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英美概况复习此为大学英语专业考试内容，下文含翻译。

USAI. Geography1. Geographic Features1.1 The Eastern HighlandsFormed by the Appalachian Range.?1. An average elevation of 800 meters above the sea level.?2. The highest peak:? Mount Mitchell (1856 m)：the highest peak of the Appalachian Range ?3. East: the narrow Atlantic Coast plain1.2 The Central Plains1. Vast plains between the Appalachian Mountains and the Rocky Mountains?2. Drained by the Mississippi River and its tributaries?3. Usually divided into two regions:?1) the Great Plains in the west: vast treeless prairies in the west and agricultural areas in the east?2) the Central Lowland in the east: from the five Great Lakes to central Texas1.3 The Western MountainsHigh plateaus and mountainous country?1. The Rocky Mountains: over 3,000 meters above the sea level?The continental divide of the United States ?2. West of the Rockies:? the Columbia Plateau in the north ?the Colorado Plateau in the southGrand Canyon,the Great Basin in between?The Pacific Mountain System consists of three regions: The Cascade Range, the Sierra-Nevada, and the Pacific Coast Range.?The Sierras contain Mount Whitney (4421m), the highest peak in the US outside Alaska.?Death Valley in eastern California, 85 meters below sea level2. ClimateThe United States has a large size and a wide range of geographic features. Every type of climate is represented in the country: The climate is temperate in most areas, tropical in Hawaii and southern Florida, polar in Alaska, semi-arid in the Great Plains west of the 100th meridian, desert in the Southwest, Mediterranean in Coastal California, arid in the Great Basin?Extreme weather is common: the states bordering the Gulf of Mexico are prone to hurricanes, and most of the world's tornadoes occur within the continental United States, primarily in the Midwest.3. RiversThe Mississippi River (Great River, Big River in Indian language) is 3,770 km long: the second longest river in the United States. It originates from Minnesota and empties into the Gulf of Mexico.?The Missouri River is 4,090 km long. It is the longest river (longest branch of the Mississippi). It is a Mississippi tributary, flowing from the confluence of the Jefferson, Madison, and Gallatin and emptying into the Mississippi River.The length of the Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson combination is approximately 6,262 km?The Arkansas River (2,364 km) is the second longest tributary of the Mississippi River. The Ohio River is the largest Mississippi tributary measured by water volume.?The Yukon River is a major watercourse of northwestern North America. Rising in British Columbia, Canada, it runs 3,700 km long, emptying into the Bering Sea.5 great lakesII． American History1. Where did the first Americans come from and why did they migrate to America?Book P 4-52. American Civil warThe American Civil War (1861–1865), also known as the War Between the States, was a civil war in the United States of America. Eleven Southern slave states declared their secession from the U.S. and formed the Confederate States of America (the Confederacy). Led by Jefferson Davis, they fought against the U.S. federal government (the “Union”), which was supported by all the free states and the five border slave states.2.1 The CausesThe coexistence of a slave-owning South with an increasingly anti-slavery North made conflict likely. Lincoln did not propose federal laws against slavery where it already existed, but he had, in his 1858 House Divided Speech, expressed a desire to “arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction”. Much of the political battle in the 1850s focused on the expansion of slavery into the newly created territories. All of the organized territories were likely to become free-soil states, which increased the Southern movement toward secession. Both North and South assumed that if slavery could not expand it would wither and die.The coexistence of a slave-owning South with an increasingly anti-slaveryNorth made conflict likely. Lincoln did not propose federal laws against slavery where it already existed, but he had, in his 1858 House Divided Speech, expressed a desire to “arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction”. Much of the political battle in the 1850s focused on the expansion of slavery into the newly created territories. All of the organized territories were likely to become free-soil states, which increased the Southern movement toward secession. Both North and South assumed that if slavery could not expand it would wither and die. Southern fears of losing control of the federal government to antislavery forces, and Northern fears that the slave power already controlled the government, brought the crisis to a head in the late 1850s. Sectional disagreements over the morality of slavery, the scope of democracy and the economic merits of free labor vs. slave plantations caused the Whig and “Know-Nothing” parties to collapse, and new ones to arise (the Free Soil Party in 1848, the Republicans in 1854, the Constitutional Union in 1860). In 1860, the last remaining national political party, the Democratic Party, split along sectional lines.2.2 Factors Affecting the Process and ResultsWhat greatly affected the process as well as the result of the war were the differences between the South and the North in their strategies, geographical features, technology, and manpower and finance.2.2.1 StrategiesAs men poured into the armies, Northern and Southern leaders discussed strategies that would achieve victory.Northern armies would have to invade the Confederacy, destroy its capacity to wage war, and crush the will of the Southern people to resist. The Confederacy could win by prolonging the war to a point where the Northern people would consider the effort too costly in lives and money to persist.The South had a compelling example in the American Revolution of a seemingly weaker power defeating a much stronger one. If the North chose not to mount a military effort to coerce the seceded states back into the Union, the Confederacy would win independence by default.Lincoln and other Northern leaders, however, had no intention of letting the Southern states go without a fight. The most prominent American military figure in the spring of 1861 was Winfield Scott, the general-in-chief of the United States Army. With a brilliant mind, Scott conceived a long-range strategy to bring Northern victory. Scott’s plan sought to apply pressure on the Confederacy from all sides. A combined force of naval and army units would sweep down the Mississippi River, d ividing the Confederacy’s eastern and western states. At the same time, the Union navy would institute a blockade to deny the Confederacy access to European manufactured goods. Should the South continue to resist evenafter the loss of the Mississippi and the closing of its ports, Scott envisioned a major invasion into the heart of the Confederacy.2.2.2 GeographyGeography played a major role in how effectively the two sides were able to carry out their strategies.The sheer size of the Confederacy posed a daunting obstacle to Northern military forces. Totaling more than 1,940,000 km2 and without a well-developed network of roads, the Southern landscape challenged the North’s ability to supply armies that maneuvered at increasing distances from Union bases.It was also almost impossible to make the North’s blockade of Southern ports completely effective because the South’s coastline stretched 5600 km and contained nearly 200 harbors and mouths of navigable rivers.The Appalachian Mountains also hindered rapid movement of Northern forces between the eastern and western areas of the Confederacy while the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia offered a protected route through which Confederate armies could invade the North.The placement of Southern rivers, however, favored the North. The Mississippi, Tennessee, and Cumberland rivers provided excellent north-south avenues of advance for Union armies west of the Appalachians.2.2.3 TechnologyTechnological advances helped both sides deal with the great distances over which the armies fought. The Civil War was the first large conflict that featured railroads and the telegraph. Railroads rapidly moved hundreds of thousands of soldiers and vast quantities of supplies; the North contained almost twice as many miles of railroad lines as the South. Telegraphic communication permitted both governments to coordinate military movements on sprawling geographical fronts.The combatants also took advantage of numerous other recent advances in military technology. The most important was the rifle musket carried by most of the infantrymen on both sides. The rifle musket, with an effective range of 225 to 275 meters, allowed defenders to break up attacks long before they reached the defenders’ positions.Other new technologies included ironclad warships, which were used by both sides; the deployment of manned balloons for aerial reconnaissance on battlefields, used mainly by the North. The technology for all of these weapons had been present before the Civil War, but never before had armies applied the technology so widely.2.2.4 Manpower and FinanceAt the beginning of the war, state militias provided most of the troops for both Union and Confederate armies. Soon large numbers of civilianswere volunteering for military service. Throughout the war, the bulk of the forces consisted of volunteers.When the number of volunteers lagged behind the growing battle casualties, both the Northern and Southern governments resorted to drafting men into the armies. The Confederacy passed the first draft act in April 1862. The Union followed almost a year later.Although the draft itself did not produce a sufficient number of soldiers, the threat of being drafted led many to volunteer and collect a bounty, which was paid to volunteers. Some soldiers were unscrupulous enough to enlist, desert, and reenlist to collect the bounty more than once.The Civil War, like all wars, called for great sums of money to pay troops and supply them with equipment. At the outset of the war the Confederacy depended on loans, but this source of finance soon disappeared as Southerners began to be affected financially by the cost of the war and unable to buy bonds. Instead it relied on paper money, freely printed. The Confederacy suffered greatly from severe inflation and debt throughout the war. The Confederate rate of inflation was about 9200%.The Union financed its armies by loans and taxes to a much greater degree than the Confederacy, even resorting to an income tax. The people of the North were more prosperous than those of the South. A national banking system was established by Congress to stimulate sales of U.S. bonds. Northerners had savings with which they could buy the bonds and had earnings from which taxes could be taken.2.3 The Process2.6.1 Eastern Theater (1861-1863)2.6.3 Western Theater (1861-1863)2.6.4 Trans-Mississippi Theater (1861-1865)3. America in World War IWorld War I, military conflict, from August 1914 to November 1918, that involved many of the countries of Europe as well as the United States and other nations throughout the world.World War I was one of the most violent and destructive wars in European history.Of the 65 million men who were mobilized, more than 10 million were killed and more than 20 million wounded.The term World War I did not come into general use until a second worldwide conflict broke out in 1939. Before that year, the war was known as the Great War or the World War.1.1 Coalitions InvolvedThe war began as a clash between two coalitions of European countries.The first coalition, known as the Allied Powers, included the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Serbia, Montenegro, and the Russian Empire.The Central Powers, which opposed them, consisted of the empires of Germany and Austria-Hungary.1.2 The Immediate CauseThe immediate cause of the war was the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by a Serbian nationalist.The fundamental causes of the conflict, however, were rooted deeply in the European history of the previous century, particularly in the political and economic policies that prevailed in Europe after 1871, the year that Germany emerged as a major European power.2. The Great DepressionOn October 24, 1929, the American stock market crashed. Billions of dollars of paper profits were wiped out within a few hours. This led to a long economic depression.However, the post-war industrial boom and the prosperity were soon to vanish. The Great Depression in the United States, worst and longest economic collapse in the history of the modern industrial world, began from the end of 1929 until the early 1940s.2.1 The CausesThe depression was caused by a number of serious weaknesses in the economy.It is a common misconception that the stock market crash of October 1929 was the cause of the Great Depression. The two events were closely related, but both were the results of deep problems in the modern economy that were building up through the “prosperity decade” of the 1920s.As is typical of post-war periods, Americans in the Roaring Twenties turned inward, away from international issues and social concerns and toward greater individualism.The self-centered attitudes of the 1920s seemed to fit nicely with the needs of the economy. Modern industry had the capacity to produce vast quantities of consumer goods, but this created a fundamental problem: Prosperity could continue only if demand was made to grow as rapidly as supply. Accordingly, people had to be persuaded to abandon such traditional values as saving, postponing pleasures and purchases, and buying only what they needed. Advertising methods were used to persuade people to buy such relatively new products as automobiles and such completely new ones as radios and household appliances. The resulting mass consumption kept the economy going through most of the 1920s.But there was an underlying economic problem: Income was distributed very unevenly, and the portion going to the wealthiest Americans grew larger as the decade proceeded. This was due largely to two factors: While businesses showed remarkable gains in productivity during the 1920s, workers got a relatively small share of the wealth this produced. Between 1923 and 1929, manufacturing output per person-hour increased by 32 percent, but workers’ wages grew by only 8 percent. Corporate profits shot up by 65 percent in the same period.As a result of these trends, in 1929 the top 0.1 percent of American families had a total income equal to that of the bottom 42 percent. This meant that many people who were willing to purchase new products did not have enough money to do so. To get around this difficulty, the 1920s produced another innovation—“credit,” an attractive name for consumer debt. People were allowed to “buy now, pay later.”International problems also weakened the economy. After World War I the United States became the world’s chief creditor as European countries struggled to pay war debts and reparations. Many American bankers were not ready for this new role. They lent heavily and unwisely to borrowers in Europe, especially Germany, who would have difficulty repaying the loans, particularly if there was a serious economic downturn. These huge debts made the international banking structure extremely unstable by the late 1920s.In addition, the United States maintained high tariffs on goods imported from other countries, at the same time that it was making foreign loans and trying to export products. This combination could not be sustained: If other nations could not sell their goods in the United States, they could not make enough money to buy American products or repay American loans.The rising incomes of the wealthiest Americans fueled rapid growth in the stock market, especially between 1927 and 1929. Soon the prices of stocks were rising far beyond the worth of the shares of the companies they represented. People were willing to pay inflated prices because they believed the stock prices would continue to rise and they could soon sell their stocks at a profit.In 1928 the Dow Jones industrial average, an index that tracks the stock prices of key industrial companies, doubled in value in less than two years. But the stock boom could not last. The great bull market of the late 1920s was a classic example of a specul ative “bubble” scheme. In the fall of 1929 confidence that prices would keep rising faltered, then failed.Starting in late October the market plummeted as investors began selling stocks. On October 29, known as Black Tuesday, the worst day of the panic, stocks lost $10 billion to $15 billion in value. By mid-November almost all of the gains of the previous two years had been wiped out, withlosses estimated at $30 billion.The stock market crash announced the beginning of the Great Depression.2.3 R oosevelt’s New DealThe initial government response to the Great Depression was ineffective, as President Hoover insisted that the economy was sound and that prosperity would soon return.But business owners saw no reason to increase production while unsold goods clogged their shelves. By 1932 investment had dropped to less than 5 percent of its 1929 level. By the election year of 1932, the depression had made Hoover so unpopular that the election of the Democratic presidential candidate Franklin Delano Roosevelt was all but assured. Shortly after his inauguration in 1933, Roosevelt quickly lifted the nation’s spirits with the rapid and unprecedented actions of the New Deal.The New Deal produced a wide variety of programs to reduce unemployment, assist businesses and agriculture, regulate banking and the stock market, and provide security for the needy, elderly, and disabled. The basic idea of early New Deal programs was to lower the supply of goods to the current, depressed level of consumption. The government sought to raise farm prices by paying farmers not to grow surplus crops and to create codes for many industries that regulated competition while guaranteeing minimum wages and maximum hours for workers. The New Deal also tried to increase demand, pumping large amounts of money into the economy through public works programs and relief measures.Public works projects not only provided jobs but built schools, dams, and roads. The New Deal helped people to survive the depression. Unemployment was reduced, but remained high through the 1930s. Farm income rose from a low of $1.9 billion in 1932 to $4.2 billion in 1940. The demands of the depression led the United States to institute social-security programs and accept labor unions, measures that had been taken decades earlier in many European nations.3.2.1 US and Japanese ConflictIn the final result, however, the United States had little choice in the matter. When France had fallen to Germany, Japan had begun to move into French Indo-China, which had been France's source of rubber and was thought to be rich in oil. The United States government had no desire to see Japan in possession of its own stocks of these essential resources and so threatened to place an embargo on these goods. The Japanese responded in an unexpected way. On Sunday, 7 December 1941, Japanese naval aircraft attacked the U.S. Pacific fleet at anchor at Pearl Harbor in the Hawaiian islands. The Pearl Harbor Attack brought the United States into the war on December 8. Germany and Italy declared war on the United Stateson DecemberThe CongressThe United StatesCongress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election.As provided by the United States Constitution, each of the 435 members of the House of Representatives represents a district and serves a two-year term. House seats are apportioned among the states by population. The 100 Senators serve staggered six-year terms. Each state has two senators, regardless of population. Every two years, approximately one-third of the Senate is elected.checks and balances:The government is divided into three branches, the legislative, the executive and the judicial, each has part of the powers but not all the power. And each branch of government can check, or block, the actions of the other branches. The three branches are thus in balance. This called “checks and balances”.What is American General Education?见书English2.1 The Iberians1) They are the earliest settlers on the British Isles.2.2 The Celts1) From 700 B.C. Celts came in several successive waves from the Upper Rhineland and began to inhabit British Isles.2) The fair-haired Celts imposed themselves as an aristocracy on the conquered tribes of Iberians throughout Britain and Ireland.3) These people found refuge in the mountains to the north and west.4) At least two big waves of Celtic invasion can be distinguished: first the Gaels or Goidels, still found in Ireland and Scotland, came over as early as 600 B.C.; secondly the Cymric and Brythons, still found in Wales, come over before 300 B.C.3. Roman Britain3.1 Roman InvasionRoman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410.The Romans referred to their province as Britannia.Prior to the Roman invasion, Iron Age Britain already had cultural and economic links with Continental Europe, but the invaders introduced new developments in agriculture, urbanization, industry and architecture, leaving a legacy that is still apparent today.It is believed that the Celts were related with the ancient people in what is now France. They gave some help in the struggle to resist the Roman invasion of France. As a result, the Roman army, commanded by Julius Caesar, invaded England in 55 BC. He landed in Kent with several thousand Roman troops, but meeting resistance and bad weather, the Roman withdrew soon after. In the following year, Julius Caesar and the Romans went across the English Channel and invaded Britain for the second time. Julius Caesar and his soldiers did not stay long in England before they withdrew again. The invasion marked the beginning of English recorded history because Julius Caesar kept a diary and wrote down what he saw in England. The successful invasion of England by the Romans did not take place until nearly a century later, in 43 AD, headed by the Emperor Claudius I. The Romans did not meet with much resistance on the part of the natives and soon got possession of what is now England by driving many of the native Celts into mountainous Scotland and Wales. The Romans failed to conquer Scotland, they built two great walls, the Hadrian’s Wall and the Antonine Wall, along the northern border of England to prevent the Picts in Scotland from invading England.3.2 Influences of Roman InvasionThe 3d and 4th centuries witnessed the decline of the Roman Empire. In 410 Rome abandoned Britain.1. Roman urban civilization, baths and amphitheaters, as well Hadrian’s Wall. People who spoke Latin and wore togas. Numerous villas——vast estates worked by slaves and featuring sumptuous noble dwellings—were also established. Beyond these, the countryside remained Celtic.2. A network of roads, still in use for 1400 years;3. A number of towns. They introduced a system of organized government and built a network of towns, mostly walled. These town used names ending with “ster”, “cester”, or “shire” -- Leicester, Worcester and Yorkshire—deriving from castra, the Latin word for camp; the Roman capital was London.4. Christianity; the Romans brought the new religion, Christianity, to Britain. This came at first by indirect means, probably brought by traders and soldiers, before the first Christian Emperor, Constantine, we proclaimed in 306 AD.5. Water and sewage systems.1.1 Anglo-SaxonSoon after the Romans left, a band of new invaders landed in the southern part of England, in what is now the country of Kent. They were known in history as the Jutes. Other Germanic tribes came trooping after them. This continued for many years. The Saxons came from northern Germany and established their kingdoms in Essex (East Saxow), Succes (South Saxon) and Wessex (West Saxon). In the second half of the 6th century, the Angles, also from northern Germans, came and settled in the east part of England. After the newcomers had taken possession of all the land now known as England, the movement, know in history as the Anglo-Saxon Conquest, was complete. But we must bear in mind that theses Germanic tribes never obtained possession of what we now call Scotland, Wales and Ireland. The inhabitants of these countries were still Celts.The England was divided into seven principal kingdoms, known as Heptarchy in English history: Northumbria, Mercia, Kent, East Anglia, Essex, Sussex and Wessex were the main polities of south Britain.The influence of Anglo-Saxon?The Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state. They divided the country into shires, with shire courts and shire reeves, or sheriffs, responsible for administering law.?They devised the narrow-strip, three-field farming system which continued to the 18th century. In this system, the arable land around a village was divided into three hedgeless (open) big fields. These fields were divided into narrow strips which were shared out among the villagers. Good land was thus fairly distributed. One great field was left “fallow” each year so that its soil could recover its richness after two years’ cultivation.?They set up the basis of the English agrarian civilization and subsistence farming. There were wastelands, known as commons, which were used by villagers to graze livestock and get firewood. This system was the basis of the English agrarian civilization and subsistence farming. It helped to shape the English community life and the Anglo-Saxon concept of equality.?They created the Witan（council or meeting of the wisemen） to advise the king, the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today.2. Viking Invasion (800–1066)In the 8th century, the Vikings from theScandinavian countries of northern Europe, Norway and Denmark, began to attack the English coast. In the process of resisting the Vikings, the 7 Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England gradually became united under Alfred the Great.Alfred was a king of Wessex. He was not only an able warrior but also adedicated scholar and a wise ruler. He defeated the Danes and reached a friendly agreement with them in 879. The Danes gained control of the north and east, while he ruled the rest. He also converted some leading Danes into Christians.He founded a strong fleet and is known as “ the father of the British navy”. He reorganized the Saxon army, making it more efficient. He translated a Latin book into English. He also established schools and formulated a legal system.After the death of Alfred, his successors were not as capable as he had been. Taking advantage of the situation, more Dane came and set about taking possession of the entire country. The Anglo-Saxon king didn’t care for fighting, but he dreamed of buying off the Danes. As a result, more invaders came. In 1016, the Witan chose Canute, the Danish leader, as king of England. Canute, who made England part of a Scandinavian empire which included Norway as well as Denmark.3. Norman Conquest3.1 Norman Conquest: CauseAfter the death of Canute’s son, the crown was passed to Edward the Confessor, the last Anglo-Saxon king.When Edward was on his death-bed, several men laid claim to the English throne, the king of Norway, the Duke of Normandy (Edward’s cousi n), and Harold Godwinson( a brother of Edward’s wife).William, the Duke of Normandy, claimed the Edward had promised the crown to him before his death. He became very angry when he heard that Harold had taken the crown. Harold knew that William would come to measure swords with him. he was prepared to fight, placing an army on the southern coast of England to watch for William’s coming. Several months passed by and William failed to appear. He was abiding his time. When the harvest time in England came, ma ny of Harold’s soliders went back home to gather in the crops/. The coast was thus left undefended.William seized the chance and landed his army in Southeastern England in Sep. 1066. Harold, who had been fighting in the north, hurried back with the exhausted troops. They fought at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October. It was a close battle at first, but in the final hours William’s superiority in cavalry and archers proved decisive. Harold was killed, along with his brothers Earl Gyrth and Earl Leofwine, and the English army fled.William became known as William the Conqueror, the first Anglo-Norman king of England.3.2 Control of EnglandAfter Willam became the king, he took a few measures to control England Soldiers rewarded: The Normans received from William lands and titles in return for their service in the invasion.All land was the king’s: William claimed ultimate possession of。

英语国家概况译文

CHAPTER ONELAND AND PEOPLEDifferent Names for Britain and its PartsWhen people refer to Britain, they often use different names such as Britain, Great Britain, England, the British Isles, the United Kingdom or the U. K. Do they mean the same thing?当人们提及英国时,常用不同的名称,如不列颠、英格兰、不列颠群岛、联合王国,以及缩写的U.K…这些不同的称呼是不是指向相同的事物?Strictly speaking, the British Isles, Great Britain and England are all geographical names. They are not the official name of the country. The British Isles are made up of the two large islands—Great Britain and Ireland and hundreds of small ones. The two large islands are Great Britain and Ireland. Britain, or Great Britain, is the larger of the two islands. It forms the United Kingdom with Northern Ireland——the northern part of Ireland. So the official name of the United Kingdom is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. But it is too much of a mouthful to say such a long name for a country, so people just say Britain, the United Kingdom or simply U. K. This is one country on the British Isles and its capital is London. There is another country called the Republic of Ireland or Eire on the British Isles. It takes up the reminder of Ireland——the southern part of Ireland. It has been an independent republic since 1949 and its capital is Dublin.严格地说,不列颠群岛、大不列颠群岛和英格兰都是地理名称。

英美概况笔记（中英文对照整理版）[1]

英美国家概论路人整理2011-7-27目录第一章英国的国土与人民LAND AND PEOPLE (3)第二章英国的起源THE ORIGINS OF A NATION (9)第三章英国的形成THE SHAPING OF THE NATION (16)第四章向现代英国的过渡TRANSITION TO THE MODERN AGE (22)第五章大英帝国的兴衰THE RISE AND FALL OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE (28)第六章英国经济THE ECONOMY (40)第八章法律与司法机构JUSTICE AND THE LAW (49)第九章英国社会SOCIAL AFFAIRS (55)第十章体育运动SPORTS (60)第十三章美国地理位置GEOGRAPHY (66)第十四章美国人口种族POPULATION.RACE AND ETHNIC GROUPS (70)第十五章美国历史（一）AMERICAN HISTORY(I) (73)第十六章美国历史（二）AMERICAN HISTORY(II) (77)第十七章美国历史（三）AMERICAN HISTORY(III) (81)第十八章美国经济THE ECONOMY (84)第十九章政治制度POLITICAL INSTITUTION (88)第二十章美国教育EDUCATION (93)第二十一章文化建筑和音乐LITERATURE, ARCHITECTURE AND MUSIC (98)第二十二章节日和假期HOLIDAYS AND FESTIVALS (102)第二十二章节：HOLIDAYS AND FESTIVALS 节日和假期 (102)第一章英国的国土与人民Land and PeopleI. Different Names for Britain and its Parts英国的不同名称及其各组成部分1.Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England.地理名称：不列颠群岛，大不列颠和英格兰。

专业课程科目名称法语翻译

专业课程科目名称法语翻译计算机室内设计designintérieurinformatique外国美术史histoireartistiquedespaysétrangers商业环境设计designdansl’environnementcommercial公共建筑室内设计designintérieurdel’édificationpublique 社会实践 pratiquessociales中国传统室内设计designintérieurtraditionnelchino is命题设计designdeterminé外出考察 investigationsortie园林设计 designjardinier毕业论文thèse/mémoiredefind’études绘画透视Scénographiedudessin书法 Calligraphie图案 Motif计算机 Informatique美术概论Traitédesbeaux-arts自描 Auto-portrait构成 Composition油画风景Paysagesdepeintureàl’huile创作Techniquedecréation油画材料Matérieldepeintureàl’huile油画静物naturemortedanslapeintureàl’huile油画肖像Portraitdanslapeintureàl’huile山水 Peinturedepaysage工笔花鸟 Peinturechinoisedefactureminutieuseetpeinturedefleursetoiseaux 材料技法Technologiedematériels中国美术史Histoiredesbeaux-artschinois外国美术史Histoiredesbeaux-artsétranger丝网印刷 Impressiondefiletetdefil书籍装帧Présentationdeslivres美术教育 Educationdesbeaux-arts招贴设计Designd’affiche电脑美术 Beaux-artsinformatique教育学论文Thèsesdesciencedel’éducation心理学论文Thèsesdepsychologie转贴于：小语种考试_考试大平面设计平面构成 structurationplane色彩设计计划 projetdedesigndecouleur立体构成structurationstéréoscopique 装饰图案鉴赏appréciationdedessindécoratif 图形想象与思维imaginationetpenséefigu ratives 基础摄影 photographiefondamentale计算机辅助 assistanceinformatique人机工程学érgonomie机械制图dessinmécanique机构形象设计 Designdeportraitadministratif 印刷工艺technologieimprimée创意招贴affichecréative包装设计designd’emb allage建筑装饰画法几何géométriededessin阴影透视scénographiedel’ombre建筑制图 dessindeconstruction大学基础英语 anglaisfondamataluniversitaire 计算机基础basesdel’inforamatique素描 dessin色彩 coloris政治经济学scienceséconomiquesetpoliti ques哲学 pholosophie建筑绘图 dessinantconstructeur三大构成 troisgrandescompositions建筑装饰材料matériauxdedécorationconstructrice建筑装饰施工travauxdedécorationconstructrice建筑装饰设备équipementdedécorationconstructrice建筑装饰概预算estimationbudgétairededécorationconstructrice 中国建筑史 histoiredelaconstructionchinoise建筑概论introductionàlaconstruction建筑规划 planificationconstructrice室内外装饰décorationintérieureetextérieure应用文写作 compositionpratique毕业设计projetdefind’études毕业设计答辩réponseduprojetdefind’études英语专业英语泛读Lecturegénéraleenanglais英语会话 Conversationenanglais英语语音Phonétiqueanglaise综合英语Anglaissynthétique英语口语 Anglaisoral英语听说 Anglaisaudio-visuel基础视听 Anglaisaudio-visuel(élémentaire)旅游英语 Anglaistouristique英美概况Connaissancesgénéralesdel’AngleterreetdesEtats-Unis英语语法 Grammaireanglaise英语写作Techniqued’écritureenanglais英语阅读 Lectureenanglais外贸英语Anglaisducommerceextérieur高级视听 Anglaisaudio-visuel(avancé)高级英语Anglaisavancé简明英语语言学Brèvedelalin guistiqueanglaise外报外刊Journauxetrevusétrangers英国文学作品选 Oeuvreschoisiesanglo-saxonnes世界政治经济与国际关系Economieetpolitiquemondialesetrelationsinternationales英语报刊选读 LecturechoisiedesjournauxanglaisWTO概论IntroductionàWTO第二外语Deuxièmelangueétrangère高级英语写作Techniqued’écritureenanglais(avancé)教育实习Stagedel’enseignement英译汉 Version（外文译成本国文）汉译英Thème（本国文译成外文）英美文学作品选读 Oeuvreschoisiesanglo-américaines英美教学理论Théoriepédagogiqueanglo-américaine英语口译Interprétationenanglais圣经与罗马神话Bibleetlégendesromaines英美影视欣赏Appréciationdesoeuvrescénimatographiquesettélévisuelle sanglo-américaines英语词汇学 Lexicologieanglaise写作基础Techniquesélémentairesd’écriture enanglais英语写作与修辞Ecritureetrhétoriqueenanglais英语短篇小说阅读 Lecturedesnouvellesenanglais英国文化 Cultureanglo-saxonne生命科学导论Introductionàlasciencedelavie海洋生物学 Biologiemaritime公关礼仪 Protocolespubliques文学阅读导论Introductionàlalecturelittéraire阅读与欣赏Lectureetappréciation高级商务英语Anglaisavancéducommerce英语八级考试辅导Coursréparatoiresàl’examend’anglaisdedegré8欧洲文学史Histoirelittéraireeuropéenne快速阅读 Lecturerapide英语应用文写作 Ecrtiturepratiqueenanglais广告英语 Anglaispublicitaire英语专业八级Degré8del’anglaisspecialize。

英美概况第3章英译汉

于直接领主, 而且还要宣誓效忠国王。
威廉用大议会取代了盎格鲁撒克逊国王的顾问团—贤人会议。大评议会
由他的土地承租人组成, 一旦国王召集, 他们就得到大评议会服务。在南部城
市温切斯特、威斯敏斯特和格洛斯特, 大议会一年开会三次。
为了可靠地记录所有的土地、佃户和他们的财产并查明他们能交多少税,
合法国王, 通过父亲他又继承了安菇伯爵的封号, 通过1152 年与亚奎丹公主的
埃莉诺的婚姻, 他获得了所有从诺曼底至西班牙边境的法国西部。
亨利二世采取措施结束了史蒂芬森国王统治时的混乱局面。
他迫使弗兰芒雇佣军离开英国, 收回史蒂芬森赠出的皇室土地, 拆除几十
座史蒂芬森时造的城堡, 加强并扩大了他的行政长官们的权力, 依靠由英国自
莉诺联姻后云集到伦敦的。1242 年他发动对法战争, 代价昂贵, 丢失了整个普
瓦图地区。1258 年国王又索要金钱以助其儿子加冕为西西里国王, 使矛盾发展
到顶点。
贵族们在亨利三世的内兄西蒙·德·孟福尔的领导下反叛, 迫使国王和其
儿子爱德华王子宣誓接受“ 牛津协定”。其主要的两条条款是: 亨利应任命24
yeoman 自由民
Ⅰ. 诺曼统治( 1066—1381)
1. 威廉一世的统治( 1066—1087 年)
在威廉统治下, 英国的封建制度得到完全确立。根据此制度, 国王个人拥
有全国所有土地。威廉把英国的大片土地分给贵族, 条件是贵族保证服役和交
租。贵族的这些地产分散于各处, 这样土地拥有者就不易联合起来反叛国王。
二人组成, 陪审员的作用是作证人, 而非听取证词作出裁决。
作为法律改革的一部分, 亨利二世希望改革教会管理中的某些弊端。他坚

英美概况名词解释-史上最全哦

英美概况名词解释-史上最全哦英国部分Thames RiverHigh LandersBritish Commonwealth 英联邦伦敦佬Maritime Climate 海洋性气候English ChannelChunnel 英吉利海峡隧道9. “pea soup ” fogs 伦敦雾isles: 巨石阵becket: 托马斯Chaucerof arc: 圣女贞德: 罗拉德派Puritans 清教徒CaesarHardrian's Wall 哈德连长城七王国贤人会议the Great 豆瓣the Conqueror 威廉征服battle of Hastings Danelaw 施行丹麦法的地区Conquest 诺曼征服Book 英国国王1806 年颁的土地调查清册Black Death 黑死病divine rights of kings 君权神授Wars of Roses 玫瑰战争（考过） Spanish Armada: 西班牙无敌舰队Glorious Revolution of 1688 光荣革命Gunpowder Plot of 1605 火药阴谋案Mary 血腥玛丽boroughs 衰败选区Pankhurst 潘克赫斯特太太是女权的主要倡导者之一。

league of nations 国际联盟blitz 闪电战beatles 甲克虫乐队撒切尔主义of payments 收支平衡Maynard Keynestrade and invisible trade union 欧盟policies（货币主义政策）Trade Union Act of 1871 工会法农业产业disease 英国病monarchy 君主立宪制Council 枢密院law 公共法state opening of parliament Civil list 英国王室费（考过）civil service 公务员（考过） peer 终身贵族无罪裁决Crown Court 刑事法庭punishment 死刑metropolitan police force National Health Service 英国国民保健制度insurance 社会保险practitioner（GP）workersalvation armyschools 路透社（GM）Schools 有公费保证的学校（升学考试）murdochbritish museumThanksgiving DayIreland（爱尔兰）美国部分Vespuccitruman doctrineboomgreat lakesisland8."the great compromise" Emancipation Proclamation taxtation without representation Chinese Exclution Act servants tea party（考过） dividegettysburg addressku klux klan黑幕揭发者nationalismred scare progressive movement New Dealmarshall plansmith actcivil rights act of 1964 poverty line 32 checks and balances34. the free enterprise system35. the federal systemof powers37. private schooldistrict39. global education40. poor richard's almanac42. jazzera44. father's day's day46. congressional medal of honor48. Great Canyon49. New EnglandAmericans51. ChicanosRicansPapersFirst Continental Congress DestinyBlack ThursdayFrontierHuron StatementCorn Belt62。

英美概况填空翻译解释

英美概况一、填空：1、The most important rivers in Scotland are Clyde and Forth.2.In 1965,big oil fields were discovered under the North Sea.3. The English people are the descendants of Anglo-Saxons, while the Scots, welsh and Irish are the descendants of the Celts.4.The major languages spoken in Britain are English, Gaelic and Welsh.5.The Church of England is the established church of the English nation.6.Protestant churches not belonging to the Church of England are called Free Churches, including such sects as Baptists, the United Reformed Church, Methodists and Quakers.7. The Roman Catholic Church was much persecuted in England for a long time after the Reformation.8.Most of the British social customs are based on the Christian tradition.9.During World WarⅡ,Britain was forced to borrow large amounts of money from the United States and Canada.10.Under Margaret Thatcher, public Expenditure was reduced, foreign exchange controls lifted ,rules governing banks Loosened and worker strikes restricted.11.The Conservative Party carried out an extensive programme of Privatization throughout the 1980s12.The negative aspect of Thatcher's reform was a rapid increase in taxation.13.Britain's traditional customers in trade were the commonwealth countries and its former colonies. Now Britain trades mainly with the common Market, the US and Canada.14.the British government is established on the basis of constitutional monarchy.15.Britain has no written constitution and many of the rules that govern the system are customs or conventions and ordinary laws.16.Theoretically, the Queen has all the power, but in reality, she must act on the advice of the ministers.17.Parliament consists of the monarch/sovereign, the House of commons and the House of Lords.18.The President of the House of Lords is the Lord chancellor and the presiding officer of the House of Commons is "Mr. speaker" .19.Parliament's main functions are debate, making laws and supervising the government and financing.20.The Prime Minister controls not only the cabinet but also the Parliament。

【精品】英美概况习题及答案.docx

英国概况III. Explain the following terms.1. the Hardian's Wall:It was one of the two great walls built by the Romans to keep the Picts out of the area they had conquered.2. Alfred the GreatAlfred was a strong king of the wisemen. It was created by the Anglo-Saxons to advise the king. It's the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today.3. William the ConquerorWilliam was Duke of Normandy. He landed his army in Oct, 1066 and defeated King Harold. Then he was crowned king of England on Christmas Day the same year. He established a strong Norman government and the feudal system in England.4. the battle of HastinasIn 1066, King Edward died with no heir, the Witan chose Harold as king. William, Duke of Normandy, invaded England. On October 14, the two armies met near Hasting. After a day's battle, Harold was killed and his army completely defeated. So this battle was very important on the way of the Roman conquest.5. Domesdav BookUnder William, the feudal system was established. William sent officials to compile a property record known as Domesday Book, which completed in 1086. It was the result of a general survey of England made in 1085. It stated the extent, value, the population, state of cultivation, and ownership of the land. It seemed to the English like the Book of doom on Judgment Day.6. the Great CharterKing John's reign caused much discontent among the barons. In 1215, he was forced to sign a document, known as Mangna Cara, or the Great Charter. It has 63 clauses. Though it has long been regarded as the foundation of English liberties, its spirit was the limitation of the king's powers, keeping them within the bounds of the feudal law of the land.7. the Hundred Years' WarIt referred to the intermittent war between France and England that last from 1337 to 1453. The causes were partly territorial and partly economic. When Edward III claimed the French Crown but the French refused to recognize, the war broke out. At first the English were successful, but in the end, they were defeated and lostalmost all their possessions in France. The expelling of the English was a blessing for both countries.8. Joan of ArcShe was a national heroine of France during the Hundred 'Yfears' War. She successfully led the French to drive the English out of France.9. the Black DeathIt was the deadly bubonic plague who spread through Europe in the 14th century. It swept through England without warning and any cure, and sparing no victims. It killed between half and one-third of the population of England. Thus, much land was left untended and labour was short. It caused far-reaching economic consequences.10. the Wars of RosesThey referred to the battles between the House of Lancaster and the House of York between 1455 and 1485. The former was symbolized by the red rose, and the latter by the white one. After the wars, feudalism received its death blow and the king's power became supreme. Tudor monarchs ruled England and Wales for over two hundred years.11. Bloodv MarvHenry VIH's daughter and a devout Catholic. When she became Queen, she persecuted and burnt many Protestants. So she was given the nickname "Bloody Mary". Mary is also remembered as the monarch who lost the French port of Calais.12. Elizabeth IOne of the greatest monarchs in British history. She reigned England, Wales and Ireland for 45 years and remained single. Her reign was a time of confident English nationalism and of great achievements in literature and other arts, in exploration and in battle.13. Oliver CromwellThe leader during the Civil War who led the New Model Army to defeat the king and condemned him to death. Then he declared England a Commonwealth and made himself Lord of Protector. He ruled England till the restoration of Charles II in 1660.14. the Bill of RiahtsIn 1689, William and Mary accepted the Bill of Rights to be crowned jointly. The bill excluded any Roman Catholic from the succession, confirmed the principle of parliamentary supremacy and guaranteed free speech within both the two Houses. Thus the age of constitutional monarchy began.15. Whias and ToriesIt referred to the two party names which originated with the Glorious Revolution of 1688. The Whigs were those who opposed absolute monarchy and supported the right to religious freedom for Nonconformists. The Tbries were those who supported hereditary monarchy and were reluctant to remove kings. The Whigs formed a coalition with dissident Tbries and became the Liberal Party. The Tbries were the forerunners of the Conservative Party.16. James WattThe Scottish inventor who produced an efficient steam engine with rotary motion that could be applied to textile and other machinery.17. Winston ChurchillPrime Minister of Britain during the Second World War. He took over Chamberlain in 1940 and received massive popular support. He led his country to final victory in 1945. He was defeated in the general election of 1945, but returned to power in 1951.18. AaribusinessIt refers to the new farming in Britain, because it's equipped and managed like an industrial business with a set of inputs into the farm of processes which occur on the farm, and outputs or products which leave the farm. The emphasis is upon intensive farming, designs to give the maximum output of crops and animals.19. the British ConstitutionThere is no written constitution in the United Kingdom. The British Constitution is not set out in any single document, but made up of statute law, common law and conventions. The Judiciary determines common law and interprets statues.20. Queen Elizabeth IIThe present Sovereign, born in 1926, came to the throne in 1952 and was crowned in 1953. The Queen is the symbol of the whole nation, the center of many national ceremonies and the leader of society.21. the ODDOsitionIn the General Election, the party which wins the second largest number of seats becomes the official Opposition, with its own leader and "shadow cabinet". The aims of the Opposition are to contribute to the formulation of policy and legislation, to oppose government proposals, to seek amendments to government bills, and to put forward its own policies in order to win the next general election.22. the Privy CouncilFormerly the chief source of executive power. It gave the Sovereign private ("privy”) advice on the governmentof the country. Today its role is mainly formal, advising the Sovereign to approve certain government decrees and issuing royal proclamation. Its membership is about 400.23. Common lawA written law gathered from numerous decisions of the courts and other sources.24. the iuryA legal system established in England since king Henry II. The jury consists of ordinary, independent citizens summoned by the court: 12 persons in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, and 15 persons in Scotland. In criminal trials by jury, the judge passes sentence but the jury decide the issue of guilt or innocence.25. the NHSThe National Health Service was established in the UK in 1948 and based first on Acts of Parliament. This Service provides for every resident a full range of medical services. It is based upon the principle that there should be full range of publicly provided services designed to help the individual stay healthy. It is now a largely free service.26. comprehensive schoolsState secondary schools which take uuuils without reference to abilitv and provide a wide-ranaina secondary education for all or most of the children in a district. About 90 per cent of the state secondary school uouulation in GB attend comprehensive school.27. public schoolsFee-paying secondary schools which are long-established and have gained a reputation for their high academic standards, as well as their exclusiveness and snobbery. The boys' public schools include such well-known schools as Eton and Harrow, and girls' famous schools include Roedean. Most of the members of the British Establishment were educated at a public school.1. What do you know about the Roman invasion of Britain? ------- I n 55 BC and 54 BC, Julius Caesar, a Roman general, invaded Britain twice. In AD 43, the Emperor Claudius invaded Britain successfully. For nearly 400 years Britain was under the Roman occupation, though it was never a total occupation. British recorded history begins with the Roman invasion.2. Why did the William the Conqueror invade England after Edward's death? ------- It was said that king Edward had promised the English throne to William but the Witan chose Harold as king. So William led his army to invade England. In October 1066, during the important battle of Hastings, William defeated Harold and killed him. On Christmas Day, William was crowned king of England, thus beginning the Norman Conquest of England.3. What were the consequences of the Norman Conquest? ------- The Norman Conquest of 1066 is one of the best known events in English history. It brought about many consequences. William confiscated almost all the land and gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government. So the feudal system was completely established in England. Relations with the Continent were opened, and civilization and commerce were extended. Norman-French culture, language, manners, and architecture were been introduced. The church was brought into closer connection with Rome, and the church courts were separated from the civil courts.4. What were the contents and the significance of the Great Charter? ---------- T he Great Charter, or the Magna Carta, was document signed in 1215 between the barons and king John. It had altogether 63 clauses, of which the most important contents were these: (1) no tax should be made without the approval of the Grand Council; (2) no freeman should be arrested, imprisoned, or deprived of his property except by the law of the land;(3) the church should possess all its rights and privileges; (4) London and other towns should retain their ancient rights and privileges; (5) there should be the same weights and measures throughout the country. The Great Charter was a statement of the feudal and legal relationship between the Crown and the barons, a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a limitation of the powers of the king. The spirit of the Great Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king, but it has long been regarded as the foundation of English liberties.5. What do you know about the English Renaissance? ---------- Renaissance was the revival of classical literature and artistic styles in European history. It began in Italy in the early 14th century and spread to England in the late 15th century. The English Renaissance had 5 characteristics: (1) English culture was revitalized not so much directly by the classics as by contemporary Europeans under the influence of the classics; (2) England as an insular country followed a course of social and political history which was to a great extent independent of the course of history else where in Europe; (3) Owning to the great genius of the 14th century poet chaucer, the native literature was vigorous enough and experienced in assimilating foreign influences without being subjected by them; (4) English Renaissance literature is chiefly artistic, rather than philosophical and scholarly; (5) the Renaissance coincided with the Reformation in England. The English Renaissance was largely literary, and achieved its finest expression in the so-called Elizabethan drama. Its finest exponents were Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, and William Shakespeare.6. Why did the Restoration take place?------- When Oliver Cormwell died in 1658 and was succeeded byhis son, Richard, the regime began to collapse. One of Cromwell's generals occupied London and arranged for new parliamentary elections. The Parliament thus was elected in 1660, and to resolve the crisis, it asked the late king's son to return from his exile in France as king Charles II. It was called the Restoration.7. How did the "Glorious Revolution" break out? What was the significance of it? ------ In 1685 CharlesII died and was succeeded by his brother James II. James, who was brought up in exile in Europe, was a Catholic, He hoped to rule without giving up his personal religious views. But England was no more tolerant of a Catholic king in 1688 than 40 years. So the English politicians rejected James II, and appealed to a Protestant king, William of Orange, to invade and take the English throne. William landed in England in 1688. The takeover was relatively smooth, with no bloodshed, no any execution of the king. This was known as the Glorious Revolution. William and his wife Mary were both Protestants and became co-monarchs. They accepted the Bill of Rights. It's the beginning of the age of constitutional monarchy.8. What is your comment on land enclosures in England? ----- Agricultural enclosure became frequent in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It has good as well as bad results: (1) Farms became bigger and bigger units as the great bought up the small; (2) more vegetables, more milk and more dairy produce were consumed, and diet became more varied; (3) enclosure was a disaster for the tenants evicted from their lands by the enclosures. They were forced to look for work in towns, which rapidly became hopelessly over crowded. It also lead to mass emigration, particularly to the New World; (4) a new class hostility was introduced into rural relationships. Concentration of land in fewer hands increased the price of land and dashed the labourers' hopes of even owning his own land. Many became wage labourers, earning low rates in spite of agriculture's new prosperity.9. How did the English Industrial Revolution proceed? ----------- The Industrial Revolution began with the textile industry. It's characterized by a series of inventions and improvements of machines, such as John Ray's flying shuttle, James Hargreaves' spinning Jenny, Richard Arkwright's water frame and Samuel Cropton's mule. The Scottish inventor James Watt produced a very efficient steam engine in 1765, which could be applied to textile and other machinery. The most important element in speeding industrialization was the breakthrough in smelting iron with coke instead of charcoal in 1709. Similar developments occurred in the forging side of the iron industry which enabled iron to replace wool and stone in many sectors of the economy. Improved transportation ran parallel with production. As a result of the industrial revolution, Britain was by 1830 the "workshop of the world"; no other country could compete with her in industrial production.10. What do you know about the Chartist Movement and the People's Charter? What's your comment on them? ------ The Chartist Movement was an industrial working class movement that happened in Englandfrom 1836 to 1848. In 1836 a group of skilled workers and small shopkeepers formed the London Working Men's Association. They drew up a charter of political demands (known as the People's Charter) in 1838, which had six points: (1) the vote for all adult males, (2) voting by secret ballot, (3) equal electoral districts, (4) abolition of property qualifications for members of Parliament, (5) payment of members of Parliament, and (6) annual Parliament, with a General Election every June. Support for these six demands was loudly voiced all over the country. Other working men formed Chartist groups throughout the country to press Parliament to accept the 6 points. But Parliament rejected them for three times. In the end, the Chartist Movement failed. It failed because of its weak and divided leadership, and its lack of coordination with trade-unionism. The working class was still immature. The Chartist Movement, however, the first nation wide working class movement and drew attention to serious problems. The 6 points were achieved very gradually over the period of 1858-1918, although the sixth has never been practical.11. How did the Labour Party come into being? ------ As the new working class became established in the industrial towns in the late 18th century, they became aware of the power which they could possess if they acted together instead of separately. So various working class organizations were formed which brought about the formation of the Labour Party. The Labour Party had its origins in the Independent Labour Party, which was formed in January, 1893 and Led by Keir Hardie, a Scottish miner. The foundation of an effective party for labour depended on the trade unions. In 1900, representatives of trade unions, the ILP, and a number of small societies set up the Labour Representation Committee (LRC). The LRC changed its name to be Labour Party in time for the general election which was called for 1906. The Labour Party remains one of the two major parties in Britain until today.12. What is a constitutional monarchy? When did it begin in Britain? ------ A constitutional monarchy is a governmental system in which the head of State is a king or a queen who reigns but does not rule. The country is namely reigned by the Sovereign, but virtually by His or Her Majesty's Government ------------------- a body of Ministers who are the leading members of whichever political party the electorate has voted into office, and who are responsible to Parliament. The Constitutional Monarchy in Britain began in 1689, when king William and Queen Mary jointly accepted the Bill of Rights, which guaranteed free speech within both the House of Lords and the House of Commons and constitutional monarchy, of a monarchy with power limited by Parliament began.13. What is the role of the Monarchy in the British government? ------ T he sovereign is the symbol of thewhole nation. In law, he/she is head of the executive, an integral part of the legislature, head of the judiciary, the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces of the crown and the "supreme governor" of the established church of England.14. What are the main functions of Parliament? ---------The main functions of Parliament are: (1) to pass laws; (2) to provide the means of carrying on the work of government by voting for taxation; (3) to examine government policy and administration, including proposals for expenditure; (4) to debate the major issues of the day.15. Why do the criminal convicts like to be tried first before the magistrates' courts?----- A Magistrates' court tries summary offences and "either way" offences. It is open to the public and the media and usually consists of three unpaid "lay” magistrates. A magistrates' court sits without a jury. The criminal law presumes the innocence of the accused until he has been proved guilty beyond reasonable doubt; every possible step is taken to deny to the prosecution any advantage over the defense. No accused person has to answer the questions of the police before trials; he is not compelled to give evidence or to submit to cross-examination in court.16. What does the civil courts system do? ------- The civil courts system does the following jurisdiction: (1) actions founded upon contract and tort; (2) trust and mortgages cases; (3) actions for the recovery of land; (4) cases involving disputes between landlords and tenants; (5) admiralty cases and patent cases; and (7) divorce cases and other family matters.17. What is meant by the term 1'welfare state" in Britain? -------------- The welfare state is a system of government by which the state provides the economic and social security of its citizens through its organization of health services, pensions and other facilities. The system is funded out of national insurance contributions and taxation. In Britain the term applies mainly to National Health Service (NHS), national insurance and social security.18. What is the most important established Church in Britain? How is it related to the Crown andlinked with the State? ------ The most important established Church in Britain is the Church of England. It is uniquely related to the Crown in that the Sovereign must be a member of that church and, as "Defender of the Faith", must promise on his or her accession to uphold it. Church of England archbishops, bishops and deans of cathedrals are appointed by the Monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Church is also linked with the State through the House of Lords, in which the two archbishops (of Canterbury and \fc)rk), the bishops of London,Durham and Winchester, and 21 other senior bishops of London, Durham and Winchester, and 21 other senior bishops have seats19. What distinguishes the Open University from all other British Universities? --------------- The Open University is non-residential university which is "open" to all to become students. It offers degree and other courses for adult students of all ages in Britain and other member countries of the EU. It was founded in 1969 and began its first courses in 1970. It was a combination of specially produced printed texts, correspondence tuition, television and radio broadcasts and audio/video cassettes. For some courses, there are residential schools. There is a network of study centers for contact with part-time tutors and counselors, and with fellow students.30. What are some of the characteristics of American education? ------- (1) Formal education in the United States consists of elementary, secondary and higher education. (2) Public educations is free and compulsory.(3) Diversity is considered to be an outstanding characteristic of American education. (4)Education is a function of the states, not the federal government.What are geographic features of Britain?Britain is an island country surrounded by the sea. It lies in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north coast of Europe. It's separated from the rest of Europe by the English Channel in the south and North Sea in the east. The north and west of Britain are mainly highlands, and the east and south east are mostly lowlands.What are the features of British climate?Britain has a maritime climate. Winters are not too cold and summers are not too hot. It has a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole year. The temperature varies within a small range.The climate in Britain is mainly influenced by three features.1. The surrounding waters tend to balance the seasonal differences by heating up the land in winter and coolingoff relatively and slowly they bring warm air in winter and cool air in summer.2. The prevailing winds blow over the country all the year round, bringing warm and wet air in winter and keepingthe temperature moderate.3. The North Atlantic Ocean Drift, which is a warm drift, passes the western coast of the British Isles and warmsthem.What measures did Henry II take to centralize power?1. He forced foreign mercenaries to leave England.2. He abolished the annual land tax.3. He took steps to reform the law courts and divided the country into six circuits to increase the power of the King's Court.4. He also planned to reform the church courts, which had the exclusive right of justice over the whole body of the educated men throughout the country.What contributions did Elizabeth I do to Britain?1. Religion compromise. She carried out the religious reform and broke religious ties.2. She successfully played off against each other the two great Catholic powers.3. She granted charters to English merchants.4. In her reign, the Spanish Armada was destroyed.5. She carried out a foreign policy to prevent England from involving in major European conflicts. It was to this period of time that the English Empire owed its foundation.The Gunpowder Plot of 1605The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was the most famous of the Catholic conspiracies. On November 5, 1605, a few fanatical Catholics attempted to blow King James and his ministers up in the Houses of Parliament where Guy Fawkes had planted barrels of gunpowder in the cellars.The results of the Gunpowder Plot of 1605:The immediate result was the execution of Fawkes and his fellow-conspirators and the imposition of severe anti-Catholic laws. The long-term result has been an annual celebration on November 5, when a bonfire is lit to burn a guy and a firework display is arranged.How did the Civil War break out?It was very reluctantly that the Parliament concluded that the only way it could impress its views on such a king would be to defeat him in a battle, and then impose legal conditions upon him before allowing him to reign again. This idea was important until 1645. On August 22,1642 in a field near Nottingham King Charles raised his standard beneath a glowering sky, and bade all his supporters to join him. Thus the First Civil War began. TheCivil War (also called Revolutionary War or the English Bourgeois Revolution, or the Puritan Revolution) broke out in 1642. The Left Wing of Parliament was composed of free farmers, tradesmen, and artisans of the country towns. They made up the most revolutionary section and were generally known as Roundheads because their hair was cut close to the skin. The English Bourgeois Revolution in its upsurge was also called the Puritan Revolution. The king's support mainly came from the West and the North of England. The king's supporters were generally known as the Cavaliers or Royalists.Cromwell was a country gentleman and Member of the Parliament. He organized a compact army of well disciplined soldiers which became known as the New Model Army. These soldiers were mostly devout Protestants.★King Charles ----Cromwell★The King's men were called Cavaliers, and the supporters of Parliament were called Roundheads because of their short haircuts.The English Civil War is also called the Puritan Revolution, because the King's opponents were mainly Puritan, and his supporters chiefly Episcopalian and Catholic.Consequences of The Civil WarsBecause of the absolute rule of Charles, the confrontation between Charles I and the parliament developed into the civil war. The war began in 1642 and ended in 1651. Charles I was condemned to death.The English Civil War is also called the Puritan Revolution. It has been seen as a conflict between the parliament and the King, and a conflict between economic interests of the Crown. The economic interests of the urban middle classed coincided with their religious (Puritan) ideology while the Crown's traditional economic interests correspondingly allied with Anglican religious belief. The English Civil War not only overthrew feudal system in England but also shook the foundation of the feudal rule in Europe. It is generally regarded as the beginning of modern world history.The RestorationWhen Oliver Cromwell died in 1658 and was succeeded by his son, Richard, the regime began to collapse. One of Cromwell's generals occupied London and arranged for new parliamentary elections. The Parliament thus was elected in 1660 resolved the crisis by asking the late King's son to return from his exile in France as King Charles II. It was called the Restoration.The Glorious Revolution of 1688In 1685 Charles II died and was succeeded by his brother James II. James was brought up in exile in Europe, was a Catholic. He hoped to rule without giving up his personal religious vies. But England was no more tolerant of a Catholic king in 1688 than 40 years ago. So the English politicians rejected James II, and appealed to a Protestant king, William of Orange, to invade and take the English throne. William landed in England in 1688. The takeover was relatively smooth, with no bloodshed, nor any execution of the king. This was known as the Glorious Revolution.How did the "Glorious Revolution" break out? What was the significance of it?——When Charles II died in 1685, he was succeeded by his brother, James II. James II was a Catholic and hoped to be able to rule without giving up his personal religious views. But English in 1688 could not tolerate a Catholic as King. The English politicians appealed to a Protestant king, William of Orange, James' Dutch nephew and the husband of Mary, James' daughter, to invade and take the English throne. William landed in November 1688. On their acceptance of the Bill of Rights (1689), William and Mary were crowned jointly in Westminster Abbey. Thus the age of constitutional monarchy, of a monarchy with powers limited by Parliament, began.Whigs and ToriesThese two party names originated with the Glorious Revolution (1688).The Whigs were those who opposed absolute monarchy and supported the right to religious freedom for Nonconformists. The Whigs were to form a coalition with dissident Tbries in the mid-19th century and become the Liberal Party.The Tbries were those who supported hereditary monarchy and were reluctant to remove kings. The Tbries were the forerunners of the Conservative Party.The Industrial Revolution (1780-1830)Britain was the first country to industrialize because of the following factors:(1) Favorable geographical location. Britain was well placed geographically to participate in European and world trade;(2) Political stability. Britain had a peaceful society, which, after the 17th century, was increasingly interested in overseas trade and colonies. International trade brought wealth to merchants and city bankers. They and those。

《英美概况》中文版

第一篇英‎联邦第一‎章土地和‎人民第一‎节英吉利‎群岛和大不‎列颠‎一、名字和‎位置当读‎英文书籍的‎时候，一个‎人应当理解‎下面几个名‎词：A）‎英吉利群岛‎；B）不‎列颠（大不‎列颠）；‎C）英格兰‎，苏格兰，‎威尔士；‎D）北爱尔‎兰E）联‎合王国——‎大不列颠及‎北爱尔兰联‎合王国欧‎洲大陆西部‎边缘及西部‎以外，有数‎千座岛，通‎常被叫做英‎吉利群岛。

‎群岛中最大‎的岛屿叫做‎大不列颠，‎为了简单起‎见，简称不‎列颠，不过‎官方正式名‎称仍为大不‎列颠。

它南‎北走向近‎1000公‎里，东西绵‎延约500‎公里，面积‎大约为23‎万平方公里‎。

但是大不‎列颠及北爱‎尔兰联合王‎国的整体面‎积也只是稍‎多与24万‎平方公里，‎人口为57‎40万（1‎990）。

‎就大不列‎颠岛本身而‎言，被分为‎三部分，也‎被认为是三‎个国家：地‎处南部的英‎格兰，北部‎的苏格兰，‎和东南部的‎威尔士。

‎英格兰是三‎个政治实体‎中最大、最‎发达的一部‎分，土地面‎积超过13‎万平方公里‎，占了整个‎大不列颠岛‎近60%；‎人口超过4‎700万，‎约为正个国‎家的85%‎。

英格兰在‎大不列颠的‎地位如此重‎要以至于外‎国人称呼整‎个大不列颠‎为“英格兰‎”，这种习‎俗也用在了‎对人的称呼‎上，占多数‎的英格兰人‎被认为等同‎于“英国人‎”。

在面‎积和人口上‎，苏格兰都‎居第二位，‎78760‎平方公里的‎土地占不列‎颠岛不到3‎0%，50‎0万的人口‎不足整座岛‎的十分之一‎。

威尔士‎在面积和人‎口上都是最‎小的，面积‎20700‎平方公里，‎仅为9%，‎人口300‎万，约为全‎岛的5%。

‎在18世‎纪（170‎7）前，整‎座岛并不叫‎做大不列颠‎。

公元5世‎纪的时候，‎来自北欧叫‎做Angl‎e s部落、‎S axon‎s部落、J‎u tes部‎落的入侵者‎占据了岛屿‎南部并据为‎己有，那时‎才开始采用‎英格兰的名‎字。

英美概况填空翻译解释

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第一篇英联邦第一章土地和人民第一节英吉利群岛和大不列颠一、名字和位置当读英文书籍的时候，一个人应当理解下面几个名词：A）英吉利群岛；B）不列颠（大不列颠）；C）英格兰，苏格兰，威尔士；D）北爱尔兰E）联合王国——大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国欧洲大陆西部边缘及西部以外，有数千座岛，通常被叫做英吉利群岛。

群岛中最大的岛屿叫做大不列颠，为了简单起见，简称不列颠，不过官方正式名称仍为大不列颠。

它南北走向近1000公里，东西绵延约500公里，面积大约为23万平方公里。

但是大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国的整体面积也只是稍多与24万平方公里，人口为5740万（1990）。

就大不列颠岛本身而言，被分为三部分，也被认为是三个国家：地处南部的英格兰，北部的苏格兰，和东南部的威尔士。

英格兰是三个政治实体中最大、最发达的一部分，土地面积超过13万平方公里，占了整个大不列颠岛近60%；人口超过4700万，约为正个国家的85%。

英格兰在大不列颠的地位如此重要以至于外国人称呼整个大不列颠为“英格兰”，这种习俗也用在了对人的称呼上，占多数的英格兰人被认为等同于“英国人”。

在面积和人口上，苏格兰都居第二位，78760平方公里的土地占不列颠岛不到30%，500万的人口不足整座岛的十分之一。

威尔士在面积和人口上都是最小的，面积20700平方公里，仅为9%，人口300万，约为全岛的5%。

在18世纪（1707）前，整座岛并不叫做大不列颠。

公元5世纪的时候，来自北欧叫做Angles部落、Saxons部落、Jutes部落的入侵者占据了岛屿南部并据为己有，那时才开始采用英格兰的名字。

他们的语言就是“English”，后来成为整个国家的官方语言。

“Engl”这一部分来自“Angles”，“ish”意为“属于的东西”，整个“English”的意思就是属于“Angles”的语言。

但是占领英格兰的Angles部落与Saxons部落在努力占领西南部，也就是传统上被称为威尔士的地方的时候，收效甚微，于是他们的大本营就驻扎在英格兰，这个地方还是当地土著塞尔特人（Celts）在公元1世纪遭到罗马入侵者退守的地方。

公元1282年，Anglo-Normans从英格兰入侵威尔士并杀死威尔士王子Llewelln，Anglo-Normans国王爱德华给自己的继承人以“威尔士王子”的头衔，而这之前从来都是英国主权者长子的专利。

虽然被打败了，但威尔士人却不愿放弃自己的文化，所以英格兰与威尔士之间的区别一直延续下来，尽管它们在今天看来，并不明显。

接上篇大不列颠北部最初由叫做Scots部落所统治，据说他们是Celts人的后裔。

他们的领地叫做苏格兰，Scots部落在公元9世纪建国。

苏格兰人以自己的历史及从未被英格兰征服为荣，很多苏格兰的传统保留至今，很多苏格兰人的名字以“M”、“Mc”、“Mac”开头，意思是他们是苏格兰土著语即古塞尔特语的继承者，这种古老的语言现在存在于部分苏格兰境内。

英语是整个国家的通用语，这是因为许多苏格兰人并非塞尔特人后裔，而且学生在学校里接受的仅是正规的英语教育。

公元1603年，英国女王伊丽莎白一世逝世时没有继承人，苏格兰国王詹姆斯六世受邀成为英国国王，也就是詹姆斯一世。

1707年，英国国会通过了《联合行动法案》，使英格兰于苏格兰合为一体，官方正式采用“大不列颠”来称谓整座岛屿。

人们普遍认为苏格兰人认真、谨慎、节俭，并且热情友好。

大不列颠的西方是第二大岛屿爱尔兰岛。

在Anglo-Normans13世纪入侵并征服以前，爱尔兰是一个独立的国家并有数代国王延续。

17世纪英国内战期间，Oliver Cromwell入侵爱尔兰并开启了英国新教徒开拓移民的序幕。

爱尔兰人反对被吞并，而且为赢得独立而奋起战斗，他们最终取得了斗争的胜利，并在1927年建立了爱尔兰共和国。

但由于已经移民进来的英国人拒绝脱离自己的祖国，他们占据了岛屿的北角——大约14000平方公里的地方，并归入联合王国的版图，这样就形成了大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。

北爱尔兰有人口大约150万，他们当中大约有三分之一是罗马天主教徒，反对北爱尔兰与大不列颠的统一。

天主教极端主义者在Dublin的起义被镇压后，于1916年组织建立了爱尔兰共和军，最初他们为爱尔兰的独立而战，如今用恐怖主义促使北爱尔兰与爱尔兰共和国的统一。

恐怖主义造成了很多死伤。

由于他们得到了海外势力的援助，甚至是美国天主教的支持，这一问题使英国政府颇为头疼。

现在英国政府正在同爱尔兰政府开展合作以使北爱尔兰恢复和平。

爱尔兰过去是一个贫穷的国家，过分依靠农业为生。

因为不发达以及天主教的宗教信仰，移民到美过的爱尔兰人在历史上曾遭受数年的歧视之苦，但是他们为美国的发展做出了卓越贡献。

除爱尔兰外，英国不与任何国家有领土交界。

北方的海路开阔，可通过冰岛与挪威直达北极。

在北部海域，英国面对荷兰、德国、丹麦和挪威，而至北冰洋；东南方是英吉利海峡，与法国隔岸相望，西部的海峡只有33公里宽；南方是大西洋，在Biscay海湾对面是西班牙和葡萄牙；美国和加拿大则位于大西洋的西岸。

在历史发展进程中，不列颠岛在世界上的地理位置并不理想，尤其当耶路撒冷被认为是平坦世界的中心的时候，而这世界则被认为是天堂以蓝色窗帘分离下来的。

人们通常认为英国地处边缘，属于世界危险的边缘地带。

1492年哥伦布发现美洲后，终于否定了英国群岛的不利地理地位，并且英国成了非常重要的位置。

从北欧人口密集、高度工业化的地方到达美洲相应的地方，最短的海上路线就这样呈现在英国群岛面前。

前往美洲的欧洲船只总会在英格兰南部沿海的码头小作休憩，这也促使伦敦成为世界上最重要的商业中心。

二、地形特征不列颠岛从北到南超过1000公里，它那1万公里长的海岸线，使得它成为拥有最长海岸线的国家之一。

在这个国家，没有任何地方离海的距离超过120公里。

待续……接上篇：抛开旁边的爱尔兰不算，整个大不列颠岛根据其地形特征可以大致分为两部分：西部和北部的高地，东南部和南部的平地，分界线大概是从西南方的Exe河入海口到英格兰东北部Tees河入海口。

高地区海拔较高的地区根据其地理特征又可以分为6小部分。

A）苏格兰高地区苏格兰高地区包括北部许多苏格兰山脉，走向是从东南向西北，从西向东倾斜。

它们是非常古老的山脉，并且苏格兰高地已经不再呈现有着尖锐山头年轻山脉，在自然条件作用下，这些古老的山脉已经变成了高原。

它的平均海拔是600到900米，在苏格兰高原上，最高的山峰名叫Ben Nevis，海拔约1300米。

苏格兰的高地占据了苏格兰面积的一半以上，但它的土地也仍属于比较贫瘠的那种。

人们是否能够在即定的土地上生存，海拔、气候、地理特征起着很大的作用，这块土地中很大一块是用来饲养牛羊的牧场，不过人口密度依然较小。

B）中部苏格兰山谷苏格兰高地的南面是相对较低的苏格兰山谷，它曾经是一条狭窄的海湾，因为太过狭窄，所以非常适合形成沼泽、森林，留下了些许煤矿的痕迹。

英国的煤田就处于这块低山地的中部，因而它是苏格兰最重要的组成部分。

这块地方集中了苏格兰3/4的人口和大部分工业中心、农场。

C）南部山地离最南部依然很远、与苏格兰中部山谷交界的，是拥有赤裸山脉的南部山地，其中地势较高的地方以环绕形的荒野为主。

它的东面是农场与森林混合的乡野。

这块山地的范围一直延伸到爱尔兰海，其间绵延着许多带有草场的较低平地。

D）The Pennines（地名，词典里没有，无法翻译）The Pennines，被认为是“英格兰的脊梁”，处于英格兰北部，也是一种山地。

这块山地南北走向120公里，最高点在西面的边缘，从西往东，逐渐走低，一直延伸到北海边。

这快山地仍以荒野为主。

E）Cumbria湖区Pennines的西面就是湖区，以湖和放射线状的排水系统而闻名。

15个湖就象一个轮子，中间有个集点，这个地区的脊形地貌造就了英格兰最好的岩石景观和平坦的山脉，尽管它们的海拔相对低些。

一些著名的英国诗人，如William Wordsworth（1779-1859），Samuel Coleridge（1772-1834），还有Robert Southey，把对这个地区的美景的欣赏寄于诗句中，在英国文学史上，他们被成为湖泊诗人。

F）威尔士山丘这块地方拥有威尔士和英国西部的丘陵地貌，但不包括英国南部。

这个地方曾经被沼泽与森林覆盖，所以盛产煤炭。

低地区A）英格兰中部这个地区的大部分都包含地势较低的平原以及V形地（死翻，不知何意）。

Pennines的南端正在V字的中央，左臂的低地与Cheshire和Lancashire的地低相接，右臂则与York 的低地相接。

这个地区的西面与威尔士山丘交界。

B）Lancatria平原它构成中部平原的延续部分，处在Pennines和爱尔兰海之间。

C）东北部低地是Pennines的东边缘，西边与Lancatria平原交界，形成带状低地。

这三处平原土质富饶，适合发展农业。

接上篇：3、气候和天气据说英国人比较沉默寡言，他们不大爱谈论。

当与人交谈时，私人事务如婚姻状况、年龄、收入、宗教信仰等，是不便问的。

但是英国人喜欢谈论天气，有的时候他们为天气的发展趋势争论地非常热烈。

或许这只是一种小小的习惯，但是这个习惯却与英国多变的天气不无关系。

英国天气的变化无常是世人皆知的，即使最有经验的天气专家也很难给出可靠的天气预报。

所以，英国人逐渐养成一种习惯，那就是无论何时何地，只要可能，他们就会谈论天气情况。

“奇特”的温度是英国气候的主要特点，我们说它“奇特”是因为它与纬度并不协调，冬天的温度“太高”而夏天的温度“太低”，接下来我们将会看到。

有些英国人认为他们没有气候只有天气，他们这样说是基于这样的事实：天气变化无常，季节之间的差异很小。

尽管这样说，英国还是有季节的。

大体上说，英国的夏天包括6、7、8月，夏天昼长夜短，太阳在早晨4点前就开始升起，直到晚上8点以后还不见落下。

在英国，夏天的黄昏出奇地长，晚上10点之后，天还未全黑透。

夏天的温度并不太高，大部分时间只有大约20摄氏度，极少超过32摄氏度。

冬天则包括12月、1月、2月，1月是一年中最冷的月份。

即使在最冷的月份，平均温度也在3摄氏度以上，且极少降到零度之下。

英国人通常在房子外面安置排水管道。

有的时候也下雪，但是微薄的雪片落到地面后很快就融化掉。

大雪偶然会有，但非常罕见。

滑雪爱好者不得不到苏格兰的高山上，如果想进行长期的滑雪，他们就不得不走出英国了。

秋天是成熟和收获的季节，在整个夏天中茁壮成长的庄稼可以收获了。

所有树的叶子都由绿色变成深棕色或深黄色，之后飘然而落。

秋天的天气非常宜人、温暖、清新。

春天是万物复苏的季节，树木开始抽出嫩芽，候鸟又迁徙而来，盛开的花朵用斑斓的颜色点缀着大地，农夫们在田野里播种。