跨文化交际_第八章_第二节_性别歧视与跨文化交际
性别与语言互动的跨文化研究
性别与语言互动的跨文化研究是一个复杂而有趣的领域，涉及许多文化差异和个人经验。
在不同的文化中，人们使用语言的方式和语言对性别的认知可能非常不同，这意味着在跨文化交流中可能会出现一些挑战和误解。
本文将探讨性别与语言互动在文化差异中的影响，并讨论如何更好地处理跨文化交际中的这些问题。
首先，不同的文化对性别的定义和认知方式存在很大差异。
在某些文化中，性别被认为是刚性和二元的概念，男性和女性被认为是彻底不同的存在，并且传统的男女角色被严格遵循。
在这种文化中，语言使用时要特别注意维护性别角色的规则。
举例来说，日本的礼仪和交际方式通常要求女性在语言上表现出柔弱和谦虚的特点，而男性则需要更加自信和强大的语言表达方式。
在这种文化背景下，对于异性相处，特别是有权力地位的男性和下层次的女性之间的交际，语言表达的权力和隐含的内容尤为重要。
在其他文化中，例如北欧国家，性别认知相对较为平等，男性和女性可以在语言和交往方式上更加自由和平等。
其次，语言中存在着许多与性别相关的隐含含义和刻板印象。
在许多文化中，男性被认为是强势和有权利的，而女性则被认为是弱势和从属的。
这一认知很容易反映在语言中，并且可能导致语言歧视。
例如，日常生活中使用的一些词汇，如“mankind”和“chairman”等，表明了男性的优先地位。
在跨文化交际中，这些隐含的性别歧视可能导致误解和不适，特别是对于那些来自不同文化背景的人，面对这种语言歧视时，很容易产生不适、反感和不解。
此外，对于那些性别认同不同于传统男女二元认知的人，跨文化互动可能带来更多的不适和挑战。
在某些文化中，跨性别和非二元性别的人可能会被视为违反传统性别规则的人，从而受到歧视和排斥。
这种歧视不仅限于语言上，也可以体现在文化中的其他方面，例如，穿着礼仪和社交规范等方面。
因此，在跨文化交际中，需要尊重和理解不同的性别认同，避免使用带有歧视和偏见的语言，努力消除歧视和排斥。
为了更好地处理跨文化互动中的性别和语言问题，我们需要采取一些措施。
跨文化交际概述PPT课件
• A: Okay, thanks for the information, Let’s get together soon.
• B: I’d love to. • A: Good, I’ll give you a call and we’ll make a date for
lunch. • B: If you want, we can make a date now. When are
• 大众交际（mass communication）一般定义为职业化 的传播机构利用机械化、电子化的技术手段向不特定 的多数人传送信息的行为或过程。
三、交际的要素
• 一个完整的交际过程包含了九项要素： 传送者、制码、讯息、通道、接收者、 解码、回馈、环境及噪音。
四、交际的模式
• 语言是人类最重要的交际工具。 • 语言是人类最重要的思维工具。 • 语言是文化的载体。
农民peasant 龙dragon
凤凰phoenix 猫头鹰owl
孔雀peacock 狗dog
• A、B概念意义相同，A有内涵意义，B无内涵意 义
松柏鹤桃 pine /cypress/crane/peach 梅兰竹菊plum
blossom/orchid/bamboo/chrysanthemum 数字
二、交际的种类
• 内向交际（intrapersonal communication）指一个 人自己脑子里在自我交流活动或是自言自语。
• 人际交际（interpersonal communication）两个人 或两个人以上的信息传受过程。
• 组织交际（organizational communication）在学校、 公司、工厂、机关、军队、党派、群众团体等内部的 传播是组织交际。
跨文化交际ppt课件
•
•
中国人认为“六”是最吉利的数字。中国古时就有崇尚“六”的传统 观念。如先秦时期六部儒家经典称为“六经”或“六艺”，诸子百家 中最著名的阴、阳、儒、明、法、道的总称为“六家”，周代兵书现 存六卷称为“六韬”，政区分为“六乡”，周礼有“六典”，官制设 有“六部”，朝廷军队统称“六军”或“六师”，皇后寝宫称为“六 宫”；把亲属关系归纳为“六亲”，妇女怀孕称为“身怀六甲”，天 地四方称为“六合”或“六幽”；中医将人的心、肺、肝、肾、脾、 胆称为“六府”，佛教认为凡人有“六情”。民间也有“六六大顺”、 “六畜兴旺”、“眼观六路，耳听八方”的俗语。“六”在中国人看 来是个最吉利不过的数字：农历初六、十六、二十六被视为举行婚礼 的黄道吉日。在使用电话号码或车牌号时，人们尤其钟爱尾数为 “66”、“666”、“666”这几组数字，因为它们象征着顺顺利利，万 事如意。 然而，“six”在英语中却是一个不受欢迎的数字。人是在第六天被创 造出来的，还有许多缺点，所以我们要和上帝呆在一起，才能洗尽身 上的罪恶。我们来看看下面的习语即可了解：at sixes and sevens （七上八下，乱七八糟；迷糊的）；hit/knock sb. for six（给某人 以毁灭性的打击）；six to one（相差悬殊）；six of the best（以 藤鞭击六下———学校的一种惩罚手段）；six penny（不值钱）； six of one and half a dozen of the other（半斤八两，差不多）； six of one and half a dozen of the other（五十步笑百步）。还 有谚语：“If you have done no ill the six days，you may play the seventh.”（好好干六天，尽情玩一天。）
跨文化交际PPT演示课件
3. Space and Distance
3.1 Proxemics 3.2 Attitudes Toward Crowding
24
3.1 Proxemics
✓ Definition: the study of people’s perception and use of space.
✓ Four categories: intimate, personal, social, and public distance.
26
Categories of Distance (cont’d)
• Social Distance (1.3-3m) - colleagues, business partners, people at social gatherings
• Public Distance (beyond 3m) - speaking in public
- direct intrusion into others’ affairs • Shrugging shoulders
- indifferent, powerless, having no secret to conceal
19
Postures (cont’d)
• Follow one’s natural habits so often go unnoticed (subconscious in nature)
• May damage your image if you neglect your postures
20
2.4 Eye Contact
Direct eye contact • Chinese: avoid • North Americans: appreciate • The British: avoid
跨文化交际中的语言性别差异之虞
跨文化交际中的语言性别差异之虞
颜 丽 娟
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关 键 词 ： 言 ； 别 差异 ； 文化 语 性 跨
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跨文化交际--性别差异
Gender differences in intercultural communication摘要：跨性别交际是跨文化交际的一种形式。
在男性与女性交际的过程中，尤其是在口头交际的过程中，他们在语言的使用上存在着许多方面的差异。
这些语言差异源于男性与女性不同的心理特征、性别角色、社会分工、社会偏见、以及权势和支配欲。
性别差异不仅是生物学上的差异，而主要是一种文化构建。
这些差异必定会给两性之间交际带来困难，甚至是交际失误。
因此，只有了解不同性别的交际规则，培养性别文化差异意识，才能避免由性别差异而导致的交际失误，成为成功的跨文化交际者。
关键词：跨性别交际差异原因建议PART I: Differences between men and women in communicationNowadays, it is necessary for men and women to communicate with each other every day. But their different communicative styles often bring about doubts, misunderstandings, even conflicts in their communication, especially in intercultural communication. The differences always lie in the following aspects:1) Different vocabularies:Women tend to use milder expletives, such as “Darn it!”; while men are m ore likely use vulgar words, such as “Damn” “Shit” to curse others.Women tend to use milder exclamations, such as “Oh, dear!” “Goddess”; while men are more likely to use “God!” “My god!”.Women often use some empty extravagant adjectives and hyperboles to express emotions instead of offering information, such as adorable, charming, cute, and lovely. It would be funny for men to say these words.Women are more likely to use euphemism. If men use “hell”, women often say “the other place”.2) Different sentences:Men and women often choose different sentences. Men tend to use declarative sentences and imperative sentences. They express their own opinions directly to require or demand something; while women often use interrogative questions, milder imperative sentences to express their opinions indirectly.Women are often more likely to use compound requests. For example “If you don’t have anything better to do, why don’t you clean your room?” Women are more likely to use this type of statement becau se they are socialized to be polite. Men tend to use more powerful language forms that get attention or make them seem to be more knowledgeable and capable. For instance, they are more likely to make statements what they believe, such as “This is the best pizza in this town.”3) Different styles:3.1. Establishing equal relationship:If one woman says to another woman: “My bike was stolen yesterday”, the listener would reply the same experience she has had and complain the bad luck. These words can eliminate the feeling of solitude of the speaker, which can create an interactive speech pattern. If men come across this situation, men would tell women they should call the police first. Men just want to offer a solution for women in trouble.3.2. Support and sympathy:In women’s conversation, there are filled with support and sympathy. They always care for others’ feeling. Men, however, only care for themselves instead of paying attention to women’s mood. Men treat conversation as a way to show to show up their capability, knowledge or talent.3.3. Power and social status:Men are supposed to be superior, so they speak with powerful style. When men talk with women, menoften control the turn of the topics and the sequence of the speakers. Men often interrupt the conversation or get the speech floor; men pay no attention to women by reacting with their minimal responses such as “mhm”.Compared with men, women are inferior and controlled by men. They speak with powerless style. When they talk with men, women are passive and modest by using interrogative sentences, tag sentences and so on. Women often treat these as a way to develop the conversation or draw attention of men.3.4. Continuation of conversation:By raising questions, women hope that others can continue the conversation. Whenever they finish a topic, they can turn to another smoothly. The principle of cooperation is well represented by women.Men often show they are busy by speaking a few words and then leaving hurriedly.3.5. Tone:W omen are more frequent to use super high and low tone. The tone can fully express the speakers’ emotion and is one of the characteristics of women. Women would like to answer questions with rising tone to show their uncertainty. Women are more frequent to use falling-raising tone and raising-falling-raising tone. The falling-raising tone shows hesitate-apologetic meaning and the raising-falling-raising tone an enthusiastic situation.4) Different strategies:4.1. Direct and indirect:Men tend to be direct w hen they express themselves, while women are often indirect. However, it isn’t always like this. In some cases, it is the women who are expecting direct statements and the men who are expressing themselves indirectly. The issue is not directness or indirectness; the issue is the current interpretive framework.4.2. Fit to specific environment:According to observation, in different conversation environment, women and men tend to speak differently. For example, in a business meeting, the most of the talk would be dominated by men. However, men tend to be sullen and silent when they are at home.4.3. Intimacy and independence:Here is an example. Josh, the husband, gets a call from an old friend who will be visiting the town that Josh lives in, and he immediately invites him to stay at their house. Later, when he tells Linda, the wife, she is upset because he didn’t discuss it with her before making the invitation. He tells her that he doesn’t want to be seen as asking his wife for permission in front of his old friend. From this example, we can see that what is of concern to the man is his independence while for the woman it is their intimacy. In other words, he is concerned for his status as being free to make up his own mind whereas she is concerned for their connection.4.4. Rapport and information:Men are more likely to use what gender communication expert Deborah Tannen calls “report-making language” that centers on facts, information, and getting the job done. Women are more likely to use “rapport-buildi ng language” which considers message content and the relationship between the people communicating.5) Different topics:Women prefer to talk about daily life, such as family, children, health, fashion and love; while men are interested in big and serious topics, such as politics, money, sports and sex.6) Different focus:Women are emotional and sometimes, exaggerate with metaphors. Men concern only the word, just interpret the literal meaning. Women just want to express a kind of feeling. Men may take it seriously because they can’t know the implication of women. That’s why men may misunderstand women.There are still many other differences between men and women. I would not say more here.PART II: Reasons for these differencesWhy are there so many differences? The factors that affect the differences are:1) Social factors:Men and women have different languages because they treat language as a social symbol. They choose the languages according to the social pressure, atmosphere and others. The language they choose is fit for their status. Even though men and women live in the same society, women tend to use formal language. Men are endowed with power and women cannot have the same stable social status as men, in most cases, women are inferior to men. Women need to show and protect their identity or social status. So, women obtain kind of potential prestige during the process of obtaining collective identification by using standard language form.2) Cultural factors:Men and women belong to different sub-cultural groups. The research shows that the different groups are formed when men and women are young, and they have different acting ways. These differences make them realize the gender identity.Language is affected by social-cultural factors. Women tend to use standardized language because standardized language is thought to be the language used by upper class with high reputation. The motivation of using the hypercorrect standardized language is thought to enter the upper class. This is obvious for women. Women have fewer rights for materials than men. Women tend to speak standardized language for two reasons: a> Women have the obligation of raising the offspring and spreading culture to them, so they know how important it is for the offspring to learn standardized language. b> Traditionally, women’s social status is not so stable as that of men, so it is necessary for women to mark and stabilize their social status. So they realize how important standardize language.3) Political reason:Lakoff explained the gender differences were caused by social inequality. Besides, as long as the power imbalance existed, women were in difficulty and confined doubly because the languages and behaviors were thought of defective. On the other hand, if women were near to or copy the speaking way of men, these women were discarded for they weren’t women.For example, one female accountant in one American accounting office is capable and makes great contributions to the office and is popular with her c lients, but can’t be promoted because her manner and behaviors are like those of men. This is not relevant to her work, but she is recommended speaking, walking and dressing up like a woman.4) Psychological reason:Boe explains the differences between men and women from the social-psychological point. She believes that women’s choice of language is closely related to their psychological development. This emphasizes that women would consider others first. This psychological tendency is a kind of socialized ability, that is, the ability to keep and maintain the friendly relationship with others. Cooperation is the premise of considering others. This psychological tendency is reflected on the use of language.PART III: Suggestions for successful intercultural communicationNow that we have already known the differences and the reasons of these differences, we should try to avoid the miscommunication between men and women. What we should do are:1) Accepting gender culture differences:To be aware of the existence of discrepancy between cultures is the first step to walk into the door of successful intercultural communication. We must observe and study the differences so that we can avoidmiscommunication skillfully. It is difficult for most people to tolerate the differences of other cultures in some specific aspects such as beliefs, values and attitudes. People often view others from their own perspectives, since judgment can not be made without individual’s experience. Therefore, it is important for us to suspend judgment. We should accept the existence of gender culture differences and try to explore constructively what happens and how our partner acts so that we might better understand each other. We need to view objectively aspects of other culture that differs from that of our own.2) Learning to be tolerant:The two gender cultures are different in many ways. We should be tolerant to these cultural differences. Keep in mind that we are both alike and different. We should grant similarities and recognize differences. By learning that men and women are different, we can become more sensitive to the fact that men and women’s values and goals may differ, and generally their verbal and nonverbal language will vary as well. Instead of becoming annoyed by a ma le’s aggressive communication style, we should recognize that it is a style which is as much a part of his identity as an ethnic cuisine or a religious tradition is part of culture. By accepting and appreciating both, we can better assess the potential consequences of our acts and be more tolerant of those others.3) Learning to respect:The task in improving intercultural communication is awareness and respect than evaluation. Plato says, “No law or ordinance is more than understanding”. A successful commu nicator should be aware of others, care for others, respect others, and should not be pre-occupied with thoughts over them.4) Learning to be open and flexible:Studying other culture’s communication teaches us not only about other cultures, but also about ourselves. If we are open to learn and grow, we can enlarge our own communication repertoire by incorporating more emphasized in other cultures.Openness implies a willingness to accept cultural differences and is not closed to new ideas. Flexibility implies a willingness to use various ways to communicate. We need to be flexible and adapt our communication style to each culture and situation that confronts us.CONCLUSION:This thesis has mainly discussed some aspects of gender differences and speech. After that, the reasons for the gender differences are explored. At last, this thesis put forward some suggestion on how to improve intercultural communication.REFERENCES:Coates, J. and D. Cameron(1988) Women in Their Speech Communities: New Perspectives on Language and Sex. London and New York: LongmanEckert, Penelope(1996) The Whole Woman: Sex and Gender Differences in Variation. In Brenneis许力生.《跨文化交流入门》[M] 浙江大学出版社，2004吴晓. 跨文化交际中的性别差异和话语风格[J] 东北财经大学，2006张维友. 《高级综合英语教程》[M] 高等教育出版社，2001颜丽娟. 跨文化交际中的语言性别差异之虞[J] 湖北经济学院，2011张聪. 英汉跨文化交际中的性别差异[J] 长春理工大学，2009。
跨文化交际-第一章-第二节-跨文化交际
4.交际双方进行的是直接的言语交际
对外汉语专业的任务是教会外国人说汉语，包括中国文化的对 外传播。所以着眼点在交际双方的直接交际，而不是通过“翻译” 这个中介来完成交际任务。因此，我们基本上不涉及翻译问题，而 侧重语用规范，通过了解对方文化的价值取向和行为规范，协调双 方交际中涉及的文化因素，从而保证交际的有效性。
2005年版 贾玉新：《跨文化与不同文化之间的交际》，上海外语教育出版社，
2007.8（英文版）
二 文化差异与交际失误
1. 词语意义的文化差异与交际失误 “文化词汇” 例如：“痛打落水狗”/“Love me, love my dog.” “white elephant”/ “白象牌”电池 “dragon”/ “龙” “龙”－－－高贵吉祥的象征。
“姓＋职务”的称呼方法,有些翻译成英文不宜直译，如主任、 局长、科长、老师等。
对于教师的称呼很多，汉语中常用“姓+老师”，英语中主要有 三种： Sir./Ms.； Mr./Ms.＋姓；直呼其名。
注意：不要用“姓＋teacher”，也不要直呼别人的姓。
③ “实用心理”＆“信仰至上”
“谐音”文化：谐音 祈福、求富贵发财 “168超市”：“一路发” 宗教文化 忌讳13，请客不请13个人，送花不送13束，住楼不住13层
人群） 中产阶级 支持民主党 主张环境保护的人群 反对种族歧视的人群 喜欢运动的人群
再如：
Margaret是黑人， 居住在华盛顿市区，中 学毕业以后做过各种工 作，收入较低，信奉天 主教，目前在一家餐馆 打工。她对于政治没有 兴趣，从来都没有参加 过选举。她主张环境保 护，反对种族歧视，反 对人工流产，认为这是 伤害小生命。她不喜欢 运动，喜欢流行音乐。 因此，她属于以下一些 群体：
跨文化交际英语知识点归纳
跨文化交际英语知识点归纳跨文化交际是指在不同文化背景下进行的人际交往和沟通。
在全球化背景下，跨文化交际的重要性日益凸显。
了解并掌握跨文化交际的英语知识点对于有效地与不同文化背景的人进行交流和合作至关重要。
本文将详细介绍跨文化交际的英语知识点，包括文化差异、非语言交际、礼仪与礼貌等方面。
一、文化差异1. 时间观念：不同文化有不同的时间观念，如西方注重准时，东方则注重灵活性。
了解并尊重对方的时间观念，避免引起误会。
2. 社会等级：不同文化中对社会地位的看法不同，有些文化注重等级分明，有些文化则强调平等。
在交际中应注意尊重对方的社会地位和身份。
3. 个人主义与集体主义：西方文化注重个利和自由，而东方文化注重集体利益和团队协作。
了解并尊重不同文化的价值观念，有助于建立良好的跨文化交际关系。
二、非语言交际1. 肢体语言：不同文化对于肢体语言的解读和使用有所差异，如眼神接触、手势等。
了解并注意对方的肢体语言，避免产生误解。
2. 面部表情：不同文化对面部表情的解读也有所差异，如微笑、皱眉等。
了解并适应对方的面部表情，有助于推动交际进程。
3. 身体姿势：身体姿势也是非语言交际的一种形式，如坐姿、站姿等。
注意对方的身体姿势，尊重对方的个人空间，避免给对方带来不适。
三、礼仪与礼貌1. 问候礼仪：不同文化有不同的问候方式和习惯，如握手、鞠躬等。
了解并尊重对方的问候方式，展示友好和尊重。
2. 礼貌用语：不同文化有不同的礼貌用语和礼貌表达方式，如道歉、感谢等。
适当使用对方的礼貌用语，展示尊重和关注。
3. 社交礼节：不同文化有不同的社交礼节，如用餐礼仪、着装规范等。
了解并遵守对方的社交礼节，展示自己的文化素养。
四、语言交际1. 语言障碍：不同文化使用不同的语言，语言障碍是跨文化交际中常见的问题。
尽量使用简洁明了的词汇和表达方式，避免产生歧义和误解。
2. 文化障碍：语言与文化密切相关，不同文化对于词汇、语法和表达方式有不同的理解和运用。
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汉民族的情况也一样。古代汉语中用于表示第三人称代词单数的
语言形式不少，但却没有一个单独用来指代女性的。从标记理论来看， 古代汉语第三人称代词系统中，阳性代词表现为非标记形式，所以理
所当然地应该成为泛指的通称形式；如果要特别指明所指对象为女性，
有必要在上下文中采用其他形式标记，才能使得回指照应的意义落到 实处。
•7）用someone，one，the one，no one等替代 Sexist: He who can take advice is sometimes superior to him who can give it. Revised: Someone who can take advice is sometimes superior to the one who can give it. •接受忠告者有时胜过发出忠告者。 •8）使用he and she或his and her，但使用的次数不宜太多。s/he仅可 用于备忘录（memos），便条（notes），或者非正式的交谈之中。 •9）用名词或上下文中用过的同义词替换 Sexist: To find a friend one must close one eye - to keep him, two. Revised: To find a friend， one must close one eye - to keep a friend, two.想找朋友；就得睁一只眼，闭一只眼；想留住朋友，就得 双眼都闭上。
（二）词语形式上的不对称现象
许多英语词语仅有表示男性的用法，没有体现女性存在的形式。
Word of Man chairman Man of the Year Word of Woman —— —— Word of Man seminal virile Word of Woman —— ——
——
——
（3）无视一性别存在，凸显另一性别的语言现象；
（4）刻意掩盖，极力粉饰社会中普遍存在的性别歧视现象。
（二）语言性别歧视研究的发展阶段
第一阶段（20世纪60年代中期到70年代中期）：语料搜集与身份 验证阶段。 观察角度：基本上是采用女权主义的观察视野。 研究方法：内省式研究和民俗语言学方法，以书面材料为对象。 考察内容：现代英语中含有显性性别歧视的习惯用法和表达方式。 参与群体：媒体的积极介入，广大民众踊跃参与。 本阶段主要是唤醒公众意识，充分认识歧视危害性。现象分析缺
从历时语言学的角度来看，明确规定第三人称代词he作为英语泛 指通称形式，是规定语法学派崇尚拉丁语法的结果，将拉丁语法中语 法属性意义的“阳性为先”的含义，篡改为生物学或社会学意义的 “男性优越”的解释。这种用法隐含“无视一性别存在、凸显另一性 别”的嫌疑，显然是一种性别歧视语言现象。 从语言政治学的观点来说，长期以来广泛存在于教材编写、辞书 编撰、语法条例制定以及习惯用法讨论中的规定主义学风和大男子主 义思潮，同这这种用法的流行有着千丝万缕的联系。
•在英语中，有些词可以去形容、表示男人，对女人则不行；有一些专门 的词去修饰女人，而它们无不带有歧视性意义。在西方社会里，男人要 有“阳刚”，女人要有“阴柔”，对男女表示称赞是所用的词也不一样 ，男人是great, terrific, cool, neat，女人是adorable, charming, sweet, lovely。固执的男人用的是strong-willed（意志坚强的），固 执的女人则用stubborn（执拗的）。又如： •prudent（深谋远虑的）——细心的男人 •calculating（专为自己打算的）——细心的女人 •absent-minded（心不在焉的）——易忘的男人 •scatter-brained（轻率的）——易忘的女人 •curious（好奇的）——对事事有兴趣的男人 •nosy（爱管闲事的）——对事事有兴趣的女人
爱人有着不同的称谓。
•法国人把自己心爱的人称为“小卷心蜗牛”来称呼心爱的人；立陶宛人则用“啤酒”
来比喻。
•芬兰人思念情人时，会称之为“温柔的小树叶”；日本人则会称“美丽的 山花”；波兰人把情人比作“饼干”；希腊姑娘则喜欢被人称作“像黄金虫 一样”。 •美国人把恋人称为“蜜”；列塔尼亚人把恋人称作“我的小青鱼”；捷克 伯希米亚人称爱人为“我母亲的灵魂”；前南斯拉夫的加尔纽拉人则称恋人 为“我的小草”。
3）改用第二人称、 Sexist: No man knows his true character until he has run out of gas, purchased something on the installment plan and raised an adolescent. Revised: You don't know what your true character is until you have run out of gas, purchased something on the installment plan and raised an adolescent. 只有当汽车大的油用光了，按分规付款方式购物和抚养大一个孩子时，人的 本来品性才会显露出来。 4）改用被动语态 Sexist: One who, when he has the choice of two evils, chooses both. Revised: One who, when given the choice of two evils, chooses both. 一个在两种恶行之中要作出选择就两者都选的人。
一
女权运动与语言性别歧视研究
（一）“语言性别歧视”与“性别歧视语言”
“语言性别歧视”可以界定为：不论男女任何一方，一性别对他
性别在语言使用上所表现出的一种偏见和态度。
“性别歧视语言”指以下四个方面中的任何一种表现形式：
（1）偏袒一性别，损害另一性别的语言现象； （2）诋毁一性别，抬高另一性别的语言现象；
•尽量不用通性代词he，除了明确地指代一个男性人物时，都要设法避免 使用之。可以根据语境需要，选用下列替换方式： •1）采用复数形式 Sexist: When bathing a baby, never leave him unattended. Revised: When bathing babies, never leave them unattended. 给婴儿洗澡时，一定不能让他们无人照料。 2）用we／us／our改写原句 Sexist: From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs. Revised: From each of us according to our abilities, to each of us according to our needs. 各尽所能，按需分配。
二是结合语言发展、心理表象、社会心理等方面的研究，扩展了
认知探索的视野。
二
性别歧视现象在语言中的表现
由于语言性别歧视研究源于美国，所以对语言中的性别歧视现
象，在英语中研究得较为充分。因此这里我们主要介绍英语中关于
语言性别歧视研究的成果，并适当论及汉语中的类似现象。
（一）通称名词和第三人称代词
在所指对象性别不明的情况下，或者在所指兼指男女两性时，英 语中有两种表示通称的说法：一是名词用法，即采用man一词兼指男 女双方；一是代词用法，即采用第三人称代词he的形式泛指男女。 这并非语法系统发展的自然结果，而是社会使然的人为产物。 以man作为非标记形式兼指男女双方的用法，从约定俗成角度而 言，也未尝说不过去；但是倘若细究起来，这种变化结果就值得反思。 因为从生物学、社会学的角度来说，男女两性均为彼此独立的个体而 发生、发育、成长，不存在相互替代或包蕴的可能性。
第八章
性别差异、性别歧视与跨文化交际
第二节
一 二 三
性别歧视与跨文化交际
女权运动与语言性别歧视研究 性别歧视现象在语言中的表现 语言性别歧视与跨文化交际
从社会语言学的观点看，不同文化中普遍存在的各种语言性别歧 视现象，不仅仅是一种符号表达，而且是一种政治化语言、一种文化 定势、一种权势观念、一种话语结构、一种社会心态、一种认知模式。 语言性别歧视现象的研究不单纯是语言学的问题。我们应该透过 这种表面现象，结合文化学、社会学、认知科学的研究，采用一种崭 新的观察视野，揭示语言使用过程中的亚文化现象。
•女人在世界各国都一样，她们在操持家务方面要比男人干得多，不幸的是， 由此而引出许多事物的名称去指代女人：cookie（小甜饼）, dish（菜碟）, tomato, sugar（糖果）, crumpet（烤饼）, tart（果馅饼）。
•请欣赏外国人对爱人的昵称：由于历史和文化的差异，不同国家和地区对
shrew
virago
——
——
bitchy
wanton
比较表中各词条的内容和语义即可发现，所有相应的男性所指词
条的内容均含褒义，所有相应的女性所指词条的语义均为贬义。
•the weaker sex (vessel)指“女性” 在英语中，常出现对女性带有歧视的 描述或称谓。女人经常被表示动物、食物以及个别物体之类的词来称呼，而 男人则特少。试看下面这些词，常在男人口中指女人： • vixen（雌狐；悍妇，泼妇，刁妇）,
在古英语中，“man”只有一个意思：human
being（人类）。而它现在的 意思指的是成年男人（an adult male person），而并不含女人、人类的意 思。但是在英语中存在大量的词，不管做工作的人是男是女，一律用 “man”来表示。例如： •congressman（国会议员）, spokesman（发言人）, chairman（主席）, draftsman（起草人）, salesman, stockman（仓库管理员）,tradesman, groundman（球场管理员）, milkman, postman, repairman, businessman, marksman（射手；神枪手）, spaceman, cameraman, fireman, newsman, policeman, mankind, manmade, manpower, manhours（一个人在一小时内 完成的工作量）, the man in the street（普通人，一般人）。