英语语言学名词解释总结
语言学名词解释
语言学名词解释语言学是研究语言的一门学科，涉及语言的结构、功能、变化和发展等方面的研究。
下面是一些常见的语言学名词及其解释。
1. 语音学（Phonetics）：研究语言中各种语音的产生、传播和感知等方面的学科。
2. 语音语言学（Phonology）：研究语音在特定语言中的音位（音素）和音位组合规则的学科。
3. 语法学（Grammar）：研究语言的句法结构、词法结构和语义结构等方面的学科。
4. 句法学（Syntax）：研究语言中句子的结构和组织方式的学科。
5. 语义学（Semantics）：研究语言中词汇和句子的意义、概念和关系的学科。
6. 词汇学（Lexicology）：研究语言中词汇的组成、形态、构词规则等方面的学科。
7. 词义学（Semantics）：研究词汇中词义的构成、关系和词义的变化等方面的学科。
8. 语用学（Pragmatics）：研究语言在具体语境中的使用方式以及语言的上下文相关性等方面的学科。
9. 文法学（Stylistics）：研究语言使用中的文体、修辞手法、语言风格等方面的学科。
10. 母语（Mother tongue）：一个人从小学会并用于日常交际的语言。
11. 第二语言（Second language）：在学习者的母语之外学习的语言。
12. 语言接触（Language contact）：不同语言之间在社会、文化接触中产生的相互影响和借用的现象。
13. 语言变异（Language variation）：指同一个语言在不同社会、地理和使用者间发生的音、词、句法等方面的变化。
14. 语言变化（Language change）：指语言在漫长的时间内逐渐变化和发展的过程。
15. 语言规范（Language standardization）：制定和规范一个语言的正确用法、标准词汇和语法规则的过程。
16. 语言习得（Language acquisition）：指儿童在自然环境中学习母语的过程。
英语 语言学 名词解释
名词解释nguage: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.Design features of language(语言的区别性特征) :i.Arbitrariness:the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to theirmeaning=language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a word(e.g.pen) and the object it refers to .ii.Duality:the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level. By duality we mean that language system has two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meanings.指拥有两层结构的这种特性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分。
指语言是声音和意义双重结构组成的系统。
举例：Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences> texts/discoursesiii.Productivity： Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality .语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences）iv.Displacement：Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication.v.Cultural transmission: language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.3.Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It is a scientific study because it is based on thesystematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.4.Psycholinguistics: It is the study of how language is acquired, understood and produced.ngue:F. de Saussure. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all themembers of a speech community.语言指语言系统的整体，这个整体相对是比较稳定的。
语言学名词解释
一、名词解释1.Diachronic历时的It refers to say of the study of developing of language and languages over time.研究语言随时间发展变化的方法。
2.Arbitrariness任意性Saussure first refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表达的意义之间没有天然或逻辑的联系。
It is refers to absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.任意性是指语言符号和这些符号所指的实体间不存在任何物质的联系。
3.Parole言语It refers to the concrete utterances of a speaker.指语言在实际使用中的实现。
4.Creativity创造性By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness, which enables human beings to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences including the sentences that were never heard before.创造性是指语言具有能产型，因为语言有双重性和递归性,也就是说话者能够结合各个语言单位形成无尽的句子，其中很多句子是以前没有的或者没有听说过的。
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结归纳
英语语言学一、名词解释第一课1.Synchronic共时性: S aid of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time.\ A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.ngue语言: The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.4.Arbitrariness任意性:One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.第二课1.Phoneme音位:2.Allophone音位变体:3.Minimal pair最小对立体:第三课1.Morphology形态学:which words are formed.2.Derivational morphemes class of words are called…3.Inflectional morphemes第四课1.Syntax语法句法:classes,4.Surface to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from第五课1.Reference指称: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2.Homonymy同音异义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.3.Hyponymy 上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.第六课1.Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2.Utterance话语: a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.3.Utterance meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstractmeaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4.Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1．What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?Phonetics: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication. It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties.Phonology:It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language.Morphology: A field of linguistics focused on the study of the forms and formation of words in a language Syntax: A set of rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences.Pragmatics: the study of the use of language in a social context.2．language?The important characteristicssystematic, arbitrary and vocalFirst of all,language in a wrong way.3．1) Arbitrariness:2)Productivity:provides and forunderstanding novel messages.3) Duality:4)5)第二课1.语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics — description of all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology — description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences inmeaning.2. What is phone? How is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?Phone is a phonetic unit, it has no meaning.Phoneme is a phonological unit with distinctive value .The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/l/,which are allophones of the phoneme /l/Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.第三课1. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Suffix: -ingMeaning: denoting a verbal action, an instance of this, or its resultStem type: added to verbsExamples: fighting: denote the action of battlebuilding: denote the action of constructionSuffix: -ableMeaning: able to beStem type: added to verbsExamples: avoidable: able to be prevented fromSuffix: -ist2. Think of three morpheme be1)prefix: un-meaning:once more; afresh; anewstem type: added to verbsexamples: restart: start once morereaccustom: accustom (someone) to something again第五课1. What are the major types of synonyms in English?并举例1)dialectal synonyms-----synonyms used in different regional2)Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning4)Collocational synonyms: what words they go together with5)Semantically different synonyms: differ from the words themselves2. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. When tow words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. The examples are as followed:Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceHomographs: bow v./bow n. tear v./tear n.Complete homonyms: fast adj./fast v.Polysemy: while different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. The1.2.3.4.5.6.Hyponymyare called its hyponyms. For example,第六课答：way to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development andand 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics.traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in thattakes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, tothe truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type答：Make your conversational(1) The maxim of quantity①②(2) The maxim of quality①②(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.①②③④(】。
英语语言学名词解释总结
Chapter 6 SemanticsSemantics: it is generally defined as the study of inherence or intrinsic meaning, the meaning in isolation from the context.The naming theory:命名论it is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning proposed by Plato, which holds the view that the relationship between linguistic forms and what they stand for is one of naming. Its defaults: firstly, the theory seems applicable to nouns only. Secondly, even within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world at all or things that do not refer to physical objects, but abstract notions. Finally, some words may have different meanings in different contexts while the same reference may have different names such as “the morning star” and “the evening star”The conceptualist theory: 意念论C. K .Ogden Richard created the semantic triangle to show the indirect relationship between symbols and their supposed referents.Symbol: it refers to the linguistic elements such as word or sentence.Referent: it refers to the object in the world of experience.Context: it refers to what comes before and after a word, phrase, statement, etc. helping to fix the meaning; or refers to circumstances in which an event occurs. Contextualism :情境论、语境论John FirthSituational context: it refers to the particular spatiotemporal situation in which an utterance occurs, the main components of which include, apart from the place and time of the utterance, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are performing at the time, the various objects and events exists in the situation.The linguistic context: sometimes known as context, it includes a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of a word, and, also the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance. For example, the meaning of the word “paper” differs in the two collocations of “a piece of paper” and“a white paper”。
英语语言学常见名词解释
英语语言学常见名词解释1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like ―book‖) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different ―books‖: ―book‖ in English, ―livre‖ in French, ―shu‖ in Chinese. It is symbolic, because word s are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term ―human‖ in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.2. What are design features of language?“Design features‖ here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability3. What is arbitrariness?By ―arbitrariness‖, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like ―bang‖, ―crash‖, ―roar‖, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. ―Type‖ and ―write‖ are opaque or unmotivated words, while ―type-writer‖ is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So w e can say ―arbitrariness‖ is a matter of degree.4. What is duality?Linguists refer ―duality‖ (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al., language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language.A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality.5. What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one‘s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard ―A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon‖, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes out side the language, thus also called ―rule-bound creativity‖ (by N.Chomsky).6.What is displacement?“Displacement‖, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn‘t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be l ost. The bee‘s system, nonetheless, has a small share of ―displacement‖, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it ―language acquisition device‖, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog‘s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf‘s roaring ―tongue‖ when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.8. What is interchangeability?Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. Though some people suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable. Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot). When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are) ―speaking‖ and which listening.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human la nguage has six ―design features‖ which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them. Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught ―American sign Language‖, and learned a little that made the teachers happy butdid mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees. Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to do so.10. What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art . M .A. K. Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three ―Macro-Functions‖: ideational, interpersonal and textual.11. What is the phatic function?The ―phatic function‖ refers to language being used fo r setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts(rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. ―How are you?‖ ―Fine, thanks.‖) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say ―Hello‖ to a friend you meet, or if you don‘t answer his ―Hi‖, you ruin your friendship.12. What is the directive function?The ―directive function‖ means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., ―Tell me the result when you finish.‖ Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austin and J. S earle‘s ―Indirect speech act theory‖ at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., ―If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!‖13. What is the informative function?Language serves an ―informational function‖ when used to tell so mething, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P. Grice‘s ―Cooperative Principle‖, one ought not to violate the ―Maxim of Quality‖, when he is informi ng at all.14. What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an ―interrogative function‖. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the ―indirect speech act the ory‖, may have this function as well, e.g., ―I‘d like to know you better.‖ This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader‘s/listener‘s answer.15. What is the expressive function?The ―expressive function‖ is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like ―Good heavens!‖ ―My God!‖ Sentences like ―I‘m sorry about the delay‖ can serve as good examples too,though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or a sserts the speaker‘s own attitudes.16. What is the evocative function?The ―evocative function‖ is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes(not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That‘s also the case with the other way round.17. What is the performative function?This means peopl e speak to ―do things‖ or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. The judge‘s imprisonment sentence, the president‘s war or independence declaratio n, etc., are performatives.18. What is linguistics?“Linguistics‖ is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities.19. What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic ―stone‖ unturned. Consistency means there should be no contra diction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.20. What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, psycholinguistics etc.21. What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled ―On the Use of THE‖, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration.22. What is speech and what is writing?No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional, while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.23. What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is ―descriptive‖ if it only describes and analyses the f acts of language, and ―prescriptive‖ if it tries to lay down rules for ―correct‖ language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were base d on ―high‖ (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.24. What is the difference between langue and parole?F. de Saussure refers ―langue‖ to the abstract linguist ic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers ―parole‖ to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.25. What is the difference between competence and performance?According to N. Chomsky, ―competence‖ is the ideal language user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language, and ―performance‖ is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker‘s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker‘s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language. Chomsky‘s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure‘s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.26. What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behaviour?These two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M. A. K. Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his ―actual linguistic behavior‖) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).27. In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different. Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker‘s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is in visible but reliable abstract system. Competence means ―knowing‖, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for ―doing‖ or ―performing actions‖. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.28. What is phonetics?“Phonetics‖ is the science which studi es the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research fro m the hearer‘s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by theear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulatory phonetics.29. How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.30. What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved, e.g. lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) ]; (4) alveolar:[t, d, l, n, s, z]; (5)T, Plabiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental:[ retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar:[ ]; (7) palatal:[j]; (8) velar[ k, g]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal:[h]. Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and that two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed ―labial-velar‖.31. What is the manner of articulation?The ―manner of articulation‖ literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstream may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive:[p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal:[m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap;(5) lateral:[l]; (6) fricative:[f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant:[w, j]; (8) affricate:[ ].32. What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of ―International Phonetic Alphabet‖, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.33. What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinct ion between ―narrow‖ and ―broad‖ transcriptions, which he called ―Narrow Romic‖. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.34. What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?“Phonology‖ is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist. Phonetics is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they areconceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign ―accent‖, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one‘s language.35. What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?A ―phone‖ is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced: [pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different [p]s, readily making pos sible the ―narrow transcription or diacritics‖. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A ―phoneme‖ is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit]. The phones representing a phoneme are called its ―allophones‖, i.e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different [p] s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme [p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.36. What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two forms (i. e., word) are supposed to form a ―minimal pair‖, e.g., ―pill‖ and ―bill‖, ―pill‖ and ―till‖, ―till‖ and ―dill‖, ―till‖ and ―kill‖, etc. All the se words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language.37. What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in ―free variation”. The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.38. What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never oc cur in the same environment, they are in ―complementary distribution‖. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after [s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of [l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear [l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of [l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words ―please‖, ―butler‖, ―clear‖, etc., and t he dark [l] occurs only after a vowel or as asyllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words ―feel‖, ―help‖, ―middle‖, etc.39. What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?The ―assimilation rule‖ assimilates one segment to another by―copying‖ a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal [n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix ―in-― serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], [i] or [im] when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ] (alveolar) inconceivable-[ ](velar) input-[‗imput] (bilabial)The ―deletion rule‖ tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter ―g‖ is mute in ―sign‖, ―design‖ and ―paradigm‖, it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: ―signature‖, ―designation‖ and ―paradigmatic‖. The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling.40. What is suprasegmental phonology? What are suprasegmental features?“Suprasegmental phonology‖ refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, length and pitch, stress, intonation.41. What is morphology?“Morphology‖ is the br anch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology.42. What is inflection/inflexion?“Inflection‖ is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.43. What is a morpheme? What is an allomorph?The ―morpheme‖ is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. The word ―boxes‖, for example, has two morphemes: ―box‖ and ―-es‖, neither of which permits further division or analysis if we don‘t wish to sacrifice meaning. Therefore a morpheme is considered the minimal unit of meaning. Allomorphs, like allophones vs. phones, are the alternate shapes (and thus phonetic forms) of the same morphemes. Some morphemes, though, have no more than one invariable form in all contexts, such as ―dog‖, ―cat‖, etc. The variants of the plurality ―-s‖ make the allomorphs thereof in the following exa mples: map-maps, mouse-mice, sheep-sheep etc.44. What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?A ―free morpheme‖ is a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself, such as ‗bed‖, ―tree‖, etc. A ―bound morpheme‖ is one that appears with at least another morpheme, such as ―-s‖ in ―beds‖,。
英语语言学名词解释
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六 语用学
1 pragmatics（语用学）: Pragmatics can be defined as the studyห้องสมุดไป่ตู้of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
现代语言学
一 绪论
1 Linguisitics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language
2 Phonetics（语音） : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants
8 hyponymy（上下义） : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
9 componential analysis（成分分析） : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.
英语语言学名词解释
英语语言学名词解释
英语语言学是语言学中的一个分支，研究英语的语言结构、语音、语法、语义、语用和历史演变等方面。
以下是一些英语语言学的名词解释：
1. Phonetics（音韵学）：研究语音、发音和声音的学科。
它包括语音学和音系学。
2. Phonology（音系学）：研究语音在语言中的系统性组织和规律性变化的学科。
3. Morphology（形态学）：研究词形变化和词构成的学科。
4. Syntax（句法学）：研究句子结构和语法规则的学科。
5. Semantics（语义学）：研究语言意义的学科，包括词义和句子意义。
6. Pragmatics（语用学）：研究语言在实际使用中的含义和功能的学科。
7. Discourse analysis（语篇分析）：研究语言在实际使用中的连贯性和语篇结构的学科。
8. Historical linguistics（历史语言学）：研究语言的演变和变化的学科。
9. Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：研究语言和社会、文化、地理和历史等因素之间的关系的学科。
10. Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）：研究语言和心理过程之间的关系的学科，包括语言习得、记忆和理解等。
以上是一些常见的英语语言学名词解释，它们涵盖了英语语言学的主要领域和分支。
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Chapter 6 SemanticsSemantics:it is generally defined as the study of inherence or intrinsic meaning, the meaning in isolation from the context.The naming theory:命名论 it is One Of the oldest notiOnS COnCeming meaning proposed by Plato, which holds the view that the relationship betweenlinguistic forms and what they stand fOr is One Of naming. Its defaults: firstly, the theOry seems appliCable tO nOuns Only. SeCOndly, even within the CategOry Of nOuns, there are nOuns whiCh denOte things that dO nOt exist in the real wOrld at all Or things that dO nOt refer tO physiCal ObjeCts, but abstraCt nOtiOns. Finally, sOme wOrds may have different meanings in different COntexts wh ile the same referenCe may have different names suCh as“the mOrning star”and “the evening star”The conceptualist theory : 意念论 C. K .Ogden RiChard Created the semantic triangle tO shOw the indireCt relatiOnship between symbOls and their suppOsed referents.Symbol: it refers tO the linguistiC elements suCh as wOrd Or sentenCe. Referent: it refers tO the ObjeCt in the wOrld Of experienCe.Context: it refers tO what COmes befOre and after a wOrd, phrase, statement, etC. helping tO fix the meaning; Or refers tO CirCumstanCes in whiCh an event OCCurs. Contextualism : 情境论、语境论 JOhn FirthSituational context: it refers tO the partiCular spatiOtempOral situatiOn in whiCh an utteranCe OCCurs, the main COmpOnents Of whiCh inClude, apart frOm the plaCe and time Of the utteranCe, the speaker and the hearer, the aCtiOns they are perfOrming at the time, the variOus ObjeCts and events exists in the situatiOn.The linguistiC COntext: sOmetimes knOwn as COntext, it inCludes a wOrd's CO-OCCurrenCe Or COllOCatiOn with anOther wOrd, whiCh fOrms part Ofthe“meaning” Of a wOrd, and, alsO the part Of text that preCedes and fOllOws a partiCular utteranCe. FOr example, the meaning Of the wOrd “paper”differs in the twO COllOCatiOns Of “a pieCe of PaPer ”an d“a White paper”。
Lin guistic con text also in CIUdeS the Part of text that preCedes and fOllOws a partiCular utteranCe.Bloomfiled defined the meaning of a language form as th“e situationin which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hear”er Behaviorism :行为主义 it is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively observable behavior and discount mental activities. Sense: 意义 it is the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.Reference: 所指 it is what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world. DiaIeCtal SynOnymS方言同义词 they are the SynOnymS USed in different regional dialects such aslift in British English and elevator in American English .StyIiStiC SynOnyms:语体同义词they are the SynOnymS differing in style , or degree of formality , sUch as gentleman/gUy.AffeCtiVe SynOnymS 情感同义词 they are the SynOnymS that bear the Same meaning bUt expreSS different emotionS of the USer, indicating the attitUdeS or biaSof the USer toward what he iS talking aboUt ,SUchaSlike/love/admire/adore/worShip.COllOCatiOnal SynOnym S: 用于不同搭配的同义词 they are the SynonymS differingin their collocations, such asa dole to the unemployment /an offering to the church. Semantically different synonyms:they are the synonyms differingslightly in what they mean, such asescape/flee.Polysemy :多义关系 it is a term used in semantic analysis to refer to alexical item which has more than one meaning.Radiation : 辐射性 it is the semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the center and the secondary meaning radiates out of it. Concatenation :连锁型 it is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its primary meaning in successionso that the present meaning seems to have no connection to the primary meaning. Homonymy:同音、同形异义词the Phenomenon that different words may be identical in sound or spelling or in both is called homonymy.Homographs: 同形异义 they are the words which haPPen to be the same in sPelling, but differ both in sounds and meaning.HOmOPhOneS同音异义 they are the words WhiCh happen to be identical in sound, but differ both in sPelling and meaning.Complete homonyms同音、同形异义 they are the words WhiCh happen to beidentical both in sound and spelling, but differ in meaning.Hyponymy: it refers to the senserelation between a more general, moreinclusive word and a more specific word. It is concerned with semantic inclusion.SUPerOrdinate上座标词 it refers to the word WhiCh is more general inmeaning . Hyponym : 下义词 it refers to the more specific word.Co-hyponym: it refers to hyponym of the same superordinate.GradabIe antonyms:可分等级反义词 they are the antonyms WhiCh differ in termsof degree.Complementary antonyms 互补反义词 they are non-gradable antonyms WhiCh are semantiCally Complementary to eaCh other, therefore, they do not permit degrees of Contrast.COnVerSe antonyms逆反反义词 they are the antonyms WhiCh are interdependent, showing the reversal of a relationship between two entities.4 Sentence meaningSentence meaning:A sentenCe meaning is abstraCt, Context-independent inContrast to utteranCe meaning WhiCh is ConCrete and Context-dependent. Entailment（包含关系）:Entailment is basically a Semantic relation （orlogical impliCation ）. It refers to something that logiCally folloWs What is assertedin the utteranCe.Presuppositiort预设关系）：A PreSUPPOSition in Semantics refers to What is assumed by the speaker and \or assumed by him to be knoWn to the hearer before he makes the utteranCe. In a broader sense, presupposition Can be defined in ordinary language as any kind of baCkground assumption against WhiCh an aCtion, theory, expression or utteranCe makes sense or is rational.5 Analysis of MeaningComponential analysis -- a way to analyze lexical meaningThe Word man Can be analyzed in to a series of semantiC features suCh as[+MAN,+ADULT, +MAN] （+means the presence of a feature while- means the absence of a feature）. COmPOnential analysis （成分分析法）：It is a Way proposed by StruCtural semanticists to analyze word meaning, based on the belief that the meaning of a word Can be analyzed I to a series of meaning Components or semantiC features. Contrasts are usually presented in terms of +or -. These feature symbols are usually Written in Capitalized letters. PredicatiOn analysis 述（谓结构分析法） a way tO analyze sentence meaningPrediCatiO n （述谓结构）：It is the abstract ion Of the meaning Of a Senten ce.ArgUment（论元变元）:An argument is a logical PartiCiPant in a PrediCation, Iargely identical With the nominal element（ s） in a sentence.PrediCate谓词）:A PrediCate is SOmething Said about an argument or it StateS the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.ChaPter7PragmatiCS 语用学PragmatiCs studies the meaning of Words in Context, analyzing the Parts of meaning that Can be exPlained by knoWledge of the PhysiCal and soCial World, and the soCio-PsyChologiCal faCtors influenCing CommuniCation, as Well as the knoWledge of the time and PlaCe in WhiCh the Words are uttered or Written.COntextSituational COnteXt情景语境）:It is What SPeakerSknow about What they Can See around them. LinguistiC COntex:t It iS What haS been Said before in the ConverSation, the “hiStory”of thingS Said So far.Social COnteXt社会语境）:It is the gen erally kno WIedge that most people Carry With them in their mindS, about areaS of life and SPeCifiC and PoSSibility Private knoWledge about the history of the sPeakers themselves.EntailmentEntailment: An entailment is something that logiCally folloWs from What is asserted in an utteranCe.PresuPPOsitiOnPresuPPosition: PresuPPositions are imPliCations that are often felt to be in the baCkground—to be assumed by the sPeaker to be already knoWn to the addressee.1：言内行为LOCutiOnary ACtIt is the basiC and PhysiCal aCt of utteranCe, or ProduCing a meaningful linguistiC exPression. This aCt is ConCerned With the literal meaning.2： .言外行为IllOCutiOnary ACtThis aCt involves the sPeCifiC PurPose or real intension that the sPeakers have in mind. 3： .言后行为PerlOCutiOnary ACtIt is the aCt of an utteranCe on the hearer; it is the hearer reaCtion.4：.会话含义COnversatiOnal imPliCaturesACCording to P.GriCe, it refers to the extra meaning not Contained in the utteranCe,understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker ' s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CP.5：礼貌原则Politeness principleIt is series of maxims, proposed by Geoffrey Leech as a way of explaining how politenessop aerates in conversational exchanges. Leech defines politeness as forms of behavior thatestablish and maintain comity. That is the ability of participants in a social interactionto engage in interaction in an atmosphere of relative harmony. 6:: 合作原则CooperativePrincipleIt 'psroposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that theparticipants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not bepossible for them to carry on the talk.合作原则的准则4Maxim of Cooperative Principle 数量the maxim of Quantity 你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求Make your contribution as informative as required;Do not make your contribution more informative than is required 质量the maxim of Quality ---------- 不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话Do not say what you believe to false.Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence 关系the maxim of relation 使你的话与话题相关be relevant方式the maxim of manner --- 避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity;Be brief/be orderly.Chapter8:.言语社区Speech CommunityIt refers to a group of people who form a community and share at least one speech varietyas well as similar linguistic norms.LangUage VarietieS （语言变体）：Variety is a gen eric term for a PartiCuIar COhere ntform of language in which specific extra linguistic criteria can be used to define it as avariety.RegiSter （语域）：it is the SitUatiOnal USe of Ianguage, a Variety USed for a PartiCUIar PurPose or in a ParticuIar setting.DiaIeCt： it refers to any regionaI, soCiaI or ethniC variety of a IangUage.RegionaI diaIeCt： it refers to the IangUage variety Used in a geograPhiCaI region..ReCeiVed PrOnUnCiatiOn （标准发音）：ReCeiVed PrOnUnCiation is the SUPPOSed aCCePtabIe standardized PronUnCiation of the middIe 2t0h CentUry .It is a non-IoCaIized aCCent, whiCh enjoyS high PreStige and haS beCome a marker of UPPer CIaSS.SOCiOleC：t it referS to the IingUiStiC Variety CharaCteriStiC of a PartiCUIar SoCiaI CIaSS.It 's also called social dialect.Genderlect: it is a variety of speech or conversational used by a particular gender.Hedges: hedges are the words whose meaning implicitly involves fuzziness and whose job is to make things fuzzier or less fuzzy.Fillers: fillers are those words or phrases that we put into speeches to fill the gaps when we're nervous or when we are at a loss for words, like um, ay'know, or sooooooAge dialect: the varieties of language according to age are called age dialect. Agedialect is not a distinct entity. In talking about age dialect, we are talking about the correlation between the use of certain linguistic forms and age groups. In that sense, age dialect is a matter of proportion.Ethnic dialect: it is a dialect used by a racial or national group. It is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experience some form of social isolation such as racial to discrimination or segregation.Standard dialect （标准方言）：it is a superimposed, socially PreStigiOuS dialect Of a language that has been given either legal or quasi-legal status. It is the language employed by the government and used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school setting where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.RegiSter （语域）：it refers to VarietieS according to the USe of Ianguage.Field（语场）:it refers to What is going on and to the area of OPerati on of the Ian guage activity.TenOr（语旨）:it refers to the relati ons betwee n the PartiCiPa nts.Mode： it refers to the means of communication.Pidgin （洋泾浜语）：it refers to a con tact la nguage that arises in SitUatiO ns Where sPeakers of different languages cannot understand each oth'serfirst language or native language and, thus, need to develoP a common means of communication.PidginizatiOn: i t is a Process which generally involves the simPlification of a language in order to create a Pidgin.Creoles （克利奥尔语）：Creoles are former Pidgins whose functional and grammatical limitations and si mplification have been eliminated and which now function as fully fledged, standardi zed native languages.Creolization: The process whereby a pidgin turns into a Creole is called creolisation. It involves the expansion of linguistic system of a pidgin and the increase in the numb er of its functions in daily communication.LingUa FranCe (通用语): A lingua franca is defined as a language which is used habitually by people wh ose mother tongues are different in order to facilitate communication between them.Chapter9DisCoUrse CommUnitie:s The common ways in which members of a social group use language to meet their social needs.IingUiStiC determinism语言决定论：It POSitS that language determines the Way We think, or in other words, we actually live in language instead of other way roundiCon: image, Picture Or rePreSentatiOn.Sign: a linguiStic unit; it uniteS a cOncePt and a SOund-image.Metaphor: a device fOr Seeing SOmething in termS Of SOmething elSe.DisCoUrse: ThiS term, With a caPital D, cOined by linguiSt JameS Gee, referS tO WayS Of SPeaking, reading and Writing, but alSO Of behaving, interacting, thinking, valuing, that are characteriStic Of SPecific diScOurSe cOmmunitieS.disCoUrse:The PrOceSS Of language uSe, Whether it be SPOken, Written Or Printed, that includeS WriterS, textS, and readerS Within a SOciOcultural cOntext Of meaning PrOductiOn and recePtiOn.Charades： CharadeS iS a fun game tO Play With yOur friendS and family at hOme, at PartieSOr On camPing triPS! CharadeS are baSically WOrdS Or PhraSeS that are acted Out in PantOmime (WithOut Saying any WOrdS Or making any SOundS). CharadeS can alSO have SubjectS like the title Of a bOOk, mOvie Or ShOW that iS acted Out. CharadeS are uSually Played With tWO teamS. Each team draWS cardS that have the WOrd Or PhraSe they are gOing tO act Out. The Other team trieS tO gueSS What iS being acted Out.StereOtyPe刻板印象：COnVentionalized WayS of talking and thinking about other PeOPle and cultureS.ChaPter10The father of Behaviorism: John B. Watson “ give me a child, and I 'll make himanything you want him to be ”Behaviorism: It is described as a developmental theory that measures observable behaviors produced by a learner 're s ponseto stimuli. Responsesto stimuli can be reinforced with positive or negative feedback to condition desired behaviors. The behaviorist theory is a psychological model defining behavior as something that is conditioned or instilled. It states that humans are products of their environments and all behaviors are positively reinforced, negatively reinfrced,or published.Innatism: It is a philosophical doctrine that holds that the mind is born withideas/knowledge, and that therefore the mind is not a“blank slate ” at birth, as early empiricists such as John Locke claimed. It asserts therefore that not all knowledge is obtained from experience and the senses.InteraCtiOniSm（互动主义）:lt is micro-sociological and believes that meaning is produced through the interactions of individuals. The social interaction is a face-to-face processconsisting of actions, reactions, and mutual adaptation between two or more individuals. The interaction includes all languages （including body language） and mannerism.Interlanguage: lt is the learner's developing second language knowledge. lt may have characteristics of the learner's native language, characteristics of the second language, and some characteristics which seem to be very general and tend to occur in all or most interlanguage systems. lnterlanguages are systematic, but they are also dynamic, continually evolving as learners receive more input and revise their hypotheses about the second language. L2 learners process through an interlanguage, which is an independent knowledge of L1 and L2 system.ACquiSitiOn: lt is the process of taking in information without making conscious effort. Learning: lt is the process of taking in information with conscious effort and attention to the task in hand.COmpetenCe:lt refers to a speaker's knowledge of his language as manifest in his ability to produce and to understand a theoretically infinite number of sentences most of which hemay have never seen or heard before.PerfOrmanCe: lt refers to the specific utterances, including grammatical mistakes and non-linguistic features like hesitations, accompanying the use of language.UniverSal grammar: Universal grammar is a theory of linguistics postulating principles of grammar shared by all languages, thought to be innate to humans. lt attempts to explain language acquisition in general, not describe specific languages. LangUage transfer（语言迁移）:It refers to SPeakerSOr WriterS applying knoWIedge from their native language to a second language. lt is most commonly discussed in the context of English language learning and teaching, but it can occur in any situation When someone does not have a native-level command of a language, as When translating into a second language.COmPrehenSibIe input（可理解性输入）:It means that StUdents should be able to understand the essence of What is being said or presented to them.CritiCal PeriOd HyPOtheSiS（关键期假设）:The CritiCal PeriOd hypothesis ClaimS that there is an ideal “window”of time to acquire language in a linguistically rich environment, after whiCh this is no longer possible. It is generally assumed that there are different CritiCal periods for different parts of language, e.g. phonology and syntax and that not for all parts of language there is a CritiCal period.。