过眼科医生?足科医生呢?她的血压还好,但不是很好。
我是不是应该再加一种降血压的药?药片多了是否让她困惑?更好地控制血压的益处和她可能什么药都不吃带来的风险孰重孰轻?骨密度DEXA扫描显示她的骨质有点疏松。
我是否应该让她服用二磷酸盐,因为这可以预防骨质疏松症?而我现在又要给她加一种药丸,而这种药需要详细说明。
也许留到下一次再说吧?她家里的情况怎么样呢?她现在是否有常见的生活压力?亦或她有可能有抑郁症或焦虑症?有没有时间让她做个抑郁问卷调查呢?健康保养:她最后一次乳房X 光检查是什么时候做的?子宫颈抹片呢?50 岁之后是否做过结肠镜检查?过去10 年间她是否注射过破伤风加强疫苗?她是否符合接种肺炎疫苗的条件?奥索里奥夫人打断了我的思路,告诉我过去的几个月里她一直背痛。
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Unit1肺和肾的功能肺的血管系统肺从两个血管系统----支气管循环系统和肺循环系统获得血液供应。
它的营养血液来自于支气管循环系统,流向肺部除肺泡外的所有组织,因为支气管循环系统始于主动脉及上肋间动脉,接受大约1%的心输出量。
大约三分之一的支气管循环的静脉输出流入全身静脉,然后回到右心房。
剩余的输出流入肺静脉,并在心脏最小静脉的作用下,在正常情况下,以1%-2%的量自右向左分流。
肺动脉系统沿着气道从肺门向外周延伸,向下连接下段气道(直径大约2毫米)的动脉,它们壁薄且富有弹性。
从这儿开始,动脉成肌肉化发展,直至其达到30微米,此时肌层消失。
因为这些小肌肉动脉起着积极控制肺部血流分布的作用,所以大部分动脉压降产生在这些小肌肉动脉中。
肺小动脉将血液排空,送入广泛分布的毛细血管网,进入肺静脉。
肺静脉的壁很薄,它们最终在肺门处与动脉和支气管汇合,出肺进入左心房。
肾结构成分人类肾脏在解剖学上位于腹膜后隙,与下胸椎和上腰椎平行。
每个成年人的肾脏大约重150克,长、宽、厚分别为12厘米、6厘米以及3厘米。
肾脏的冠状部分分为/由两个明确的区域(组成)。
外周部的皮质大约1厘米厚,深部的髓质由几个肾锥体构成。
这些锥体状结构的底部位于皮髓质结合处。
锥体的顶部伸入肾门,称为肾**。
每个肾**被一个肾小盏包裹。
肾小盏与肾大盏相聚组成肾盂。
经肾**流出的尿液汇集在肾盂,通过输尿管排入膀胱。
由主动脉分支出来的肾总动脉为两肾输送血液。
肾总动脉通常分为两个主侧支,这两个侧支又进一步分为叶动脉,为肾脏上、中、下区域供应血液。
当这些血管进入肾实质,变成叶间动脉通向肾皮质时,(这些血管)又进一步细分。
细分后的更小血管在皮髓质结合处成为竖支--弓状动脉。
从弓状动脉伸出的叶间动脉进入皮质。
由于传入小动脉始于这些末端叶间动脉,所以为肾小球毛细血管输送血液。
组织学上,肾脏是由一个叫做“肾单位”的基本单位组成。
每个肾脏约含有一百万个肾单位,“肾单位”有两个主要成分:过滤成分―紧包着毛细血管网(肾小球)和一个附着在上面的小管组成。
这个小管包含几个明显的解剖和功能成分。
Unit 2细胞与衰老衰老是一种正常的生理过程,伴有肌体内平衡适应性反应的进行性改变。
研究老年人健康问题和保健的特殊分支称作老年医学。
衰老的明显特征众所周知:头发花白和脱落,牙齿脱落,皮肤起皱,肌肉减少,脂肪积存增加。
衰老的生理征兆是肌体对环境压力反应的功能和能力逐渐减退.。
如同保持不断地体内平衡应对温度、饮食和氧供反应变慢一样,机体代谢也减慢了。
衰老的这些迹象与机体中细胞数的净减少及存余细胞的功能缺失有关。
衰老的另一个表现是组织的细胞外成分也随年龄的变化而变化。
负责肌腱力量的胶原纤维的数量增加,而质量却随着衰老降低。
动脉壁胶原质中的变化造成动脉壁伸展性缺失,如同动脉壁上的积聚物造成动脉粥样硬化(即动脉壁脂肪物质堆积)一样。
弹性蛋白是另一种细胞外成分,主要负责血管和皮肤的弹性。
随着年龄的变化,它的变粗,变碎并需要获得更大的钙亲和力,这些可能也是造成动脉粥样硬化的原因。
葡萄糖在机体中是最丰富的糖类,它在衰老的过程中也可能起作用。
根据一个假设,任意给细胞内外的蛋白质增加葡萄糖,结果会在相邻蛋白质分子间形成不可逆交联。
当人衰老时,会形成更多的交联,这可能导致正在衰老的组织变得僵化,丧失弹性。
虽然正常情况下,每分钟会有好几百万的新细胞产生,但人体有几种细胞:心脏细胞,骨骼肌纤维细胞,神经细胞是无法替代的。
实验显示,许多种类的细胞分裂能力有限。
在机体外生长的细胞仅仅分裂几次就停止了。
细胞分裂数与捐献者的年龄有关,与这些细胞获取的不同物种的正常寿命有关。
这些发现为这种假说提供了有力证据,即细胞有丝分裂的终止是正常的,有基因决定的。
根据这个观点,衰老基因是出生时就存在的基因蓝图的一部分,它取决于生命攸关的减慢或停止过程出现的特定时间。
衰老的另一个理论即自由基理论。
自由基是含有未配对电子的带电荷分子。
这是一种不稳定的高反应性分子,容易损害蛋白质。
自由基的影响有:皮肤起皱,关节僵直,动脉硬化。
自由基也可以损害DNA。
造成自由基的因素有:空气污染,放射线以及我们摄取的某些食物。
饮食中的其他物质如维生素E,维生素C,β-胡萝卜素以及硒都是抗氧化剂,可以抑制自由基形成。
最近的两个研究支持了衰老的自由基理论。
孕育健康长寿的果蝇株产生超正常量的酶:过氧歧化酶。
它可以中和自由基。
同样,把产生过氧歧化酶的基因注射进果蝇胚胎会延长其平均寿命。
然而,关于衰老的理论,有些是在细胞水平上解释其过程,有的则强调整个生物体内运作的调节机制,比如免疫系统产生各种抗异物侵扰的抗体,可是会对细胞本身发起攻击。
这种自身免疫应答可能是细胞表面变化造成,引起抗体附加并标记出破坏细胞。
当细胞表面变化增加,自身免疫应答加强,产生众所周知的衰老。
Unit 3生物化学和人类发展生物化学是在细胞和分子水平上运用化学研究生物过程的学科。
在20世纪初,科学家将化学,生理以及生物学结合在一起,对生命系统进行化学研究,所以,在生物化学产生伊始,它便以一个全新的学科的面貌,与众不同的展现在了世人面前。
某种意义上说,生物化学既是一种生命科学,又是化学科学。
生物化学使用化学、物理学、分子生物学和免疫学研究在生物物质中发现的复杂分子的结构与行为,研究那些分子相互作用构成细胞、组织和整个生物体的方式。
生物学涉及从基因移植到巨分子结构和功能的广阔的细胞功能范围。
生物化学业不但已成为理解生化过程的基石,它还可以解释多种生物疾病的原因。
人类对于生物化学的理解,已经并且还将继续对人类行为的各个方面产生深远的影响。
首先生物化学本质上是一种令人着迷的科学。
多亏它,我们现在知道了大部分基本的生化过程的实质和许多细节,比如:单分子DNA如何复制生成其本身两个完全相同的副本,DNA分子中基础序列如何确定编码蛋白质中氨基酸的序列。
我们以详细的机械术语描述这些(生物)进程的能力为其他生物科学研究奠定了坚实的化学基础。
再者,我们把基础生命过程理解为化学结构和反应,比如遗传信息的传输,这种意识具有重要的哲学含义:生物化学对人类究竟意味着什么?人类与黑猩猩,老鼠乃至果蝇有什么生物化学方面的区别?我们是有更多彼此相像,还是我们有很大不同呢?第二,生物化学极大的影响到了医学和其他领域。
比如,导致镰状细胞贫血、囊性纤维化、血友病和许多其他遗传疾病的分子病变在生物化学的水平上得以阐述。
一些导致癌症发生的分子事物得以识别。
了解基本的缺陷为发现有效的治疗方法开启了大门。
生物化学使得合理设计新药成为可能,包括病毒(如HIV病毒)复制所需的酶的特殊抑制剂。
生物工程制造的细菌或其他生物可以用来作为制造有价值蛋白质的工厂,如胰岛素和血细胞发育的诱导剂。
生物化学非常有助于临床诊断。
例如,血液当中指示酶(指示物的一种,比如葡萄糖,血清白蛋白等)水平的上升就可以揭示出病人是否最近经历过心肌梗塞。
DNA probes DNA探针在遗传疾病,传染性疾病以及癌症的精确诊断中越来越起作用。
农业也应生物化学的发展受益匪浅,产生了更加有效的、对环境无害的除草剂、杀虫剂。
基因工程植物更能抵抗虫害。
所有这些努力因基因组测序的进展而加速发展。
第三,生物化学的进展正在使研究者们研究一些生物和医学上最令人激动得问题。
受精卵如何会产生与肌肉、大脑和肝脏细胞不同的细胞?感官是如何工作的?大脑疾病如老年痴呆症和精神分裂症的分子基础是什么?免疫系统如何区分自我和非自我?长期记忆和短期记忆的分子机制是什么?对于这些问题的答案,过去曾经似乎很遥远,现在已经得到初步解答,并且可能在不久的将来得到更加全面的解答。
Unit 4 病理学简介病理学是研究疾病的科学。
在临床实践和医学教学中,病理学的含义更为广泛:病理学由一系列的知识、观点和研究方法构成,它们对理解现代医学及医学实践至关重要。
病理学不等同于疾病组织的形态学,把两者等同起来是一种过时的看法。
病理学包括对疾病功能及结构的认识和理解,包含从分子水平到对个体的影响。
随着新科学方法的应用,人们更深入地了解疾病,病理学所涵盖的内容也会不断地改变、更新和拓展。
病理学的最终目的在于确定疾病的原因,从而达到防治疾病的基本目标。
病理学的范围病理学是医学科学和实践的基础。
没有病理学,医学实践也将无从谈起。
临床病理学和实验病理学人们对疾病的认识来自于对病人的观察,同样也来自于对动物和细胞培养的实验性研究。
而最大的贡献则来自于对病体组织和体液的深入研究。
临床病理学临床医学以对疾病的纵向研究为基础,即研究病人病史,检查、研究和治疗疾病。
而临床病理学更关注疾病本身的现况分析,深层次研究发病原因和机制,以及疾病对人体各个器官和系统的影响。
两者相辅相成、不可分割。
不理解病理学,临床医学无从开展;而没有了临床意义,病理学也就失去了存在价值。
实验病理学实验病理学观察诸如疾病动物模型或细胞培养等实验系统的操作效果。
幸运的是,细胞培养技术在进步,所以在医学研究和实验病理学中,人们对实验动物的使用减少了。
然而,通过细胞培养复制完整人体中普遍存在的生理环境仍然是一种极其困难的尝试。
病理学的分支病理学是一门拥有庞大分支的学科。
在实践中,病理学包含以下几大分支:组织病理学:通过对组织的检查研究和诊断疾病。
细胞病理学:通过对单个细胞的检查研究和诊断疾病。
血液病学:对血液中细胞成分和可凝结成分的异常进行研究。
微生物学:对传染性疾病及相关生物体进行研究。
免疫学:对机体特殊防御机制进行研究。
病理化学:从组织和体液的变化中研究和诊断疾病。
遗传学:对异常染色体和基因进行研究。
毒理学:对已知或疑似毒物的作用进行研究。
法医病理学:病理学在法律中的应用,比如对可疑情况下的死亡进行调查。
由于这些分支都拥有各自的专业人士队伍,对病理学进行划分的专业意义大于它的教育意义。
病理学的教学必须着眼于整体,因为在这些常规分类中机体和疾病是没有区分的。
因此,该书采用多学科方法阐述病理学。
系统病理学部分概述各器官的正常结构与功能,描述各临床症状和体征的病理学基础,强调了各疾病的临床意义。
普通病理学和系统病理学病理学教学内容分为两部分:普通病理学:研究和阐明主要疾病过程的机制和特点,如先天性疾病和后天性疾病、炎症、肿瘤和恶化等。
系统病理学:描述影响各器官或器官系统的各种疾病,如阑尾炎、肺癌和动脉粥样化等。
普通病理学普通病理学(总论)研究和阐明存在于各主要疾病的共同病因、发病机制和特点。
本书第二部分包含这些内容,举例说明各种疾病。
在学习系统病理学之前,理解普通病理学的各原理至关重要。
普通病理学是学习各种疾病系统病理学之前所必须具备的理论基础。
系统病理学系统病理学(各论)研究和阐明影响各器官或器官系统的各种疾病。
(注意区分“系统的”和“人体的”在本文中的使用。