lesson four foundations of genetics
生物专业英语1 (1)
Foundations of Genetics
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• Genetics (from Ancient Greek , "genitive" and that from , "origin"), a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms. • Genetics deals with the molecular structure and function of genes, gene behavior in context of a cell or organism (e.g. dominance and epigenetics), patterns of inheritance from parent to offspring, and gene distribution, variation and change in populations, such as through Genome-Wide Association Studies.
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Genome-Wide Association Studies
• In genetic epidemiology, a genome-wide association study (GWA study, or GWAS), also known as whole genome association study (WGA study, or WGAS), is an examination of many common genetic variants in different individuals to see if any variant is associated with a trait. • GWAS typically focus on associations between single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and traits like major diseases.
遗传学绪论PPT课件.ppt
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DNA Replication: Propagating Genetic Information
➢What is gene? ➢Genes were shown to consist of substances
called nucleic acids.
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3、The Human Genome Project: Sequencing DNA and Cataloguing Genes
➢Replication (复制) ➢Expression (表达) ➢Mutation (突变)
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Key Points
➢Genetics is the study of the hereditary materials.
➢The hereditary material explains both the similarities and differences among organisms.
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1、Mendel: Genes and the Rules of Inheritance
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Mendel’s method involved hybridizing plants that showed different traits—for example, short plants were hybridized with tall plants—to see how the traits were inherited by the offspring.
2020年智慧树知道网课《跨文化交际 Intercultural Communication》课后章节测试满分答案
绪论单元测试1【判断题】(1分) ForeignersareinterestedtolearnaboutChineseCultureandChinesePeople.Atthesametime,thereare misunderstandingsofChineseculture.A.错B.对2【判断题】(1分)Overseasexperiencescanexpandone'svisionandenrichone'sunderstandingofInterculturalCommun ication.A.对B.错3【判断题】(1分)Beforecommunicatingwithothers,youneedtounderstandyourownculturewell.A.错B.对4【判断题】(1分)Culturelearningisnotsoimportantaslanguagelearning.A.错B.对5【判断题】(1分) KnowingallthewordsandhavingperfectgrammarofalanguageisenoughtodealwithInterculturalCo mmunication.A.对B.错6【判断题】(1分)Everythingabroadisthesameas“athome”.A.错B.对7【多选题】(2分)Inthiscourse,wearegoingtolearnaboutA.InterculturalcommunicationbarriersB.AcquringInterculturalCommunicationCompetenceC.ThearaticalfoundationsofInterculturalCommunicationD.Verbalandnon-verbalcommunication8【多选题】(2分)Inthestudyofinterculturalcommunication,wearegoingtoachievethegoalsofA.fosteringcriticalthinkingofdifferentculturesB.understandingthebasictermsC.developingcommunicativecompetenceD.avoidingpotentialproblemsininterculturalcommunication9【单选题】(1分)ThecourseyouaretakingisA.CommunicationB.PhycologyC.EnglishLiteratureD.InterculturalCommunication10【判断题】(1分)Whenbeingaskedbyotherpeopleaboutyourculture,youwillbemoreawareofyouridentity.A.对B.错第一章测试1【单选题】(2分)ThedialoguesattheUnitedNations,forexample,wouldbetermed_________.A.internationalcommunicationB.interethniccommunicationC.interpersonalcommunicationD.interracialcommunication2【单选题】(2分)InChina,ifaTibetancommunicateswithaHan,itis_____.A.interethniccommunicationB.internationalcommunicationC.interpersonalcommunicationD.interracialcommunication3【单选题】(2分)_____isthesocializationprocessyougothroughtoadapttoyoursociety.A.EnculturationB.AssimilationC.AcculturationD.Deculturation4【单选题】(2分)Manyofthesameproverbsappearthroughouttheworld,becauseallpeople,regardlessoftheirculture,s harecommon____.A.artsB.languagesC.storiesD.experiences5【多选题】(3分)Inthepopularculturalicebergmetaphor,youcanonlyseeabout10-15%abovethesurface,mostpartoft heicebergisunderthewater,whichisabitofamystery.Whichofthefollowingdoyouthinkareabovethe water?A.foodB.clothingC.musicD.architecture6【多选题】(3分) Sixreasonsofwhystudyinterculturalcommunicationwerementioned，pleasetrypicktheonesmenti onedinthefollowing.A.self-awarenessB.demographicchangesC.imperativeD.technology7【判断题】(2分) Culturecanbecategorizedaseithermaterialornonmaterialculture.A.对B.错8【判断题】(2分)Cultureisthatcomplexwholewhichincludesknowledge,belief,arts,morals,law,customandanyother capabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety.A.错B.对9【判断题】(2分)Itisreasonablethatweusewhat'sbelowoursurfacetotrytounderstandwhat'sabovesomebodyelse’s.A.错B.对10【判断题】(2分) "Digthewellbeforeyouarethirsty"isaChineseproverbmeaning"吃水不忘挖井人”。
生物工程专业英语四
Nondisjunction:不分离 The failure of separation of paired chromosomes at metaphase, resulting in one daughter receiving both and the other daughter cell none of the chromosomes in question. Nondisjunction can occur during a meiotic or mitotic division.
Law of independent assortment: 独立分配定律 Members of one gene pair will separate from each other independently of the members of other gene pairs.
Law of segregation:分离定律 When gametes are formed by a diploid organism, the alleles that control a trait(特征) separate from one another into different gametes, retaining their individuality(个性,个 体状态)
校担任自然科学代课教师。
与此同时，孟德尔从1856年起开始进行他的著名的植物育种实验。 1865年他推导出了著名的遗传学定律，他将定律用一篇论文表述出来， 并将论文呈交给布鲁恩自然历史学会。1866年他的成果被发表在该学会 学报上，题目是“植物杂交实验”。三年后又在同一杂志上发表了第二 篇论文。 1868年孟德尔被任命为牧师会会长，专职行政事务。 1900年，孟德尔的研究成果被发现。
《生物专业英语》PPT课件
gene [dʒi:n] 基因
A unit of heredity located on a chromosome and composed a sequence of DNA nucleotides.
heredity [hə‘redɪti:] 遗传 nucleotide ['nu:kli:ə,taɪd] 核苷酸
dihybrid cross [dai‘haibrid]双因子杂种杂交
A cross between individuals that differ with respect to two specified gene pairs.
differ with 与...不一致 specified 指定的 respect 关系
particular 特殊的, 特别的 allelic 等位基因的
homozygous [,hɔmə'zaiɡəus] 纯合的
A diploid organism that has two identical alleles for particular characteristic.
identical 同一的, 同样的
incomplete dominance [, inkəm'pli:t 'dɔmənəns] 不完全显性
The condition in which two allelic genes have a different effect when
they are together as a heterozygote in a diploid cell than either of
germ plasm theory 种质学说
A substance thought to be transmitted in the gametes (germ cells) in an unchanged form from generation to generation. The germ plasm was believed to be unaffected by the environment and to give rise to the body cells.
lesson 4
Lesson 12T ext A:DNA is double helixWatson and Crick proposed that the two polynucleotide chains in the double helix associate by hydrogen bonding between the nitrogenous bases.Three notions converged in the construction of the double helix model for DNA by Watson and Crick in 1953:∙X-ray diffraction data showed that DNA has the form of a regular helix, making a complete turn every 34Å (3.4 nm), with a diameter of ~20Å (2 nm). Since the distance between adjacent nucleotides is 3.4Å, there must be 10 nucleotides per turn.∙The density of DNA suggests that the helix must contain two polynucleotide chains. The constant diameter of the helix can be explained if the bases in each chain face inward and are restricted so that a purine is always opposite a pyrimidine, avoiding partnerships of purine-purine (too wide) or pyrimidine-pyrimidine (too narrow).∙Irrespective of the absolute amounts of each base, the proportion of G is always the same as the proportion of C in DNA, and the proportion of A is always the same as that of T. These reactions are described as base pairing, and the paired bases (G with C, or A with T) are said to be complementary.The model proposed that the two polynucleotide chains to run in opposite directions (antiparallel). Looking along the helix, one strand runs in the 5’→3’ direction, while its partner runs 3’→5’. Each base pair is rotated ~36° around the axis of the helix relative to the next base pair. So ~10 base pairs make a complete turn of 360°. The twisting of the two strands around one another forms a double helix with a minor groove(~12Å across) and a major groove (~22Åacross). The double helix is right-handed; the turns run clockwise looking along the helical axis. These features represent the accepted model for what is known as the B-form of DNA.It is important to realize that the B-form represents an average, not a precisely specified structure. DNA structure can change locally. If it has more base pairs per turn it is said to be overwound; if it has fewer base pairs per turn it is underwound. Local winding can be affected by the overall conformation of the DNA double helix in space or by the binding of proteins to specific sitesThe winding of the two strands of DNA around each other in the double helical structure makes it possible to change the structure by influencing its conformation in space. If the two ends of a DNA molecule are fixed, the double helix can be wound around itself in space. This is called supercoiling.The consequences of supercoiling depend on whether the DNA is twisted around itself in the same sense as the two strands within the double helix (clockwise) or in the oppositesense. Twisting in the same sense produces positive supercoiling. This has the effect of causing the DNA strands to wind around one another more tightly, so there are more base pairs per turn. Twisting in the opposite sense produces negative supercoiling.DNA topoisomerases are enzymes that catalyze changes in the topology of DNA by transiently breaking one or both strands of DNA, passing the unbroken strand(s) through the gap, and then resealing the gap.A crucial property of the double helix is the ability to separate the two strands without disrupting covalent bonds. This makes it possible for the strands to separate and reform under physiological conditions at the (very rapid) rates needed to sustain genetic functions. The specificity of the process is determined by complementary base pairing.The process of strand separation is called denaturation or (more colloquially) melting. Denaturation of DNA occurs over a narrow temperature range and results in striking changes in many of its physical properties. The midpoint of the temperature range over which the strands of DNA separate is called the melting temperature (Tm). The denaturation of DNA is reversible under appropriate conditions. The ability of the two separated complementary strands to reform into a double helix is called renaturation. This is sometimes called annealing, but the reaction is more generally described as hybridization whenever nucleic acids of different sources are involved, as in the case when one preparation consists of DNA and the other consists of RNA.Words and Expressions:Polynucleotide: 多核苷酸hydrogen bond 氢键nitrogenous base 碱基X-ray diffraction X射线衍射Purine 嘌呤Pyrimidine 嘧啶base pair 碱基对complementary 互补antiparallel 反向平行minor groove 小沟major groove 大沟right-handed 右手B-form B型DNAoverwound 紧旋underwound 松旋conformation 构象positive supercoiling 正超螺旋negative supercoiling 负超螺旋DNA topoisomerase DNA拓扑异构酶denaturation 变性renaturation 复性melting temperature (Tm) 熔链温度anneal 退火hybridization 杂交Questions：What noncovalent interactions are involved in maintaining the double helical conformation of DNA?Could you tell other forms of DNA besides B-form?What features of the DNA double helix facilitate its replation?T ext B:Gene ExpressionThe central dogma defines the paradigm of molecular biology. Genes are perpetuated as sequences of nucleic acid, but function by being expressed in the form of proteins. nucleic acid is responsible for the inheritance of genetic information. Transcription and translation are responsible for its conversion from one form to another.Whether a cell has only one chromosome (as in prokaryotes) or has many chromosomes (as in eukaryotes), the entire genome must be replicated precisely once for every cell division. DNA synthesis is semidiscontinuous replication. It is the mode in which one new strand is synthesized continuously while the other is synthesized discontinuously. On the leading strand DNA synthesis can proceed continuously in the 5’ to 3’ direction as the parental duplex is unwound. On the lagging strand a stretch of single-stranded parental DNA must be exposed, and then a Okazaki fragments is synthesized in the reverse direction (relative to fork movement). A seriesof these fragments are synthesized, each 5’–3’; then they are joined together by DNA ligase to create an intact lagging strand.The point at which replication is occurring is called the replication fork(sometimes also known as the growing point). A replication fork moves sequentially along the DNA, from its starting point at the origin. The origin may be used to start either unidirectional replication or bidirectional replication.The type of event is determined by whether one or two replication forks set out from the origin. In unidirectional replication, one replication fork leaves the origin and proceeds along the DNA. In bidirectional replication, two replication forks are formed; they proceed away from the origin in opposite directions.Transcription involves synthesis of an RNA chain representing one strand of a DNA duplex. The RNA is identical in sequence with one strand of the DNA, which is called the coding strand. It is complementary to the other strand, which provides the template strand for its synthesis.RNA synthesis is catalyzed by the enzyme RNA polymerase. Transcription starts when RNA polymerase binds to a special region, the promoter, at the start of the gene. The promoter surrounds the first base pair that is transcribed into RNA, the startpoint. From this point, RNA polymerase moves along the template, synthesizing RNA, until it reaches a terminator sequence. This action defines a transcription unit that extends from the promoter to the terminator. A transcription unit may include more than one gene.The immediate product of transcription is called the primary transcript. It would consist of an RNA extending from the promoter to the terminator, possessing the original 5’ and 3’ ends.Interrupted genes are found in all classes of organisms of eukaryotes. Removal of introns is a major part of the production of RNA in all eukaryotes. The process by which the introns are removed is called RNA splicing, and it occurs in the nucleus,together with the other modifications that are made to newly synthesized RNAsProteins are assembled from amino acids using information encoded in genes. An mRNA contains a series of codons that interact with the anticodons of aminoacyl-tRNAs so that a corresponding series of amino acids is incorporated into a polypeptide chain. The ribosome provides the environment for controlling the interaction between mRNA and aminoacyl-tRNA. The ribosome behaves like a small migrating factory that travels along the template engaging in rapid cycles of peptide bond synthesis.The genetic code is a set of three-nucleotide sets called codons and each three-nucleotide combination stands for an amino acid, for example AUG stands for methionine. Because DNA contains four nucleotides, the total number of possible codons is 64; hence, there is some redundancy in the genetic code and some amino acids are specified by more than one codon. The only exceptions are methionine and tryptophan. Codons that have the same meaning are called synonyms. Codons representing the same or related amino acids tend to be similar in sequence. Often the base in the third position of a codon is not significant, because the four codons differing only in the third base represent the same amino acid. Sometimes a distinction is made only between a purine versus a pyrimidine in this position. The reduced specificity at the last position is known as third base degeneracy.Genes encoded in DNA are first transcribed into pre-messenger RNA (mRNA) by proteins such as RNA polymerase. Only one strand of a DNA duplex is transcribed into a messenger RNA. The strand of DNA that directs synthesis of the mRNA via complementary base pairing is called the template strand or antisense strand. (Antisense is used as a general term to describe a sequence of DNA or RNA that is complementary to mRNA.) The other DNA strand bears the same sequence as the mRNA(except for possessing T instead of U), and is called the coding strand or sense strand.Most organisms then process the pre-mRNA(also known as a primary transcript) using various forms of post-transcriptional modification to form the mature mRNA, which is then used as a template for protein synthesis by the ribosome. In prokaryotes the mRNA may either be used as soon as it is produced, or be bound by a ribosome after having moved away from the nucleoid. In contrast, eukaryotes make mRNA in the cell nucleus and then translocate it across the nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm, where protein synthesis then takes place. The rate of protein synthesis is higher in prokaryotes than eukaryotes and can reach up to 20 amino acids per second.The process of synthesizing a protein from an mRNA template is known as translation. The mRNA is loaded onto the ribosome and is read three nucleotides at a time by matching each codon to its base pairing anticodon located on a transfer RNA molecule, which carries the amino acid corresponding to the codon it recognizes. The enzyme aminoacyl tRNA synthetase "charges" the tRNA molecules with the correct amino acids. The growing polypeptide is often termed the nascent chain. Proteins are always biosynthesized from N-terminus to C-terminus.Protein translocation describes the movement of a protein across a membrane. This occurs across the membranes of organelles in eukaryotes, or across the plasma membrane in bacteria. The protein presents a hydrophilic surface, but the membrane is hydrophobic. Like oil and water, the two would prefer not to mix. The solution is to create a special structure consisting of a proteinaceous channel in the membrane through which the protein can pass. The term translocation describes the process of inserting into or passing through a membrane.The signal works in a different way for proteins that enter the ER-Golgi system from "membrane-associated" ribosomes. The nascent protein passes into the endoplasmic reticulum directly from the ribosome while it is being synthesized. Then it may be transported farther along the membrane network to the Golgi or plasma membrane, or secreted from the cell. Because the protein associates with the membrane during protein synthesis, the process is described as co-translational translocation.Post-translational translocation describes the process when proteins that have been released from ribosomes subsequently associate with membranesIn both post-translational and co-translational translocation, the association with the membrane is determined by the protein. A common feature is found in proteins that use N-terminal sequences to be transported co-translationally to the ER or post-translationally to mitochondria or chloroplast. The N-terminal sequence comprises a leader that is not part of the mature protein. The protein carrying this leader is called a preprotein, and is a transient precursor to the mature protein. The leader is cleaved from the protein during protein translocation.Words and Expressions:central dogma 中心法则nucleic acid 核酸transcription 转录translation 翻译chromosome 染色体prokaryote 原核生物eukaryote 真核生物semidiscontinuous replication 半不连续复制leading strand 前导链lagging strand 滞后链Okazaki fragments 冈崎片段DNA ligase DNA连接酶replication fork 复制叉origin 复制起点unidirectional replication 单向复制bidirectional replication. 双向复制coding strand 编码链template strand 模板链RNA polymerase RNA复制酶promoter 启动子startpoint 起点terminator 终止子transcription unit 转录单元primary transcript 最初转录单位interrupted genes 断裂基因intron 内含子RNA splice RNA剪接amino acid 氨基酸anticodon 反密码子aminoacyl-tRNA氨酰tRNApolypeptide 多肽ribosome 核糖体codon 密码子synonym 同义（密码子）degeneracy 简并性messenger RNA信使RNAtemplate strand 模板链antisense strand 无意义链sense strand 有意义链transfer RNA转移RNAaminoacyl-tRNA synthetase 氨酰tRNA合成酶protein translocation 蛋白转运organelle 细胞器hydrophilic 亲水的hydrophobic 疏水的co-translational translocation 翻译运转同步机制post-translational translocation 翻译后运转机制mitochondria 线粒体chloroplast 叶绿体leader 前导肽Questions：What the differences between the chemical reactions catalyzed by DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase?Why has DNA replication been called “the most complex process in a cell”?What features would you expect an mRNA to have?。
lesson five
In the 1940s the team of Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty showed that this unknown material was DNA. 1940 年 ， 由 Avery, McCarty 和 MacLeod 科研组发现，这种未 知的物质是DNA。
Paired nucleotides, which always occur as A-T or G-C, are linked by hydrogen bonds. 成对的核酸，经常是A-T或C-G， 由氢键连接在一起。
Watson and Crick also proposed that genetic information is encoded by the sequence of base pairs along the DNA molecule. Watson和Crick还提出了遗传信 息是由沿着DNA分子排列的碱 基对来编码的。
Thirty years later Beadle and Ephrussi showed a relationship between particular genes and biosynthetic reactions eye color in fruit flies. 三十年后，Beadle 和 Ephrussi 揭 示了特殊的基因与果蝇眼睛颜色 合成应急反应之间的关系。
Based on this information Watson and Crick proposed the double helix model of DNA—a twisted ladder-like molecule with two outer sugar phosphate chains and rungs formed by nucleotide pairs. 在这些资料的基础上， Watson和 Crick 提 出 了 DNA 的 双 螺 旋 结 构 模 型——一个旋转的梯状分子，外面 是两条糖—磷酸链和由核苷酸对组 成的横档。
Lesson4 英语学科类词汇遗传学
郑州新东方张岩群6000词汇
看你是否精神病
1.什么人需要天天上医院呢？ 2.喜欢什么样的花？ 3.一个黑人和一个白人结了婚，他们生的婴儿的牙 齿是黑的，还是白的？ 4.红颜薄命。我这张耐看的脸，配上这副火爆得让 男人流鼻血的身材，就注定了我一生的悲剧。
tragedy comedy
5.精神病患者：我不是疯子，我是神经病。 6.人人都有神经病，只是轻重的问题
郑州新东方张岩群6000词汇
barrel
['bæ rəl]
n.桶 汽油桶
郑州新东方张岩群6000词汇
barrel theory Buckets effect
郑州新东方张岩群6000词汇
郑州新东方张岩群6000词汇
郑州新东方张岩群6000词汇
补充
butterfly effect
n.蝴蝶效应
郑州新东方张岩群6000词汇
butterfly effect
在南美洲亚马逊河流域热带雨林中，一只蝴蝶 漫不经心地扇动了几下翅膀，可能在两周后 引起美国德克萨斯一场灾难性的风暴。科学 家把这种现象戏称作“蝴蝶效应”，意思即 一件表面上看来毫无关系、非常微小的事情， 可能带来巨大的改变。
郑州新东方张岩群6000词汇
蝴蝶效应是混沌理论的一个例子。混沌理论认为， 在混沌系统中，初始条件的十分微小的变化经过不 断放大，对其未来状态会造成极其巨大的差别。我 们可以用西方流传的一首民谣对此作形象说明。这 首民谣说： 丢失一个钉子，坏了一只蹄铁； 坏了一只蹄铁，折了一匹战马； 折了一匹战马，伤了一位骑士； 伤了一位骑士，输了一场战斗； 输了一场战斗，亡了一个帝国。
郑州新东方张岩群6000词汇
bilingual
同理心的产生和发展英语作文
同理心的产生和发展英语作文英文回答：The Genesis and Evolution of Empathy.Empathy, the ability to understand and share the feelings and thoughts of another, is a complex and multifaceted human capacity that plays a crucial role in social interactions and interpersonal relationships. Its development is a gradual process that begins in infancy and continues throughout the lifespan.Infancy and Early Childhood:The foundations of empathy are laid in the first year of life as infants begin to recognize and respond to the emotions of their caregivers. Through interactions with parents and siblings, they develop a rudimentary understanding of facial expressions, gestures, and vocal cues, which serve as social cues to infer others' emotionalstates.Preschool and Early School Years:During the preschool and early school years, children's empathy skills undergo significant growth. They become more adept at recognizing and labeling their own emotions, as well as those of others. Through play and social interactions, they begin to develop a sense of perspective-taking, enabling them to understand the world fromanother's point of view.Adolescence and Adulthood:Adolescence and adulthood are marked by further refinement of empathetic abilities. Cognitive development allows for more sophisticated perspective-taking and the ability to comprehend complex emotions. Emotionalregulation and social norms play a significant role in shaping empathy, as individuals learn to modulate their emotional responses and respond appropriately to others' needs.Neurobiological Basis of Empathy:Empathy is supported by a complex network of brain regions, including the anterior insula, the anterior cingulate cortex, the amygdala, and the prefrontal cortex. Studies have shown that activation in these regions is associated with both experiencing and understanding emotions, suggesting a neural basis for empathy.Factors Influencing Empathetic Development:The development of empathy is influenced by a range of factors, including:Genetics: Genetic predispositions can influence an individual's inherent capacity for empathy.Environment: Parental warmth, secure attachment experiences, and positive social interactions promote empathy development.Socialization: Cultural norms, values, andexpectations shape how individuals express and respond to empathy.Personal experiences: Personal experiences, such as adversity or trauma, can affect empathy development both positively and negatively.中文回答：同理心的产生与发展。
生物化学：Chapter 1-2 Foundations_of_Biochemistry
Sept. 11, 2012
Chapters 1-2
The realm of Biochemistry
Professor Zengyi Chang
(昌增益 教授）
changzy@ Room 204, New Life Science Building
Tel. 6275-8822
two books into Chinese!
The eight classic papers (to be read by all students)
Topic 1 the prebiotic Origin of Life
Stanley L. Miller.(1953) “A Production of Amino Acids Under Possible Primitive Earth Conditions”, Science, 117:528-9.
Books on the history of Biochemistry:
1. 昌增益（译者）《蛋白质、酶和基因：化学与生物 学的交互作用》，清华大学出版社，2005年1月。
Fruton, J. S. (1999). Proteins, Enzymes, Genes: The Interplay of Chemistry and Biology. New Heaven and London: Yale University Press.
What is life?
Life: A process or condition but a definition not yet achieved.
Possessing the following basic features:
– Homeostasis;
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Genotype:基因型 the catalog of genes of an organism, whether or not these genes are expressed. Karyotype:核型，染色体组型 phenotype:表现型 the physical, chemical, and psychological 心理的expression of genes possessed by an organism.
Germ(种子,胚) plasm theory:种质学说 a substance thought to be transmitted in the gametes配子(germ cells) in an unchanged form from generation to generation. The germ plasm was believed to be unaffected by the environment and to give rise to the body cells.
希波克拉底(希腊文 英文Hippocrates of Cos II 或者 Hippokrates of 希波克拉底 希腊文Ἱπποκράτης 英文 希腊文 Kos，约前460——前377) ，约前 前 被西方尊为“医学之父”的古希腊著名医生，欧洲医学奠基人， 被西方尊为“医学之父”的古希腊著名医生，欧洲医学奠基人，古希 希腊著名医生 医学奠基人 腊医师，西方医学奠基人。提出“体液 学说” 腊医师，西方医学奠基人。提出“体液(humours)学说”，认为人体由血液 医学奠基人 学说 (blood)、粘液(phlegm)、黄胆 、粘液 和黑胆(black bile)四种体液组成， 四种体液组成， 、黄胆(yellow bile)和黑胆 和黑胆 四种体液组成 这四种体液的不同配合使人们有不同的体质。 这四种体液的不同配合使人们有不同的体质。他把疾病看作是发展着的现 象，认为医师所应医治的不仅是病而是病人；从而改变了当时医学中以巫 认为医师所应医治的不仅是病而是病人； 术和宗教为根据的观念。主张在治疗上注意病人的个性特征、 术和宗教为根据的观念。主张在治疗上注意病人的个性特征、环境因素和 生活方式对患病的影响。重视卫生饮食疗法，但也不忽视药物治疗， 生活方式对患病的影响。重视卫生饮食疗法，但也不忽视药物治疗，尤其 注意对症治疗和预后。他对骨骼、关节、肌肉等都很有研究。 注意对症治疗和预后。他对骨骼、关节、肌肉等都很有研究。他的医学观 点对以后西方医学的发展有巨大影响。 点对以后西方医学的发展有巨大影响。
2. Gregor Mendel and the birth of Genetics Gregor Mendel, an Augustinian monk in the monastery at Brunn, Austria, is known as the “father of genetics”. 孟德尔（公元1822～公元1884 ），一名奥 地利修道士，众所周知的遗传学之父
Based on experiments with mice, Weismann proposed that hereditary information in gametes transmitted traits to progeny. 基于小鼠实验，维丝曼提出遗传信息储存 在配子中并将遗传信息传递给后代。
dihybrid cross: 双因子杂种杂交 AaBb*AaBb test cross：测交 F1*aa 确定F1是纯合 子还是杂合子 a cross between a heterozygote(异质结 合体) of unknown genotype and an individual homozygous(同型的) for the recessive genes in question
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
Incomplete dominance:不完全显性 the condition in which two allelic genes have a different effect when they are together as a heterozygote in a diploid cell than either of them have in the homozygous state. Codominance:共显性 杂合体中一对等位基因的作用都表现
Having been exposed to theories of the particulate nature of matter while a university student and having a background in mathematics, Mendel carried out a series of carefully planned experiments that demonstrated the particulate nature of heredity. 当他还是大学生时就提出了物质的粒子 属性理论，同时他学习数学。孟德尔进 行了一系列周密安排的实验来证实遗传 的颗粒性。
种质学说： 德国生物学家A.魏斯曼1892年提出的有关遗传物质的 学说，认为多细胞的生物体可截然地区分为种质和体 质两部分。种质是亲代传递给后代的遗传物质，存留 在生殖细胞的染色体上,种质可以发育为新个体的体 质,但有一部分仍保持原来的状态作为后代发育的基 础，体质可以通过生长和发育而形成为新个体的各个 组织和器官，但它不能产生种质。体质受环境影响而 获得的变异性状也不能遗传给后代。体质随个体死亡 而消失；只有种质才能世代传递，连续不绝。所以这 一学说又称为种质连续学说。为后来T.H.摩尔根开创 的细胞遗传学和对遗传物质的深入探索奠定了理论基 础。
Punnett square:庞纳特方格 a method used to determine the probabilities of combination in a zygote(受精卵)
Text 1. early theories of inheritance early ideas of inheritance included Hippocrates’ theory of pangenesis and August Weismann’s germ plasm theory. 遗传学的早期理论包括Hippocrates的泛 生说和A.Weismann的种质学说。
Law of independent assortment:独立分配 定律 members of one gene pair will separate from each other independently of the members of other gene pairs.
Law of segregation:分离定律 when gametes are formed by a diploid organism, the alleles that control a trait(特征) separate from one another into different gametes, retaining their individuality(个性,个体 状态)
August Weismann，(1834～1914) ， ～ 德国动物学家 。1834 年1月17日生于法兰克福 ，1914年11月5日 月 日生于法兰克福 年 月 日 卒于弗赖堡 。1856年入格丁根大学学医 。先后在巴登和奥地利当过军 年入格丁根大学学医 医和私人开业医生。 年在吉森大学从师于德国动物学家K.G.洛伊 医和私人开业医生。1861年在吉森大学从师于德国动物学家 年在吉森大学从师于德国动物学家 洛伊 卡尔特，学习动物发生学及形态学， 卡尔特，学习动物发生学及形态学，1863年完成了关于双翅目昆虫变 年完成了关于双翅目昆虫变 态的论文。 年担任弗赖堡大学医学系动物学和比较解剖学副教授， 态的论文。1866年担任弗赖堡大学医学系动物学和比较解剖学副教授， 年担任弗赖堡大学医学系动物学和比较解剖学副教授 1868年在该校创办动物研究所，任第一任所长，1871年升任教授。60 年在该校创办动物研究所，任第一任所长， 年升任教授。 年在该校创办动物研究所 年升任教授 年代中期以后因眼疾不得不终止显微镜下的研究而转向遗传、 年代中期以后因眼疾不得不终止显微镜下的研究而转向遗传、发生和 进化问题的理论探讨。 直至1912年退休。 年退休。 进化问题的理论探讨。他讲授达尔文进化论多年 ，直至 年退休
Both of these views incorporated the blending theory: they held that heritable traits of the two parents blend, so that the distinct characteristics of each are lost in offspring. 这两个早期观点合起来形成融合理论： 子代拥有父母本混合的遗传特征，而不 完全象亲代。
Foundations of Genetics （遗传学的建立）
Allele:等位基因 alternative forms of a gene for a particular characteristic (e.g. attached earlobe(耳垂) genes and free earlobe genes are alternative alleles for ear shape) nonallelic genes:非等位基因 非等位基因
Nondisjunction:不分离 不分离 the failure of separation of paired chromosomes at metaphase, resulting in one daughter receiving both and the other daughter cell none of the chromosomes in question. Nondisjunction can occur during a meiotic or mitotic division.