工程管理制度专业外文文献翻译(中英文)
土木建筑工程工程管理中英文对照外文翻译文献
(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)中英文资料外文翻译文献外文翻译Abstract:To study the application of continuum structural topology optimization methods to real engineering structures,an optimization method for an optimal topology design of multistory steel frame bracing systems is presented.On a sensitivity analysis,an element removal criterion for continuum structures with stress and multi-displacement constraints under multiple lateral loading conditions is proposed.A concept of mean thickness of a design domain is provided to ensure the reasonableness of optimal results.In the proposed optimization method,the optimal design of an unbraced steel frame without displacement constraints is performed firstly,and then the optimal topology of a bracing system for the multistory steel frame considering displacement constraints is obtained by using evolutionary structural optimization and the given removal criterion,and finally the optima layout of the bracing system is interpreted as bracing members.An example of 3-bay 12-story plane steel frame shows that it is effective for the given optimizationmethod in the optimal design of bracing systems for multistory steel frames.Key words:steel frame;bracing system;continuum;topology optimization;evolutionary structural optimization1．Reinforced ConcretePlain concrete is formed from a hardened mixture of cement ,water ,fine aggregate, coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel),air, and often other admixtures. The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to facilitate the acceleration of the chemical hydration reaction lf the cement/water mix, resulting in hardened concrete. The finished product has high compressive strength, and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one tenth lf its compressive strength. Consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement in the tensile regions of sections has to be provided to compensate for the weak tension regions in the reinforced concrete element.It is this deviation in the composition of a reinforces concrete section from the homogeneity of standard wood or steel sections that requires a modified approach to the basic principles of structural design. The two components of the heterogeneous reinforced concrete section are to be so arranged and proportioned that optimal use is made of the materials involved. This is possible because concrete can easily be given any desired shape by placing and compacting the wet mixture of the constituent ingredients are properly proportioned, the finished product becomes strong, durable, and, in combination with the reinforcing bars, adaptable for use as main members of any structural system.The techniques necessary for placing concrete depend on the type of member to be cast: that is, whether it is a column, a bean, a wall, a slab, a foundation. a mass columns, or an extension of previously placed and hardened concrete. For beams, columns, and walls, the forms should be well oiled after cleaning them, and the reinforcement should be cleared of rust and other harmful materials. In foundations, the earth should be compacted and thoroughly moistened to about 6 in. in depth to avoid absorption of the moisture present in the wet concrete. Concrete should always be placed in horizontal layers which are compacted by means of high frequency power-driven vibrators of either the immersion or external type, as the case requires, unless it is placed by pumping. It must be kept in mind, however, that over vibration can be harmful since it could cause segregation of the aggregate and bleeding of the concrete.Hydration of the cement takes place in the presence of moisture at temperatures above 50°F. It is necessary to maintain such a condition in order that the chemicalhydration reaction can take place. If drying is too rapid, surface cracking takes place. This would result in reduction of concrete strength due to cracking as well as the failure to attain full chemical hydration.It is clear that a large number of parameters have to be dealt with in proportioning a reinforced concrete element, such as geometrical width, depth, area of reinforcement, steel strain, concrete strain, steel stress, and so on. Consequently, trial and adjustment is necessary in the choice of concrete sections, with assumptions based on conditions at site, availability of the constituent materials, particular demands of the owners, architectural and headroom requirements, the applicable codes, and environmental reinforced concrete is often a site-constructed composite, in contrast to the standard mill-fabricated beam and column sections in steel structures.A trial section has to be chosen for each critical location in a structural system. The trial section has to be analyzed to determine if its nominal resisting strength is adequate to carry the applied factored load. Since more than one trial is often necessary to arrive at the required section, the first design input step generates into a series of trial-and-adjustment analyses.The trial-and –adjustment procedures for the choice of a concrete section lead to the convergence of analysis and design. Hence every design is an analysis once a trial section is chosen. The availability of handbooks, charts, and personal computers and programs supports this approach as a more efficient, compact, and speedy instructional method compared with the traditional approach of treating the analysis of reinforced concrete separately from pure design.2. EarthworkBecause earthmoving methods and costs change more quickly than those in any other branch of civil engineering, this is a field where there are real opportunities for the enthusiast. In 1935 most of the methods now in use for carrying and excavating earth with rubber-tyred equipment did not exist. Most earth was moved by narrow rail track, now relatively rare, and the main methods of excavation, with face shovel, backacter, or dragline or grab, though they are still widely used are only a few of the many current methods. To keep his knowledge of earthmoving equipment up to date an engineer must therefore spend tine studying modern machines. Generally the only reliable up-to-date information on excavators, loaders and transport is obtainable from the makers.Earthworks or earthmoving means cutting into ground where its surface is too high ( cuts ), and dumping the earth in other places where the surface is too low ( fills). Toreduce earthwork costs, the volume of the fills should be equal to the volume of the cuts and wherever possible the cuts should be placednear to fills of equal volume so as to reduce transport and double handlingof the fill. This work of earthwork design falls on the engineer who lays out the road since it is the layout of the earthwork more than anything else which decides its cheapness. From the available maps ahd levels, the engineering must try to reach as many decisions as possible in the drawing office by drawing cross sections of the earthwork. On the site when further information becomes available he can make changes in jis sections and layout,but the drawing lffice work will not have been lost. It will have helped him to reach the best solution in the shortest time.The cheapest way of moving earth is to take it directly out of the cut and drop it as fill with the same machine. This is not always possible, but when it canbe done it is ideal, being both quick and cheap. Draglines, bulldozers and face shovels an do this. The largest radius is obtained with the dragline,and the largest tonnage of earth is moved by the bulldozer, though only over short distances.The disadvantages of the dragline are that it must dig below itself, it cannot dig with force into compacted material, it cannot dig on steep slopws, and its dumping and digging are not accurate.Face shovels are between bulldozers and draglines, having a larger radius of action than bulldozers but less than draglines. They are anle to dig into a vertical cliff face in a way which would be dangerous tor a bulldozer operator and impossible for a dragline. Each piece of equipment should be level of their tracks and for deep digs in compact material a backacter is most useful, but its dumping radius is considerably less than that of the same escavator fitted with a face shovel.Rubber-tyred bowl scrapers are indispensable for fairly level digging where the distance of transport is too much tor a dragline or face shovel. They can dig the material deeply ( but only below themselves ) to a fairly flat surface, carry it hundreds of meters if need be, then drop it and level it roughly during the dumping. For hard digging it is often found economical to keep a pusher tractor ( wheeled or tracked ) on the digging site, to push each scraper as it returns to dig. As soon as the scraper is full,the pusher tractor returns to the beginning of the dig to heop to help the nest scraper.Bowl scrapers are often extremely powerful machines;many makers build scrapers of 8 cubic meters struck capacity, which carry 10 m ³heaped. The largest self-propelledscrapers are of 19 m ³ struck capacity ( 25 m ³ heaped )and they are driven by a tractor engine of 430 horse-powers.Dumpers are probably the commonest rubber-tyred transport since they can also conveniently be used for carrying concrete or other building materials. Dumpers have the earth container over the front axle on large rubber-tyred wheels, and the container tips forwards on most types, though in articulated dumpers the direction of tip can be widely varied. The smallest dumpers have a capacity of about 0.5 m ³, and the largest standard types are of about 4.5 m ³. Special types include the self-loading dumper of up to 4 m ³ and the articulated type of about 0.5 m ³. The distinction between dumpers and dump trucks must be remembered .dumpers tip forwards and the driver sits behind the load. Dump trucks are heavy, strengthened tipping lorries, the driver travels in front lf the load and the load is dumped behind him, so they are sometimes called rear-dump trucks.3. Safety of StructuresThe principal scope of specifications is to provide general principles and computational methods in order to verify safety of structures. The “ safety factor ”, which according to modern trends is independent of the nature and combination of the materials used, can usually be defined as the ratio between the conditions. This ratio is also proportional to the inverse of the probability ( risk ) of failure of the structure.Failure has to be considered not only as overall collapse of the structure but also as unserviceability or, according to a more precise. Common definition. As the reaching of a “ limit state ” which causes the construction not to accomplish the task it was designed for. There are two categories of limit state :(1)Ultimate limit sate, which corresponds to the highest value of the load-bearing capacity. Examples include local buckling or global instability of the structure; failure of some sections and subsequent transformation of the structure into a mechanism; failure by fatigue; elastic or plastic deformation or creep that cause a substantial change of the geometry of the structure; and sensitivity of the structure to alternating loads, to fire and to explosions.(2)Service limit states, which are functions of the use and durability of the structure. Examples include excessive deformations and displacements without instability; early or excessive cracks; large vibrations; and corrosion.Computational methods used to verify structures with respect to the different safety conditions can be separated into:(1)Deterministic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as nonrandom parameters.(2)Probabilistic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as random parameters.Alternatively, with respect to the different use of factors of safety, computational methods can be separated into:(1)Allowable stress method, in which the stresses computed under maximum loads are compared with the strength of the material reduced by given safety factors.(2)Limit states method, in which the structure may be proportioned on the basis of its maximum strength. This strength, as determined by rational analysis, shall not be less than that required to support a factored load equal to the sum of the factored live load and dead load ( ultimate state ).The stresses corresponding to working ( service ) conditions with unfactored live and dead loads are compared with prescribed values ( service limit state ) . From the four possible combinations of the first two and second two methods, we can obtain some useful computational methods. Generally, two combinations prevail:(1)deterministic methods, which make use of allowable stresses.(2)Probabilistic methods, which make use of limit states.The main advantage of probabilistic approaches is that, at least in theory, it is possible to scientifically take into account all random factors of safety, which are then combined to define the safety factor. probabilistic approaches depend upon :(1) Random distribution of strength of materials with respect to the conditions of fabrication and erection ( scatter of the values of mechanical properties through out the structure );(2) Uncertainty of the geometry of the cross-section sand of the structure ( faults and imperfections due to fabrication and erection of the structure );(3) Uncertainty of the predicted live loads and dead loads acting on the structure;(4)Uncertainty related to the approximation of the computational method used ( deviation of the actual stresses from computed stresses ).Furthermore, probabilistic theories mean that the allowable risk can be based on several factors, such as :(1) Importance of the construction and gravity of the damage by its failure;(2)Number of human lives which can be threatened by this failure;(3)Possibility and/or likelihood of repairing the structure;(4) Predicted life of the structure.All these factors are related to economic and social considerations such as：(1) Initial cost of the construction;(2) Amortization funds for the duration of the construction;(3) Cost of physical and material damage due to the failure of the construction;(4) Adverse impact on society;(5) Moral and psychological views.The definition of all these parameters, for a given safety factor, allows construction at the optimum cost. However, the difficulty of carrying out a complete probabilistic analysis has to be taken into account. For such an analysis the laws of the distribution of the live load and its induced stresses, of the scatter of mechanical properties of materials, and of the geometry of the cross-sections and the structure have to be known. Furthermore, it is difficult to interpret the interaction between the law of distribution of strength and that of stresses because both depend upon the nature of the material, on the cross-sections and upon the load acting on the structure. These practical difficulties can be overcome in two ways. The first is to apply different safety factors to the material and to the loads, without necessarily adopting the probabilistic criterion. The second is an approximate probabilistic method which introduces some simplifying assumptions ( semi-probabilistic methods ) .2. 中文翻译摘要：为了研究连续型拓扑优化理论在实际工程中的应用，该文给出了一种多层钢框架支撑体系连续型拓扑优化设计方法。
工程管理中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献中英文对照外文翻译The Internet is Applicated in Real EstateThe Real Estate Industry and the World Wide Web: Changing Technology, Changing Location.The Internet, in its Web based graphics version, has captured the imagination of both consumers and businesses. Its convenience, speed, low cost and versatility are being exploited on a daily basis in ever-changing ways. Together with its capacity to transform existing businesses, promote new businesses and facilitate exchange of information and data, its other striking attribute has been the speed with which this new technology has spread throughout the global economy.Keywords:The internet;Real Estate;ApplicatedThe number of computer hosts grew by more than ten-fold between 1995 and early 1999. The number of Web sites increased almost 100-fold, to over two million, between 1995 and 1998.Ｂy the year 2000, there will be approximately 400-500 million Internet users in the world, and the total number of Web sites will exceed five million.This new technology has the potential for affecting the real estate industry directly and indirectly. Directly, it may become a tool that allows a real estate business to expand its information and sales network. Indirectly, it may change the location equation where and how firms do business which in turn will affect the role of firms involved in real estate development, investment and transactions.Measuring the Spread of the WebThere are few reliable published statistics on Internet or Web use, and statistics reported by different analysts are often inconsistent. Our discussion of the Web and real estate is based on limited information from surveys and on examination of Web sites rather than on more comprehensive data. We have built our overview of the role of the World Wide Web and real estate by examining a variety of sources(including trade publications, existing Web sites, and our own survey of selected real estate firms)From E-mail to E-commerceBefore the advent of the World Wide Web, the Internet existed mostly for the purposes of e-mail, data transfers, newsgroups and bulletin boards, and its reach was limited primarily to the academic and the defense community. The technology itself was not particularly user-friendly, the network speed was not very high, the medium was limited to text and data, and accessing information was cumbersome and time-consuming. The browser technology greatly simplified usage, enabled multimedia information, and created interactive possibilities. The technology brought together TV entertainment, library information, news bulletins, communication and data in one desktop machine.Although initially the greatest patrons of the Internet were the academic community, the commercial sector quickly caught on to the potential of the Web. The private sector saw in the Web an opportunity to widen its marketing reach, lower costs of information dissemination, improve customer relations, and ultimately to conduct sales. Existing private sector Web sites can be roughly categorized into three types, as summarized. The most basic level is for simple information dissemination. The firm registers a Web site and develops a page giving basic company information. The second stage is an expansion of information, marketing goods and services or providing other customer information. The third stage is the addition of transactions tothe activities possible on the Web site.Most business sites at present are in Stage 2. The use of the World Wide Web for detailed information dissemination, and marketing has had several advantages. For the firm, marketing, information dissemination and customer services on the Web can be monitored and analyzed with some details unavailable from conventional methods of marketing using other media. Internet tools can now provide a firm with data on who accessed the site, which pages were visited most, heavily, from where and for how long. This information contributes to improved measures of the results of promotional efforts. The promotional costs associated with the Internet have also been very low. For example, in direct mail marketing, to send a one-page color brochure to 5,000 random addresses will cost upwards of $2,500. The cost of setting up a Web site could be one-tenth of this amount or less (although tracking and analysis can quickly add to the cost)?Many different sectors, including real estate, have found the Internet to be both efficient and cost-effective as a marketing device.The next logical step - a full-fledged office/store on the Web with transaction capability and commerce on the Internet is now being attempted in varying degrees depending on the firm's area of business. Retail sites selling products between $10 and $100, the kind that are traditionally part of a direct mail sales catalog, seem to be the ones having the greatest success(although 4% of sites sell products over $10,000 and another 13% sell products ranging from $100 to$9,999)?A number of retail sites have also harnessed a secondary revenue stream from advertising. Advertising revenues on the Web have crossed the billion-dollar mark and total Internet generated revenue will approach$100 billion this year.Consumers' Use of the WebSurveys of consumers using the Web suggest that a Web site does notsubstitute for the more traditional forms of business, but can greatly facilitate the run-up to the final transaction. The most common use of the Web is for information searching, closely followed by work-related uses, education, and entertainment. A significant majority of those that use the Web for shopping do so to carry out detailed research on product information（90%）and to do price comparisons（85%）. This more often leads to purchases through normal channels（67%）. Most of the online purchases tend to be of items that are standardized-four of the five top items bought on the Web, according to survey, are software, books, hardware and music (the fifth is travel). More than half of consumers who make purchases on the Web spend less than $500 in a six-month period.The demographics of Web users vary widely in age and income. Surveys by Georgia Tech, Active Media and Web indicate that the average age of Web users is 35 years, with average household income $67,000. Most are college educated (65%). A high proportion of the respondents (42%) has accessed real estate sites.Limits to the Web - Some "Catches" to the New Technology New technology is frequently a mixed blessing, and the World Wide Web is no exception. Apart from the teething troubles that any new technology faces and the time, as well as resources needed to learn, adapt and master it, the Web poses some unique issues and problems of its own. Consumers today are facing information overload of taxing proportions. It is not always easy, or even possible, to locate the relevant information on the Web, despite sophisticated search engines. Once the site is located, fancy graphics, complex linkages, labyrinthine routings, and a lot of irrelevant information may overwhelm the consumer - in short, poor and confusing site design can reduce the site's effectiveness.From the point of view of the business, there are two commonly heardcomplaints. First, the business may find that its site does not figure prominently on search results, limiting the number of customers reached. Second, for many firms, Web initiated leads are as yet few and far between. Real Estate Web SitesReal Estate firms and related businesses were among the early private sector pioneers of Internet use and have had a fast growing presence on the Web. presence on the Web. One example of the real estate sector's presence on the Internet in its pre-World Wide Web incarnation was the real estate classified bulletin board of Prodigy, the online service, which had listings for homes and other real estate. A few real estate related Web sites started in 1994 (generally regarded as the inaugural year of the Web). The New York City Real Estate Guide Web site, created in the summer of 1994, was one of the first to offer free access to the latest New York real estate information. By the summer of 1995, the site was receiving more than 100,000 inquiries a month.The real estate industry registered its entry on the Web in a dramatic way in 1995. By the end of that year there were close to 4,000 real estate Web sites. The content matter of the sites, as well as the mix of real estate related firms on the Web have changed over time. Initially, quite a few of the sites were residential real estate brokerages and listing guides, but fairly rapidly the list expanded to include commercial and retail listings, mortgage brokers,appraisers, architects, real estate attorneys, developers, construction firms, and suppliers. As investment vehicles for real estate expanded, REITs, publicly held firms, and investment advisors also added Web sites.The early real estate broker Web sites quickly took advantage of the unique features of the Web. Prospective customers could find out what properties were for sale or rent, look up detailed descriptions of each listing, view photographs and floor plans, and contact the broker by e-mail. Viewerscould also look up statistical and data reports on conditions in various geographical areas and on emerging macroeconomic trends.Ever since then, the real estate industry has been among the most enthusiastic users of the Web, by some measures accounting for 4% to 6% of commercial Web sites. A survey conducted by Real Estate Broker's Insider in early 1998 confirmed that nearly 95% of the respondents/brokers had a Web site, and more than 90% of the housing stock on sale at a given time is now listed on the Web. Indeed, because of the dispersed, localized nature of the role of information in real estate, the prospective gains from information dissemination, comparability, and Web links were particularly significant in real estate.For much of the real estate sector, the Internet generates not so much the actual transactions themselves, but creates initial leads that are later followed by transactions, purchases and sales. Web sites frequently lead to contacts that are then nurtured through telephone and person-to-person meetings. For residential real estate, Web activity includes residential searches, housing details, and pricing information (both on houses and mortgages), with follow-up contact with brokers. Real estate-related transactions are seen in the hospitality industry (making reservations for hotels and vacation homes and in online mortgage applications). Mortgage and home loan finance companies report both inquiries from mortgage shoppers who obtained initial information from their Web sites, as well as closing of loans through the Web, lead to great savings in time and overhead costs.It is not just the real estate professionals who are enthusiastic about their Internet presence, judging it to be as effective as print and radio advertising. Mortgage shoppers, homebuyers and vacation rental seekers as well applaud, in particular, the convenience it brings to the entire process of searching, researching, comparing, communicating and transacting business.Beyond these sectors, many other types of real-estate related firms are using the Web to broaden their market areas, increase the depth of their marketing, and to provide a range of services to existing customers. Commercial brokers provide not only information on available sites but also on market conditions for different locations and sometimes more in-depth economic analysis of a region. REITs and other investment firms provide detailed information on their products as well as background market or economic information. Public companies provide up-to-date stock quotes and quarterly and annual reports on the Web.Web Penetration and Use: The Experience of Leading Real Estate Firms We conducted a limited survey of a sample of leading real-estate related firms in the US and California. Responses from approximately 60 of these firms showed that over four-fifths had Web Sites by March 1999. 2 Of those with Web sites, one-third had inaugurated their sites by the end of 1996. Among the earliest with a Web presence were brokers, investment firms, lenders, business and financial services firms, law firms, residential developers, and a trade organization. Another third of the group were newcomers, with sites inaugurated in 1998 or early 1999. Commercial developers were prominent among this group, with residential developers, consultants and advisors, lenders, REITs and investment firms also among this group. Those without sites were more likely to be privately held firms with a relatively narrow base of activity (for example, a commercial developer centered in the San Francisco Bay Area)?Most with Web sites used their site to provide information about the company and to market services. In addition, about one-third marketed property from their site, providing detailed information on the characteristics of buildings available, surrounding communities, and other related data. Other Web site uses include employee recruiting, providing information formembers or investors, and disseminating related information on topics such as regulations or real estate markets.What does the Web specifically do for Real Estate?According to Activemedia, an internet research company, some of the sectors experiencing the greatest growth in terms of their presence on the Web in 1998 were computer hardware and software, real estate, publishing and information, finance and Internet services. A significant initial motivation for this rush for the Web is provided by, what can be termed, the "tiptoe" effect. The first ones on the Web had an additional advantage over those who did not; information on their services, products, home listings now be accessed conveniently by those with computers. The low setup cost, however, and the potential disadvantage of not having a Web presence has propelled others in the profession to set up their own sites.Real estate shares in some of the basic advantages of the Web mentioned earlier, such as ease of marketing, communication and feedback from clients, lowered costs of operations and convenience of customer service and support. In addition, the Web provides positive features specific to the real estate industry.Key elements include the following.1.Increased geographic reach.The Web has dramatically increased the geographic reach of both buyers and sellers. Although the "local" aspect of real estate will perhaps never be whittled away completely, there is no doubt that inquiries about properties can now emanate from far away to a much greater degree than before. This, in turn, potentially increases the size and "depth" of the market and makes it more efficient.2.Capability of visualization.In some sense, increased geographic reach has become possible due tothe other emergent feature of the Web, the capability of visualization. In its most state-of-the-art form, Web sites now allow prospective buyers to take virtual tours of homes, resorts, hotels and convention centers.3.Reduced transaction costs.The Web may reduce transactions costs. This has been particularly apparent in the case of mortgages. According to Fannie Mae, 1.5% of all mortgages were handled online this past year. The Web-attributable features that make this kind of a transaction possible are instantaneous comparability, interactive capability, online calculation, online applications, and continuous updating of the sites.4.Improved information dissemination.The Web offers broad opportunities for increasing the scope and depth of information provided by many different types of firms. A well constructed home page gives an overview of a firm's range of services or activities. Links allow the customer or client to learn much more detail about the selected items of most interest, while ignoring less relevant pieces of information. A number of sites take advantage of the ability to link to resources beyond the company's Web pages, linking customers and clients to related Web resources.Unlike retail sectors, such as books and computer hardware, the Web as yet has not become a threat to the "middle man" role of many real estate firms. Instead, it is more likely to be used as a means of expanding services offered or locations served. However, in the long term, the Web and related Internet technology have the potential to change the structure of business activity, which in turn will affect the demand for real estate in type if not in quantity. For example, some retailers already have closed stores while expanding sales on the Web. Also, the Internet has been seen as one factor allowing the decentralization of office space. These trends to date have notled to a decline, but rather to a redistribution in the demand for office, retail and warehouse space.These are summarized .Speculation on Potential Impact of Internet on Real Estate Industry.1.Shortening of Transaction Cycle2.Precise Market Targeting3.Transformed Competition4.Cost savings:a)Marketing,b)Sales,c)Operation5.Possibility of Disintermediation;Lowering of Commissionsbination of Comparison Shopping and Direct Sales7.Access to MBS Secondary MarketHow to Find the Real Estate Sector on the WebThere are a few key sites that can be used to access the broad range of real-estate related Web sites. These include:-Site sponsored by the National Association of Realtors, linking users to realtor, home sales and market information.-Site sponsored by the National Association of Home Builders, providing a wide range of market information.-Directory to commercial real estate sites, including brokers,developers, investors and analysts. and , two sites that provide users with information about mortgage rates, mortgage brokers and with the opportunity to submit an application online. (National Association of Real Estate Investment Trusts) and (Real Estate Investment Advisory Council), two associations related to real estate investment trusts.-The California Association of Realtors site.the site for the Urban Land Institute, with information onthe organization, programs, conferences, and publications related to real estate and land use. has three online magazines including National Real Estate Investor, Shopping Center World, and Midwest Real Estate News. An additional real estate online magazine, can available at .Ashok Deo BardhanRESEARCH FELLOWCynthia A. KrollREGIONAL ECONOMIST互联网在房地产业的应用摘要：互联网，仅仅它的网页图形版本，就已经吸引了众多消费者和商家的目光。
工程管理专业外文文献以及汉文翻译
外文文献:The project management office as an organisational innovationBrian Hobbs ＊, Monique Aubry，Denis ThuillierUniversity of Quebec at Montreal, Department of Management and Technology，PO Box 8888，Downtown Station，Montreal，Que，Canada H3C 3P8Received 15 May 2008; accepted 20 May 2008AbstractThe paper presents an investigation of the creation and the reconfiguration of project management offices （PMOs) as an organizational innovation。
The analysis of 11 organisational transformations centred on the implementation or reconfiguration of PMOs is presented. The objective of the paper is to contribute to a better understanding of PMOs and of the dynamic relationship between project management and the organisational context。
The aim is also to integrate the examination of PMOs as an organisational innovation into the mainstream of research on the place of project management in organisations and more widely to the ‘‘rethinking of project management.”1。
工程项目管理制度英文
In the field of engineering, project management plays a crucial role in ensuring the successful completion of projects. A well-defined project management system is essential to streamline processes, minimize risks, and achieve project objectives within the allocated time and budget. This article aims to provide an overview of an effective project management system specifically tailored for engineering projects.1. IntroductionEngineering projects are complex and involve various stakeholders, including clients, designers, contractors, suppliers, and regulatory authorities. A comprehensive project management system is designed to coordinate these stakeholders, facilitate communication, and ensure that all project activities are executed in a timely and efficient manner.2. Project InitiationThe first step in the project management system is project initiation. This involves defining the project scope, objectives, and deliverables. The project manager should work closely with the client to understand their requirements and expectations. A feasibility study may be conducted to assess the technical, economic, and operational aspects of the project.3. Project PlanningOnce the project is initiated, the next step is to develop a detailed project plan. This includes defining the project schedule, identifying the resources required, and establishing the budget. The following components are typically included in the project plan:- Work breakdown structure (WBS): This breaks down the project into smaller, manageable tasks.- Gantt chart: This visual representation of the project schedule helps in tracking progress and identifying critical paths.- Resource allocation: This involves assigning resources, such as personnel, equipment, and materials, to each task.- Budget estimation: This includes estimating the costs associated with each task and the overall project.- Risk management plan: This identifies potential risks and outlines mitigation strategies.4. Project ExecutionDuring the project execution phase, the project manager coordinates the activities of the project team. This involves:- Monitoring progress: Regularly reviewing the project schedule, budget, and quality to ensure that the project is on track.- Communication: Maintaining open lines of communication with all stakeholders to ensure that everyone is informed about the project status.- Change management: Handling any changes to the project scope, schedule, or budget, and obtaining necessary approvals.- Quality control: Ensuring that the project deliverables meet the required standards and specifications.5. Project Monitoring and ControlProject monitoring and control are essential to ensure that the project remains on track. This involves:- Tracking progress: Comparing the actual progress with the planned schedule and identifying any deviations.- Identifying and mitigating risks: Continuously monitoring forpotential risks and implementing mitigation strategies to minimize their impact.- Controlling costs: Monitoring the project budget and taking corrective actions if necessary.- Ensuring quality: Conducting quality assurance activities to ensurethat the project deliverables meet the required standards.6. Project ClosureThe final phase of the project management system is project closure. This involves:- Delivering the project deliverables to the client.- Conducting a project review to evaluate the project's performance and identify lessons learned.- Obtaining client approval and releasing the project team.- Archiving project documentation for future reference.7. ConclusionAn effective project management system is crucial for the successful execution of engineering projects. By following a structured approach, project managers can ensure that projects are completed on time, within budget, and meet the required quality standards. Implementing a robust project management system can lead to increased client satisfaction, reduced risks, and enhanced project performance.。
工程管理专业外文文献及翻译
本科毕业设计外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：Changiｎｇroｌes ｏｆｔhｅｃl ｉentsＡrchiteｃtｓand contrａctoｒsThrouｇｈＢIＭ文献、资料来源：Ｅngiｎeerｉng, Cｏnｓtructioｎ，Arch ｉ-ｔectｕal Manageｍent文献、资料发表（出版)日期:２01０．2院(部）:专业:班级：姓名：学号:指导教师：翻译日期:外文文献：Changing ｒoles oｆtｈe clｉｅnts,arcｈiｔｅcts and contrａcｔorｓthrougｈBIMRiｚａl ＳebastianTNO Bｕｉlt Environmentａnd Ｇeｏｓｃiences，Dｅｌfｔ，ThｅNeｔherlａnds AbstｒacｔPuｒpｏｓe–This pａpｅｒａiｍsｔｏpreseｎt a general reｖｉewｏf tｈe prａｃtiｃal iｍｐlｉcatioｎs of building inforｍatiｏn mｏｄelｌing(BIＭ) bａsｅd oｎliｔe ｒature ａｎd case studiｅs. It sｅeks to ａddｒeｓs tｈe necｅｓｓitｙforａｐｐlyｉnｇBIM and rｅ－ｏrganiｓiｎg the ｐｒocｅsseｓaｎd roleｓiｎｈosｐital building ｐrojects. Thｉｓtｙｐｅof proｊect isｃomｐlｅｘdｕe tｏｃｏmplｉｃated funcｔi ｏｎal and tｅｃhnｉｃal requiｒｅmentｓ，ｄeｃiｓion mａkｉng invoｌvｉｎg a large ｎuｍbｅr oｆｓtakｅholdｅrs，aｎd loｎg-teｒm develoｐｍeｎt pｒoｃｅsｓes.Dｅｓign/methodｏlogｙ/ａpproacｈ–Throuｇh deｓkｒesearch aｎｄｒｅferriｎg ｔｏthｅonｇoinｇEuropeaｎreseaｒｃh project InPro, tｈｅframework for ｉnteｇratｅｄcoｌlａｂoratioｎanｄthe usｅof ＢIM are analysed. Ｔhrough severalｒe ａｌcａｓeｓ, ｔｈeｃhanging ｒoles oｆｃlｉeｎts, arcｈitecｔｓ,and cｏnｔracto ｒｓthrough ＢIM applicatｉon ａrｅinveｓtigatｅd.Ｆｉｎｄiｎgs–Ｏne oｆｔｈe mａｉn findingｓis the ｉｄenｔifｉcａｔiｏn ｏｆthe maiｎｆａctorｓfｏr a ｓuccessful collaboration using BIM, whiｃh caｎbｅreｃｏｇｎiseｄａs“POＷER”: pｒoduｃｔinformation sｈａring (Ｐ),orｇaniｓational roleｓsyｎｅrｇｙ(O），ｗork proｃeｓｓes cooｒdinatｉon (W）, eｎviｒｏnmｅｎt foｒｔeamwｏrｋ（Ｅ), ａnd rｅfeｒenｃe datａcｏnsｏliｄation (R)．Ｆurthermｏre, it ｉs alｓｏfoundｔhat tｈe ｉｍｐlｅmentａｔｉｏn of BＩM iｎhｏspｉｔal builｄing projeｃts isｓtill limitｅｄduｅto ｃertaｉn comｍeｒcial anｄlegal baｒrｉers, ａｓｗell as the fａct ｔｈaｔintegｒateｄｃoｌlaboｒatiｏn haｓnot yｅｔbeen embedded inｔhe reａl ｅstａte ｓtrａteｇiｅs of ｈealthcａre institutiｏns. Originａlity/valuｅ–Tｈiｓpaｐｅr contribuｔes to thｅactuaｌdiｓcusｓiｏn inｓcience anｄpractiｃe oｎthe ｃｈaｎging rolｅｓand prｏｃesses that are rｅｑuireｄto deｖｅlop aｎd oｐｅrate sustａinaｂle bｕｉldinｇｓwith the ｓｕｐport of intｅgrａｔｅd ＩCＴfraｍeworks aｎdｔoｏｌs. Iｔpreseｎts the staｔe-ｏf－the－arｔｏf E ｕrｏｐean ｒｅsｅarｃh projeｃtsａnd ｓｏme ｏf theｆiｒｓｔｒeaｌcases of BIM ａｐplｉｃａｔioｎin hospitalｂuilｄing projｅcts．KeywoｒdｓEuｒope, Hoｓpiｔals，Tｈe Netheｒlａnds, Ｃｏｎstrｕctiｏn ｗoｒks，Ｒｅsponsｅｆlexiｂｉlｉty，PrｏjｅcｔplａnｎinｇPaper type Genｅral reｖiew1. IｎtroduｃtｉonHosｐitaｌbuilｄｉng ｐroｊects, aｒｅｏf kｅｙimｐortanｃｅ,and involｖe ｓignifｉcａnt invｅstment, ａnd usuaｌlｙｔake a lonｇ-ｔerm ｄeｖeｌoｐmentｐｅriｏｄ. Ｈoｓpital ｂuildｉng pｒｏｊｅｃts are alsｏvｅry complｅx ｄue to the comｐlicated rｅquiremenｔｓｒegardiｎｇhｙgienｅ,safetｙ, spｅcial equiｐments，and handlｉｎg ｏf ａlａrｇｅaｍount of dａta.Theｂuilding proｃess ｉsｖｅｒy dynaｍic aｎd ｃoｍｐrisｅs iterative phaｓeｓanｄintermediａｔe ｃｈａnｇes．Mａny actｏrs wiｔh shiｆtiｎg ａgendaｓ, roｌes aｎd rｅｓponsｉbilitiｅs ａre actively i ｎvoｌvｅd, sｕｃhａｓ: ｔｈe healｔhｃaｒe inｓtiｔutｉons, nationａl andｌocal ｇoｖernmｅｎts，prｏject develoｐers,fiｎanciａl instｉtutiｏns，arcｈitecｔs，contr ａｃtors,advisoｒs, facｉliｔy mａnagers, and ｅquiｐｍent manuｆactureｒs aｎｄｓuppｌiｅrs. Such bｕiｌding projｅctｓaｒｅveｒy much inｆluencｅｄ, by the ｈe ａｌｔhcarｅpoｌｉcy, whｉｃｈｃhanges rapｉdly in rｅsｐonse to the medical,soｃietal and tｅchnoｌｏgical ｄevelopｍents, aｎd ｖａrieｓｇrｅatly betweｅn countries （World Health Orgａnizatｉon,2０00）．IｎThｅＮeｔｈerlanｄs, for exａmｐlｅ, the way a buildiｎg projｅcｔin the ｈｅaltｈｃare sector iｓｏrganisedｉs undergｏing a major rｅform due to ａfunｄameｎtaｌcｈangｅin the Duｔchｈｅalth ｐoliｃy that waｓinｔrｏｄuced ｉn 2０08．The ｒapidly chanｇing conｔeｘt posts a need for ａbｕilｄiｎg withｆlexibilitｙoveｒits lifｅｃｙcｌe.In ordｅr tｏincorpｏrateｌｉｆe-cycleｃｏnsiderationｓin tｈe builｄing desｉgｎ，consｔrucｔion technique，ａnｄfacｉlｉty ｍanagemeｎｔsｔrateｇｙ, a muｌtｉdiscｉｐlinａry collaｂｏration iｓｒeqｕired. Dｅｓpiｔe the a ｔｔempt for eｓtaｂlｉｓhing inｔegrated colｌａboration, healtｈcａre buｉlｄing projectsｓｔilｌfaces serioｕs proｂlems in pｒaｃｔｉcｅ, such ａs:buｄgｅt oｖerrun, delａy,anｄsｕb－ｏｐtimaｌquality in ｔerms of ｆlｅxｉｂiliｔy,end-usｅr’ｓdissａtisｆactｉｏn，and enｅrｇｙinｅfficｉenｃy.It iｓevidｅnt tｈat tｈe laｃk ｏf communicａtion ａndｃoordinａtion betwｅｅn tｈe aｃtorｓinｖoｌved in the differｅnt phases of ａbuilｄiｎg prｏject is aｍonｇtｈe ｍosｔimｐorｔant reａsoｎs behind tｈese ｐrobｌｅmｓ. The coｍｍｕnicatｉｏn ｂetｗeen ｄiｆｆereｎｔstaｋeｈｏｌderｓbｅcomeｓｃｒitical, as each sｔakｅholder possesses dｉffｅrent ｓeｔoｆskilｌs. Ａｓa result,theｐrocｅssｅｓｆｏr exｔractｉon, iｎｔeｒpretａtiｏn, an ｄcｏmmｕｎicationｏf comｐlex design inｆoｒmatｉｏn fｒoｍdrawings aｎd doｃｕmｅｎts arｅｏｆten time－consumｉｎg and dｉffiｃult. Aｄvanced ｖｉsuaｌisation ｔｅchnologiｅs, like 4Ｄｐlannｉng have tｒemendｏus potentｉal to increasｅthｅcommｕnicatｉon efｆiciency anｄinterpretａtiｏｎａbiliｔy ｏｆthe ｐrｏjecｔtｅam mｅmbers. Hｏwever, tｈｅir use aｓaｎeｆfeｃtive communicatｉon tool is sｔill li ｍｉted and ｎｏt fuｌly explored(Dａwoｏd and Sikka, 2008). There are ａlｓo ｏthe ｒbａｒriers in the informatioｎｔｒａｎsfer anｄｉnteｇratioｎ,ｆor insｔａnce: ｍa ｎｙeｘisｔｉnｇＩCT syｓtｅms do noｔsuppｏrt thｅｏpenness of ｔhe ｄata aｎd ｓtructure tｈat isｐrｅrｅqｕisitｅforａｎefｆective collaｂoｒａtioｎbeｔween differｅnt builｄing aｃtorｓｏr disｃipｌｉnes.Ｂuildinｇinformａtion modｅlliｎg (ＢIM) ｏｆfｅrｓan integｒaｔeｄsolution tｏｔhe prｅviousｌy ｍｅnｔioneｄpｒoｂlｅms. Tｈereｆoｒe，ＢIＭis increasｉnｇlｙuｓｅｄas an ICT support iｎcｏmｐlex buildinｇprojecｔｓ.An effec ｔive multｉdisｃipｌiｎary cｏｌlabｏration sｕpporｔeｄby an optimaｌuse oｆＢIM reｑuire chaｎｇing roｌes ofｔhe cｌients, ａrchitects,anｄcｏntrａcｔoｒs；new coｎtｒactual reｌaｔionships；anｄrｅ-orｇanisedｃollａbｏrａtｉｖe procｅｓses．Uｎfortunaｔely, theｒｅareｓtill gaｐs in ｔｈe practｉcaｌknowleｄｇe on how to manage tｈｅbuｉldｉng acｔｏrs to collaｂoｒate effeｃtｉvｅlｙin tｈeir cｈangｉｎg roles，and tｏｄｅveｌｏｐａnｄutiｌise ＢIMａｓａｎoptimal ICＴsupｐort ofｔhe collaboratｉｏｎ.Thｉs ｐapｅr prｅｓenｔs a geｎeral ｒeviｅw oｆthｅｐｒacticａl ｉmｐlications of buiｌdiｎgｉｎformation modelling (BIＭ) basｅd on literature reｖieｗａｎd ｃase ｓｔuｄｉeｓ. In the ｎｅxt ｓeｃtｉｏnｓ, based on lｉterａtuｒe and recenｔfindingｓfrｏm European reseaｒch pｒojeｃt IｎPｒo，thｅframework for integｒated cｏllabｏration and the usｅｏf ＢIM aｒe analyｓed. Sｕbsequｅnｔlｙ, ｔｈｒougｈth ｅobservaｔｉon of twｏoｎｇoｉnｇpiloｔprojects ｉｎＴhｅＮetherｌａnds，the changing roｌes oｆcｌients, aｒcｈitｅcts, and coｎtrａcｔoｒs throｕgh ＢIM apｐlicatｉon aｒｅinｖｅstigaｔｅd．Iｎｃｏncｌusiｏn, ｔhｅcrｉticａl sucｃess ｆａcｔors as ｗelｌａs the main barriers of a succesｓｆul ｉｎtegratｅd colｌabo ｒation usｉng BＩＭａre ｉdenｔiｆｉｅd.2．Chaｎｇｉng roｌes ｔhrouｇh iｎteｇrａteｄcollabｏration ａnｄliｆe-cｙｃlｅｄesign apｐｒoachesA hospital ｂuilｄiｎg prｏjeｃｔinvolves ｖarious actors, roles, and ｋnoｗledge ｄomａｉns.In Ｔｈe Nethｅrlands, theｃhangiｎg rolｅs of clients, architectｓ, andｃｏntｒactors iｎhospitａｌｂuiｌdinｇpｒojｅcｔs aｒe inｅvｉｔablｅｄｕｅtｈe n ｅw heａlthcaｒe policy.Ｐｒｅvioｕsｌy under ｔhe HealｔｈcaｒｅInstｉtｕtions Act(WTZi), healthcare ｉnｓtitutionｓｗｅre reｑuirｅd to ｏｂtain boｔh a liｃｅｎｓｅａnｄａｂuiｌｄing peｒmit ｆor new coｎstｒuctｉon projecｔs andｍa ｊｏｒrenovａtiｏns. Tｈe permｉt waｓｉｓsuｅｄｂｙｔｈe Dutch Minｉsｔry of Hｅalth. Ｔｈe healthｃare institutｉonｓwere then elｉgibｌe to receｉve financiａｌsupｐort ｆrｏm the govｅｒnmeｎｔ．Sｉnce 200８，neｗlegislaｔion oｎｔｈe managｅmeｎt of hｏｓｐiｔａl buildiｎg proｊects and real estatｅｈａｓcome ｉnto forｃe．In thiｓｎｅｗlｅgｉsｌａtｉon,ａpｅrmit fｏr ｈospital builｄinｇp ｒojｅctｕｎｄｅr the WTZi is nｏlongｅr obｌigatory, ｎｏr obtainaｂlｅ(Ｄutch Mｉｎisｔｒｙof Health, Ｗelfare and Ｓpoｒt, 2008)．Ｔhiｓchangｅaｌlows more ｆｒｅedom froｍｔheｓｔatｅ-directed poliｃy,ａｎd reｓｐｅctｉvely, ａllocates morｅｒespoｎsibilitｉes to the heaｌthｃaｒeｏｒganisatioｎs ｔo dｅal wiｔｈｔhｅfｉnancinｇand ｍanaｇeｍeｎｔof ｔheir reaｌestatｅ．Thｅnew poliｃy implies tｈat the healtｈcaｒe ｉｎsｔiｔutions arｅｆuｌly rｅｓｐonｓibｌe to manａge and fｉnaｎce thｅｉr bｕilｄingｐrｏjectｓａnｄrｅal ｅstａtｅ. Tｈｅgovｅrn ｍent’s suｐport ｆor ｔhｅcｏstsｏｆheａlthcａrｅｆaｃｉlｉｔiｅｓwill no lｏｎgeｒbe given separateｌy, ｂut ｗiｌl be included in thｅfｅeｆor hｅalthcare seｒｖices.This means that healthcａｒe iｎsｔiｔutｉons muｓt eａｒn back thｅir inveｓt ｍｅnt on rｅal estａｔe throｕgh tｈeir serｖiceｓ. Tｈis new policy ｉntends tｏstiｍulate suｓｔaｉnaｂlｅinnｏｖaｔｉons ｉn the design,pｒoｃuremeｎt ａnd man ａgement ｏf hｅalｔhｃａre ｂuildings, which wｉll coｎｔributｅｔｏefｆeｃtive and efｆicｉentｐriｍarｙｈealｔhcare serｖices．Thｅneｗstrateｇy for building ｐrojectｓａnd real ｅstate ｍanagemｅnt endｏrses ａn integrateｄcoｌｌabｏｒatｉon ａpprｏａch. In order to aｓsuｒe tｈe ｓusｔaｉnabiliｔｙｄurinｇconstrucｔioｎ,use，and mainｔeｎancｅ, tｈe end－ｕsｅrｓ, facilit ｙmａｎagers, contｒactors ａｎｄspeｃｉalisｔcoｎｔraｃtoｒｓneｅｄtｏbe in ｖoｌvｅd iｎtｈe plａｎnｉng and desｉgｎprocesses. Ｔhｅimplｉcａtioｎs of the neｗstrateｇｙａre rｅflecteｄin thｅｃhanｇing ｒoｌeｓoｆthe building aｃtors anｄiｎthｅneｗｐｒoｃuｒｅment method．In tｈe tradｉtional prｏcuremｅnｔmｅthod, ｔhe ｄesign, ａnd ｉtｓdetaｉlｓ, a ｒｅdevｅｌoped by the architeｃｔ，and ｄｅsign eｎgineｅrs. Theｎ,the ｃliｅnt (the healthcare ｉｎstituｔｉｏｎ) sｅｎds ａn ａｐplicatiｏn to thｅＭiｎistry ｏf Hea ｌth tｏｏｂtain an appｒovaｌoｎthｅbuildｉｎg pｅrmit aｎd the fiｎanciａl ｓu ｐporｔfroｍtｈe ｇovernment.Ｆolｌoｗing tｈis, a contｒacｔｏr ｉs selected tｈrough a ｔeｎｄｅr pｒｏcesｓtｈat emｐhａsiseｓtｈe ｓｅaｒｃh for the loｗest－pricｅｂidder．Dｕrｉｎg tｈe consｔｒｕｃtion ｐeriod,changes often tａke ｐlace du ｅto cｏnsｔructａbiliｔｙprｏblems ｏｆｔhe design anｄnｅw ｒequirｅmeｎtｓｆｒomｔhe cliｅｎt．Beｃａusｅｏf thｅhigh lｅvel of technical comｐlexiｔy,aｎd ｍoreoｖer，deｃｉsion－maｋinｇcompｌexitｉes，the whoｌe proｃesｓfroｍin ｉtｉatiｏｎｕntil delｉvery of a hospiｔal building pｒoject can take uｐto tｅn yeａrs timｅ. After the ｄelｉvery, the healtｈcａre iｎstitｕｔｉoｎiｓfully in charｇe ｏf the operation ｏf thｅfaciｌｉtieｓ.Rｅdeｓigns and chanｇes ａlso take pｌaｃe in the ｕｓe phase toｃope with ｎewｆunｃtionｓand develｏpmｅnts in tｈｅmｅｄical wｏｒｌd (van RｅｅｄｔDｏrｔland, 20０9)．Ｔhe inteｇrated procuremｅnt ｐｉcturｅsａnewｃonｔｒacｔual relatioｎship bｅtｗeｅn the paｒｔｉes invｏlveｄiｎa buｉldｉng prｏject. Inｓtead ｏｆa ｒeｌationｓhｉｐbｅtｗeen thｅｃlｉｅnt and architecｔfor desｉgn, aｎd tｈｅｃｌienｔaｎｄcｏnｔracｔｏr ｆoｒｃonstｒuction,in an integｒateｄpｒｏｃｕreｍeｎt the clienｔoｎly hｏｌds a ｃoｎtrａcｔuａl ｒｅｌatioｎｓhiｐｗith theｍａin ｐartｙthaｔis ｒｅspｏnsiｂｌe fｏr bｏth deｓiｇn and ｃoｎstruｃｔｉｏｎ( Joint Contｒacts Trｉbuｎaｌ,２007). Thｅtrａditionａl boｒdｅrs between tａskｓaｎd ｏccｕp ａtiｏnal grｏｕpｓｂeｃome blurｒｅd since aｒchiｔeｃｔs, ｃonsulｔｉng firmｓ, contrａcｔｏｒs, suｂｃonｔｒａctoｒs, ａnd suppliｅrs aｌｌstand on thｅsｕpply ｓidｅin the ｂuildiｎg prｏｃｅｓs ｗhile ｔhe cｌient oｎtheｄemaｎd sｉde．S ｕcｈｃonｆiguｒａtｉon ｐｕts tｈe archｉtect, ｅnｇｉｎeｅr and ｃontraｃｔoｒi ｎ a vｅry dｉffereｎt pｏsitioｎｔhａt inflｕenｃes ｎot only tｈeir roleｓ, bｕt also theｉｒresponsｉbiｌitiｅs, tasksａnd cｏmｍunicａtioｎwitｈthe clｉeｎt，the users，the tｅaｍandｏｔheｒstakeholdｅrs.The tranｓitioｎfroｍtraditｉonal to inｔegｒated procｕｒｅment meｔhod rｅquires a ｓhifｔｏｆmｉｎdset ｏｆtheｐaｒties ｏn boｔｈthｅdｅｍand and supply s ｉdｅs. Iｔis esseｎtiaｌｆor the cliｅnt anｄcｏntｒactoｒtｏhavｅaｆair ａｎd opeｎcｏlｌaboratｉon iｎwhｉch boｔh caｎopｔimalｌｙuse thｅｉｒcomｐe ｔencies．The ｅffectivenessｏf ｉntegrated collaborａｔion ｉs aｌso deteｒmineｄb ｙthe cｌｉent’s ｃapacｉty and ｓtrategy ｔo organizｅiｎnovative tenderiｎgｐｒｏcedures (Ｓeｂastian ｅｔａl.,2009).A neｗchallenge emerges in caｓe ｏｆpoｓitionｉｎg an ａrchitｅcｔｉn a pａｒｔnership with tｈe contractｏr ｉnｓｔead of ｗiｔｈｔhe cｌient.In ｃａｓｅｏｆthe ａｒchｉｔeｃｔeｎtｅrs ａpartnership ｗith thｅconｔｒactｏr, ａn imｐortant ｉｓsues is hｏw to ensuｒｅthe realｉsaｔion oｆtheａrｃhitecｔｕral vａluｅs as wel ｌaｓinnｏvative enｇinｅeｒｉng tｈrough an effiｃient construｃｔｉon proceｓs．Iｎanother ｃasｅ, thｅａrchitｅct can stａnd at the clienｔ’s side iｎa sｔraｔegic aｄvisoｒy role insteａd ｏf bｅing the dｅsｉgｎｅr. Iｎｔhis ｃase,thｅarchitect’s responｓibility is tranｓlating clienｔ’s reｑuirementｓanｄwishes intｏthｅarｃhiteｃtｕrａl vａｌuｅｓto bｅiｎcluｄeｄin the desigｎspecificatｉon, and eｖａluatｉng tｈe ｃontｒactｏr’s proｐosal agaiｎst this. Inａny of ｔhis nｅw roｌｅ,ｔhe ａrchiｔecｔｈolds tｈe resｐonsｉbiｌｉties aｓstaｋeholdeｒinｔerｅｓt facil ｉtatｏr, cｕstodiａn of customeｒvａlｕe and cuｓtodian of deｓigｎmoｄels.Tｈｅｔransition frｏm ｔｒaditioｎal to integｒatｅd prｏcurement mｅthod ａlso brings coｎseｑuｅｎces inｔhｅpayｍent scｈemeｓ．In ｔhe tｒadiｔiｏnal ｂuiｌdi ｎg procｅｓｓ, the hoｎｏrａriｕｍｆoｒthe archiｔeｃt iｓusuaｌly baseｄon ａpｅrcenｔage of the pｒoject cｏsts;this may siｍｐlｙmean ｔhat ｔhｅmorｅeｘpenｓiｖｅthe buｉlding is, the hｉgｈｅｒthe hｏｎoraｒｉｕm ｗiｌl ｂe. Thｅengiｎeer rｅceivｅs thｅhonorarｉum based on ｔhe complexiｔｙof ｔｈe design and the inteｎｓity of tｈe assignｍeｎｔ. A hｉgｈｌy complex buiｌding, which takｅｓ a nu ｍbeｒｏｆredｅsigns，is usｕally fａvourａｂleｆor tｈe eｎgineeｒs in terｍs ｏｆhonorａｒｉuｍ. Ａtradｉtiｏnaｌcontractoｒｕsually reｃeｉvｅs ｔhe comｍｉsｓion bａｓｅd ｏn tｈｅtender to coｎstrucｔtｈe bｕilding ａt tｈe lowesｔprice by ｍeｅtinｇthｅmiｎｉmum sｐecｉficａtionｓgiｖen by the clieｎt. Eｘtra worｋdue to modｉficatioｎs is chargｅd seｐaratｅly ｔo ｔhe client. After the deliveｒy, the c ｏｎtｒａｃtoｒis ｎo longer responｓiblｅｆｏr the long-term use of tｈｅbｕildiｎg. In the ｔraditｉonaｌpｒocurｅｍent ｍethod,aｌl rｉsks ａre pｌaced witｈthe c ｌiｅnt．In inｔegrated pｒoｃurｅｍeｎt method,thｅpａymenｔis ｂased ｏn thｅａｃhieved bｕildiｎｇperｆormａnce；thus, the pａyment ｉs non-aｄvｅｒsａrial. Since ｔh ｅaｒchitect，engiｎeerａnｄｃontracｔor haｖe a wideｒresponsibilitｙoｎｔhｅquａｌityｏf tｈe dｅsign ａnｄｔhe bｕilｄing，ｔhｅpaymｅｎｔis ｌinked to ａmeaｓurｅmｅnt syｓｔｅmｏｆtｈe fｕnctioｎａl aｎd techniｃａl pｅrfoｒmance ｏf thｅｂｕilding over a cｅrtain perｉod ｏf time.The ｈｏnorarium becomes an i ｎｃｅntiｖe tｏacｈiｅｖe the optｉmal qｕaliｔｙ. Iｆthe buildｉｎg actors suｃceｅd tｏｄeliver a higｈer added-vａluｅthat exｃeed ｔhｅｍｉnimum ｃｌient’s rｅquｉreｍenｔs, thｅy wｉｌl ｒeceive a bonuｓiｎaccoｒdａnce to the clｉent’s extra g ａin. Ｔhe level of trａnsparencyｉs aｌso iｍｐroｖｅd. Open book accouｎｔinｇiｓａｎexcellenｔinsｔruｍｅnt ｐroviｄed thatｔhe stakeholdｅrs agｒee oｎthe i ｎformatｉｏn ｔｏbｅshａred and to iｔｓlevel of dｅtaｉｌ(InPro，２00９)．Nexｔｔo ｔhe adoptｉon of integrated procurement method,thｅnewｒｅaｌｅstate strateｇy for hoｓｐｉｔａl bｕilding ｐrojｅcts adｄrｅsses aｎinnoｖative ｐro ｄuｃｔdevelｏpment ａｎｄlｉfｅ-cｙclｅｄesigｎａpｐroａｃhes. A suｓtａｉnaｂlｅbusiｎess case for the inｖeｓtment and eｘploitation of hoｓpital bｕildings relies on ｄｙnamic life-cyｃle maｎaｇeｍenｔthat includes cｏnｓiｄerations aｎd analysｉs of ｔhe market dｅvｅloｐｍent over time nexｔto thｅbuilｄing ｌife－cyｃle coｓts (iｎv ｅｓtment/inｉtial coｓt, operationaｌcoｓt，ａnｄｌｏgiｓtiｃｃｏst）. Ｃompared ｔｏtｈｅcoｎventiｏnａl liｆe-cycｌe ｃosting methｏｄ, the dynaｍiｃｌife-cycｌe maｎａｇemｅnt eｎcompaｓses a shifｔfｒom fｏｃusｉng oｎlｙｏｎminｉmｉzing the costs tｏfocｕsinｇon maximiｚｉｎg ｔhｅtotal benｅfit that can be gained. On ｅof tｈe ｄeｔerｍininｇfａctorｓfor a sucｃｅｓsｆul iｍｐlementａtioｎｏf ｄｙnａmｉｃlｉfｅ－ｃycｌｅmaｎagemenｔｉs tｈｅsｕstainabｌeｄesｉｇn oｆｔhe bｕilｄing andｂuildinｇcｏmpｏnents，ｗhich ｍeａｎｓthaｔthe dｅsign carｒi ｅs sufｆiciｅnt flexibility to ａccoｍｍｏdaｔeｐossible ｃhａngｅs in tｈｅloｎg ｔeｒm （Prinｓ,1９９2).Ｄｅsｉgｎｉng based on thｅprinciples of liｆe-cycle manaｇemenｔafｆeｃts th ｅrｏｌe ｏf thｅａｒchｉteｃt, as he needs tｏbe ｗell ｉnforｍed abｏut the uｓａge sｃenarioｓaｎd relatｅd fｉｎaｎcｉal arraｎgｅｍｅnts, the chａngiｎg ｓocial ａnd phyｓicaｌenｖirｏnmｅnts, and new technolｏgieｓ. Deｓｉgｎnｅeｄs tｏｉntegrate pｅｏｐle ａctiｖitｉes and bｕsｉｎeｓｓsｔｒategies ｏｖeｒtimｅ. In this cｏnｔeｘｔ, the ａｒｃhｉtect is ｒeｑuｉred ｔｏalign thｅdesign straｔeｇｉe ｓwｉtｈthe organisatiｏnal, local and global polｉcies ｏn fiｎａｎce, busineｓs opｅrations, healｔh and safｅtｙ, ｅnｖironment, etc.(Sebasｔiａｎet al., ２00９)．The cｏmｂinatioｎof procesｓand prｏｄucｔｉnnovatiｏn, aｎd the changinｇrｏlｅsｏf thｅbuｉldｉng actors can be accommodatｅd by integｒated proｊｅcｔdｅliv ｅry or ＩPD (ＡIA Cａlifornia Councｉl, 2０07)．IPD ｉs ａn approach tｈat iｎｔｅgrａtes pｅople，syｓtems, bｕsineｓs structurｅs and ｐracｔiceｓinto a pｒocess ｔhat ｃｏlｌaboraｔively ｈarnesses ｔｈe talｅntｓanｄiｎｓｉghts of ａll participａnｔs tｏrｅduce waste aｎｄｏpｔimizｅeffiｃiｅｎcy ｔhroｕｇｈall phases of ｄesign，ｆａｂｒｉｃation anｄｃonstrucｔion．IPＤpｒiｎcｉpleｓcan be ａpｐｌied ｔｏa vａriety oｆｃoｎtｒactualａrｒangemenｔs. IPD teａｍｓwill uｓually include ｍemｂｅｒｓｗell ｂeｙond the baｓiｃtrｉad of client, ａrchitect，and cｏnｔractｏr.At a minimum,ｔhｏｕgh, an ＩnteｇｒateｄPrｏject shoｕｌd incｌｕde a tｉｇｈt cｏllaboｒａｔion betweeｎtｈe ｃlient，the ａｒchitecｔ, aｎd thｅmａin cｏntra ｃtor uｌtｉmaｔely ｒesｐoｎsiblｅfor coｎstrucｔｉon of the proｊeｃt, from the early dｅｓignｕntil the pｒojeｃt handover．The key tｏa successｆul ＩＰD iｓassembl ｉｎｇａtｅam tｈaｔis commiｔteｄto ｃｏlｌａｂoratｉvｅpｒocesｓes and iｓcａpａbｌe of workiｎg toｇeｔheｒeｆfectiveｌy. IPD is built ｏn collａｂｏratiｏｎ. As a rｅｓｕlt, it can only ｂe ｓuccessful if thｅｐarｔiciｐantｓｓharｅａｎd apply comｍon ｖalueｓａnd goａls.3. Ｃhangiｎgｒｏles tｈrough BIM apｐlicatｉonBuｉlｄiｎg infoｒmation ｍodｅｌ(BIM) cｏmpriseｓＩCT frameworｋs aｎd toolｓthat caｎsupｐort the integraｔed colｌaboｒation ｂaｓed ｏｎlife-cycｌe ｄesiｇｎapproach. BIM iｓ a digｉtaｌrepresenｔａｔiｏn of physｉcａl ａnｄfunctｉoｎal characterisｔics of a faciliｔy.As sucｈiｔservｅs aｓ a shared knｏwledge rｅsouｒcｅfor information ａbout ａfacｉｌity ｆorｍing a rｅlｉaｂlｅbasis for dｅciｓｉｏns duringｉts lｉfｅｃyclｅfrｏm ｉnceｐtion ｏnwaｒd (Ｎatｉoｎal Institｕte of Building Scieｎces NIBS，20０7）. BIMｆacilitatｅｓtiｍe and ｐlａcｅiｎｄｅpenｄent collabｏｒａｔive ｗoｒking. A bａsｉｃｐｒemise of BIM iｓcollaborａtion by dｉffereｎt stakehoｌdｅrs at ｄiffeｒenｔphａｓes of the life cyｃle oｆa faci ｌｉty tｏiｎｓert, exｔｒact, upｄaｔe or modify ｉnfｏrmaｔion in ｔhｅBIM to ｓuｐport anｄreflect tｈe rｏｌeｓof that stakeholder．BIM ｉn iｔｓｕｌtｉmａte form, ａs ａsｈarｅd diｇｉｔａl rｅｐrｅｓentａｔion fouｎded on opｅｎsｔandaｒｄs foｒｉntｅｒoｐｅｒability，can becoｍe a virtualｉnfoｒｍation modｅl to be h ａnded from the ｄｅsigｎteam to thｅｃｏnｔrａcｔor and suｂcontｒactｏrs ａnd t ｈen to the clｉent (Sebaｓtiａｎet ａl., ２0０９)．BIＭis ｎot the ｓame ａs the earlier knoｗｎcｏmpｕter aided dｅｓｉｇn(CAD）. BIM goes furtｈer than an aｐplicａtiｏn to gｅｎerate digiｔal (2D or３Ｄ）ｄrawiｎgs (Brattｏn,２00９). BＩM ｉs ａn integrａted model ｉｎｗｈich all pｒｏcess and pｒｏduｃt inｆormation is combｉned，stored，eｌaｂoｒatｅｄ, and interacｔively disｔｒi ｂuted tｏall relｅvａｎt buiｌdinｇacｔors．As a centｒａl model ｆｏr alｌｉnvolveｄａcｔors thｒoughouｔthｅprojｅｃt ｌifecyclｅ,BIM deｖelｏps and evolves as the projeｃt prｏgressｅs．Using BIＭ,ｔｈe propｏsed deｓｉgn ａｎdｅngiｎeeｒiｎg solｕtiｏnｓｃan be mｅasｕred against ｔhｅｃlｉent’s rｅｑｕiｒｅmentsａｎdｅxpectｅｄbuilｄing perｆoｒmaｎce．Ｔhe ｆｕｎｃtｉonalｉtiｅs of BIＭto supｐort thｅdesiｇn process exteｎd to mulｔｉdｉmensiｏnal (nD), incluｄing: ｔhｒee-diｍeｎsional visuａlisatioｎandｄeｔailiｎg,cｌａsh detection,ｍa ｔerｉal schedule,planning, cost esｔimate，prodｕction aｎｄlｏgistic ｉnfｏrｍation, aｎd ａs-ｂｕilt documｅnｔｓ.Ｄuｒing tｈe construction procｅｓs, BIM can support the coｍmunication between thｅbuilｄiｎｇsiｔe，the facｔorｙaｎd the ｄeｓign office–whicｈis crucｉaｌfｏｒan effｅctive aｎd efｆiｃient ｐreｆabricaｔion and aｓsemｂｌy procｅsseｓas well ａｓto ｐrｅｖeｎt oｒｓolｖe prｏblｅms rｅlａted ｔｏｕnfｏｒesｅen eｒｒors or modｉｆicaｔｉons. When tｈｅbuilding is in use, BIＭcan bｅｕsed in cｏｍbinａtｉoｎwitｈthe intｅlｌigent bｕildiｎg sysｔemｓto ｐｒｏvide aｎd maｉｎtaｉn up－to-ｄａｔe inｆｏrmａｔiｏnｏｆｔhe b ｕiｌｄing performancｅ, ｉｎcｌｕdinｇtｈｅｌife-cyｃlｅcｏｓt.Ｔo unleashｔhe full potｅnｔiaｌof mｏreｅffｉcienｔinformａｔion exchan ｇeｉn the ＡＥC/FM iｎdustｒy in collaｂoｒａtivｅworking uｓｉｎｇＢIＭ, both highｑuａlity oｐeｎｉnternａｔiｏnal ｓtandards anｄhｉgh quａlitｙimｐleｍeｎtations of theｓe standardｓmｕst ｂｅin ｐｌace. The IFC openｓtaｎｄarｄiｓgen ｅrally ａgreed to be oｆhigh quａlｉty and is widｅly ｉmｐｌemeｎtｅd ｉn softwaｒe. Unfortｕnａtely,the ｃeｒtificaｔiｏｎprｏcess alｌoｗs pｏor qｕａlityｉmplemeｎｔatiｏns tｏbｅcｅrｔifiedａｎd ｅsｓｅntially rｅnｄｅrs theｃertified softwarｅｕsｅlｅss ｆor anｙpraｃtiｃａl ｕｓａge witｈIFC. IＦCｃompliant BIＭis actuaｌｌｙused ｌess than ｍａnｕal ｄraｆtinｇfoｒａrchitecｔｓand contｒａctorｓ, aｎd show aｂout the sａme ｕｓagｅfｏr eｎgineeｒｓ. Ａｒecent surｖey shｏws thaｔCＡD(as a closｅd-systeｍ）ｉｓstill the mａjｏr forｍoｆｔechniｑｕe ｕsed in desｉgn worｋ(over 6０ｐeｒcenｔ）whｉle ＢＩM ｉs uｓeｄiｎarｏｕｎd 20 ｐercenｔoｆｐｒoｊectｓfor arｃｈｉｔｅcts aｎｄiｎarounｄ10 ｐer cent ｏｆprojecｔｓfor engｉneeｒs anｄｃｏntracｔｏrs (Ｋｉviniemi et al．，2００8）.The aｐｐlicaｔｉoｎof ＢＩＭto sｕppoｒt an oｐｔimal cross－ｄiｓciｐｌｉnary aｎｄcrｏss－phａse coｌlabｏratｉon oｐensａneｗdimenｓion in the roles ａnｄｒelatｉoｎshｉｐs between tｈｅｂｕilding actorｓ. Several mｏst rｅlevanｔiｓsueｓａre：the new role oｆａｍｏdel mａｎager；ｔhe ａｇreｅment ｏn ｔｈe ａcc ｅss rｉght and Intellecｔual Property Right（IPR）；the liabiｌity anｄpaymeｎt a ｒｒangeｍenｔaccorｄing tｏthｅtype ｏf contraｃt and ｉn reｌatｉon tｏthe integｒateｄprocｕrement; anｄtｈeｕse oｆopen ｉnｔernatiｏnａl standaｒds．Colｌaboraｔive workｉng using BＩM deｍands a new expｅｒt roｌe oｆa mｏd ｅl ｍanaｇer ｗｈo ｐossesｓes ICT ａs wｅll ａs coｎsｔruｃtion pｒocesｓknｏw-how （IｎPro,2009). Ｔhe mｏｄel manager dealsｗith tｈｅsystem as ｗelｌas withｔhe aｃtorｓ. He ｐrｏviｄes and ｍainｔaiｎs technｏlogｉcal solutｉons rｅqｕiｒｅd for BＩMｆｕｎｃtionalities, mａｎageｓｔｈｅinｆormａｔionｆlow, ａnｄimｐｒovｅs the ICＴｓkｉlls of tｈe stａｋｅhoｌders．Ｔｈe modeｌmａnａger doeｓnｏt takｅｄecisionｓoｎｄｅsign ａnｄeｎgineeｒing sｏluｔｉｏns, nor ｔhｅorganｉsaｔional procesｓes, but his rｏles in the ｃｈaｉn ｏｆdｅcisｉon ｍaking are focuｓed oｎ:●thｅdｅvelopment ofＢIＭ,theｄefinitｉon oｆthｅstructｕrｅand detailｌｅvel ofｔhｅmｏdel, and tｈｅdeｐloymenｔof relevant BＩM toｏｌs, ｓｕch as forｍｏｄｅｌs cｈecking，meｒgiｎｇ, ａnd clash dｅteｃtｉｏｎs;●ｔhe contriｂution tｏｃollａboｒａtion meｔhodｓ, esｐecially decision ｍakｉngand commｕnication pｒｏtoｃolｓ, taｓｋplaｎning, ａnd rｉsk managｅｍent;●anｄthe manageｍｅｎt of iｎforｍatiｏｎ, in ｔeｒms of ｄata fｌｏw anｄstｏｒａｇe, identｉｆicatiｏn of commｕnicatｉoｎerrors, anｄdｅcisｉon oｒproｃess (re－）trackｉnｇ.Regaｒdｉng tｈe lｅgal and organｉsatｉonal iｓsues, oｎｅof the aｃtuaｌquesｔｉons iｓ: “In whａt waｙdoes the inｔellｅctual proｐerty right (IＰＲ）ｉn cｏllab ｏｒaｔive ｗｏrｋingｕsing BIM ｄiffer ｆrom tｈe IＰR inａｔｒａｄitioｎａl ｔeａｍｗｏrk?”. Ｉn tｅrms ｏf combiｎed ｗork, the IＰRｏf eachｅlemｅnt iｓattａcheｄto ｉts ｃｒeatoｒ.Ａltｈougｈｉt sｅemｓｔｏbe a fulｌy inｔeｇrat ｅd design,BIM aｃtuａllyｒesulted frｏm a coｍｂinatiｏｎof woｒks/eｌeｍｅｎts; ｆor ｉnstaｎcｅ:the oｕｔliｎｅof the builｄing dｅsｉgn，ｉs creaｔｅｄby the arｃhitect, the design forｔhe eleｃｔｒicａl sysｔeｍ, is creatｅｄby the electricaｌcｏｎtractoｒ, ｅｔc.Thｕs, iｎcasｅｏf BＩＭａｓa combinｅd wｏrｋ, the ＩPR is similａｒｔo ｔraｄitiｏnal teamworｋ．Workｉng witｈBIM with aｕthorｓｈｉｐregistｒaｔioｎfunctionａlｉtiesｍay actuaｌly make it eaｓier to kｅｅp track o ｆtｈe ＩPR(Chａo-Ｄuｉｖｉs,200９）.Ｈｏw ｄoes colｌａborative ｗｏrｋinｇ,using ＢIM, effect tｈe cｏntractuaｌrelatｉonｓhip? Ｏn the one hand，collaｂoratｉve wｏrking uｓingＢIM dｏes noｔｎｅcｅssaｒｉly chaｎgeｔｈe liａbilｉtyｐositｉoｎiｎtｈe ｃonｔract nor does ｉt obligate aｎallｉaｎcｅcontｒact. The GenerａｌＰriｎciｐles of BIM Ａdｄendum con ｆirｍs: ‘Ｔhis ｄoes not effeｃtuaｔe or rｅquire ａrestrucｔurｉｎg of cｏntrａｃｔual relaｔｉonships or shiftｉnｇof riｓks between ｏr aｍｏng ｔhe ProjecｔＰaｒｔi ｃipants other than as spｅｃificａｌly required per tｈe ProtocｏlＡddendum aｎd itｓＡttａchmenｔs’(ConseｎsusＤOCS, ２00８). On the oｔhｅｒhand, ｃhanges iｎtｅrms of paymeｎｔscｈemes cａn ｂe antｉcipated. Colｌaｂorativｅprocesｓes uｓiｎg ＢIM ｗilｌlead to the shifting of ａｃｔivitiｅｓｆｒom to ｔｈｅｅarｌy dｅsｉgn phaｓe. Much，ｉf ｎot all,actiｖiｔiｅs iｎtｈe ｄetaileｄengineｅrｉｎg and s ｐecification phasｅｗill ｂe ｄoｎe ｉｎthe earlｉｅｒｐhaｓes. It mｅaｎs ｔhat ｓignificａnt paｙmｅnt ｆｏｒｔhe engineeriｎg phａｓe，whicｈmay cｏunｔup ｔo ４０per ｃeｎt oｆtｈe deｓｉgn cｏst,ｃａｎnｏlonger be eｘpｅcｔed. As engｉneｅring woｒk is done concｕrｒｅntly with the ｄesign, a new ｐroportioｎof the ｐayment in the earlｙｄesｉgn phase is nｅcessary（Cｈao-Dｕiｖｉs, ２009).４.Ｒeviｅw ｏｆoｎgｏiｎg ｈospitａｌbｕilding projｅcｔs usｉng BＩM IｎTｈeＮetｈerlands,tｈe cｈangｉng ｒoles ｉnｈospital buiｌdｉng proj ｅcts are ｐart of tｈｅstrateｇy,which ａims at acｈieving ａsustaｉnable real ｅstate in ｒｅsｐｏnｓｅｔo ｔｈe ｃhanｇing hｅalthcａre policｙ.Reｆｅrring tｏｌiterａｔure aｎd prevｉouｓreｓeａrch, tｈe maｉn ｆaｃtors tｈａtｉｎflueｎｃｅthe suｃcess of tｈe chaｎｇing roｌeｓcan be ｃｏｎclｕｄｅd ａs: the iｍplemｅnｔat ｉｏn oｆａｎiｎtegrateｄprocuｒeｍenｔmetｈｏｄand a ｌｉｆｅ-cｙcle desｉgn apprｏach fｏr a sustａinable cｏlｌaboｒative pｒoｃess; ｔｈe aｇrｅｅmenｔon the BIＭsｔｒｕｃｔure and ｔｈe iｎｔｅlleｃtｕal rigｈts;and the inｔegratiｏn of tｈe ｒole oｆa modeｌmanａｇer. The ｐreｃedｉng seｃｔｉons haveｄisｃussｅd the coｎceptual tｈinｋing on how tｏdｅal wｉｔh these factors effｅｃtiveｌy．This cｕrrenｔｓecｔion obｓerｖes twｏactual projｅctｓａｎｄcoｍpares tｈe actual pｒactice wｉｔh tｈe ｃｏｎcｅptual viｅｗrｅsｐecｔively．Thｅｍａiｎissues,ｗhiｃh ａre oｂｓｅrved in the case studies,ａre:●the seleｃtｅｄprocurｅmenｔmetｈｏd and the rolｅｓof the iｎvolveｄpａrties ｗithｉn ｔhisｍeｔhod；●thｅimｐlemｅnｔatｉｏn of theｌife-cｙｃｌe design ａpｐrｏacｈ;●the type,struｃture, and fｕnctｉonaｌitiｅs of BIM uｓeｄiｎthe pｒoject；●tｈe opｅｎnｅｓｓiｎdata sharing and traｎsferｏf thｅmoｄｅｌ,and the ｉntenｄed ｕsｅof BIＭin thｅfｕｔuｒe; ａnd●thｅｒoles aｎd tａsks oｆthe mｏdel manageｒ.The pilot expeｒienｃｅoｆｈoｓpiｔaｌｂuilｄｉng projecｔs ｕsiｎg BIＭｉn the Netherlands cａn be oｂｓeｒved aｔUniverｓity Mｅdical Cｅnｔｒe St Rａd ｂoud （ｆurtｈeｒrefｅrrｅd ａs UMＣ) and MａｘｉmａMediｃalＣeｎtre (ｆｕrtｈer rｅferred ａs MMC). At UＭC, the new buildｉng proｊecｔｆｏｒthe Faｃultｙof Dｅntiｓtryｉn the cｉty of Nijmeｇen has bｅen dedｉcateｄas a BIＭpilot prｏjｅｃt. At MMC，BIM is uｓed in designiｎｇnew bｕｉlｄings for Ｍedｉcal Siｍuｌａt ｉｏn and Moｔhｅｒ-and-ChｉlｄCenｔre ｉn ｔhｅcｉtyｏf Vｅｌdhoveｎ.The fiｒｓt case is a prｏjecｔａt thｅＵniversiｔy Medicａl Cｅntrｅ(UＭC) ＳｔRadｂoud. UMC iｓmore tｈａｎｊｕsｔ a hospital. UMC comｂineｓmediｃａｌsｅｒvicｅs,educaｔionａｎd resｅａrch. Ｍｏre tｈan85０0 staｆf ａnd30０0 sｔｕdents ｗoｒk at UMC. Aｓ a pａｒｔof the iｎnovａtive real estate ｓtrａtegｙ, ＵMC ｈaｓｃｏnsiｄered to ｕse ＢIM foｒits bｕiｌding proｊects. The ｎｅw ｄevelｏｐmｅnt oｆthe Ｆacuｌｔy ｏf Deｎtistｒy and the surrｏundｉng buildin ｇs on thｅKapitｔelweg in Nｉjmeｇen has beｅn chｏsｅn ａs a pilotｐｒoject tｏｇathｅr practiｃａl knowleｄge and experieｎｃe oｎcollaborａｔiｖe ｐrocesses with BIM ｓuｐport.The ｍaiｎaｍbition ｔo ｂe achieved ｔhrough the use oｆBIＭin ｔhe buildingｐrojects at UMC can be summａrised as ｆollows：●using 3D vｉsualisatioｎto eｎhance theｃoｏrdｉｎａtｉon ａｎd cｏmmunｉｃaｔion aｍongｔhe bｕiｌdiｎｇactoｒs，and tｈe ｕsｅr ｐarticｉpatｉoｎiｎdeｓiｇｎ;●ｆacilitａｔｉｎg optimal inｆｏｒmaｔion accessibｉlity and eｘｃｈangｅfor ahigh●conｓistｅｎｃyｏｆｔｈｅdrawingｓａnｄdｏｃumｅnts aｃross disciｐｌines and pｈases;●iｎtｅgrating thｅａrcｈiｔeｃtuｒal deｓｉgn wiｔｈsｔruｃｔｕral anaｌyｓiｓ,enｅrgy analysis，cost esｔｉmation,anｄpｌanninｇ;●inteｒaｃtively eｖａｌuaｔinｇｔhe desigｎｓolutiｏnsａgａinst tｈe prｏgramｍe of requiremｅntｓａnd specificatiｏns；●reducinｇrｅｄｅsign／rｅmakｅcosts ｔhrouｇｈclaｓh ｄetection dｕring ｔhedeｓｉgn prｏcess; and●optimｉsｉｎg thｅｍaｎａgement oｆthe faciｌiｔy throuｇh thｅregiｓｔrａtion of meｄical iｎsｔallatioｎs ａnd equiｐｍents, fｉxedａnｄfｌｅｘibｌe furniture, ｐｒoｄuct ａｎｄouｔput spｅｃｉfications,andｏpｅrational ｄata.Ｔhｅsｅcｏnd ｃａse iｓ a pｒoject ａt tｈe Mａxiｍa Mｅdical Ceｎtre (MMC).ＭＭC is ａｌａrgｅhｏspiｔal resｕｌtｅd from a ｍeｒgeｒbｅtｗeen the Ｄｉａconｅｓsenｈuis ｉｎEindhoven and Ｓt ＪｏsepｈHospｉtａl in Veｌｄhoven. Ａｎnuaｌlｙthe3,４0０staｆｆof MMC provides meｄiｃaｌsｅrｖiｃesｔo mｏrｅthan 4５0,000 vｉsitorｓaｎｄｐatients. A ｌaｒge-scaled extenｓｉon projｅct of ｔhe hｏｓpｉtal iｎＶelｄhoｖeｎis a ｐaｒt oｆｉts real estaｔe ｓｔratｅgy. A ｍedi ｃal siｍulation ｃｅntｒe anｄ a womeｎ-and-childｒeｎmedicaｌｃeｎtre aｒe ａmong the mｏst imｐortantｎew facilities ｗｉthiｎｔhis eｘtensｉon pｒojeｃt.Th ｅｄesign hａｓbeen deveｌoped uｓｉng３Ｄmodelling wiｔh sｅｖeｒal fｕnctionａｌitieｓofＢIM.The fｉｎdｉngs from boｔh ｃａｓｅs ａｎｄthe aｎａlysｉs are ａs folｌows. Ｂoth ＵMC aｎd MMC opted fｏr a traｄiｔｉonal pｒｏcuｒeｍent meｔhod ｉn which th ｅclieｎt dｉrecｔlyｃontｒactｅd an architｅct, aｓtrｕctural engineer, ａndａmecｈanicaｌ, elecｔriｃａｌａnd plumbing (MＥP）consultant in ｔhｅdesｉgn team. Oncｅthe desｉgn ａnd detａileｄspecifiｃaｔｉons ａre finisｈｅｄ, a teｎdｅr ｐrｏcedｕrｅwill ｆｏllow ｔo ｓeｌecｔａcｏntrａｃtｏr. Ｄeｓｐitｅthe cｈｏice foｒtｈis tｒaditionalｍethoｄ, mａnｙａｔtｅmpts have ｂeeｎmade for a clｏsｅｒa ｎd ｍoｒe effectｉve mｕltｉｄisciｐlinary colｌaｂｏratｉon. ＵＭC dedicated a relaｔivel ｙlｏng prｅpａｒaｔion ｐhａse ｗith the architect，stｒuctural enginｅｅr and MEＰcｏｎsultant bｅfore tｈe deｓigｎcommeｎｃｅd. This preparation ｐhaｓｅwａs aimeｄat creaｔing a ｃoｍmon viｓion on tｈe optimａl way for ｃollaboratｉｏn us ｉng ＢＩM as aｎICT sｕppｏrt．Some resｕｌts of thｉs prｅparaｔion phａse ａr ｅ：ａdｏcumeｎt ｔhａtｄefinｅs the common ambitiｏn for the pｒｏjｅｃｔaｎｄthe coｌlaborａtiｖｅworｋiｎg pｒｏｃess anｄ a sｅmｉ-forｍａl agrｅｅｍent ｔhat stａtes thｅcommitmｅnt of the bｕilｄing ａctｏrsｆor ｃｏｌlabｏｒatｉｏn. Othｅr ｔhan UMC，MＭＣsｅlecｔedａn ａrｃhitｅcｔuｒe ｆｉrm ｗith an i ｎ-hｏuse ｅｎgineeｒing dｅｐａrtment. Thus，ｔhe collabｏration betｗeeｎｔhe ａrchiｔｅcｔaｎd strｕcｔｕral ｅnginｅer cａn ｔakeｐlace wｉthｉn the sａmｅfｉr ｍuｓｉng thｅsａmｅsoftware ａｐplicatｉoｎ.Regａrding the liｆe-ｃycle desiｇn aｐproａch, thｅｍaiｎatｔｅntｉoｎｉｓgiven on life-cyｃle coｓｔs, mａinｔｅnanｃe needs，and facilｉtｙmanagemen ｔ．Usiｎg BIM,boｔｈhospitａls inｔend to ｇｅt a mｕcｈbｅtｔｅrｉnｓighｔin thｅsｅaspeｃｔs over the ｌife-cyｃle ｐｅｒiｏd. Ｔhe lifｅ-cｙcle ｓusｔaiｎａb ｉliｔy cｒiｔeｒｉa are ｉｎｃluｄｅｄin tｈｅａssiｇnmｅｎts fｏr the dｅsiｇn teams. Multidｉsciplinaryｄeｓｉgｎｅrｓａｎd ｅnginｅｅｒs are aｓｋｅｄto collａbｏｒate moｒe closｅly ａnd to interact ｗith tｈe ｅｎd-uｓｅrs to addｒess ｌife-cycle reqｕiremｅnts. Hｏwever,ｅnｓuｒｉng tｈe ｂｕiｌdinｇａcｔｏrs to engagｅiｎａｎintegrａtｅｄｃollaboration toｇeneｒate sustainａｂｌｅdesiｇn ｓolutiｏns thaｔmｅet tｈｅliｆe-cyｃle ｐeｒfｏｒｍａncｅexpeｃｔatioｎs is sｔill d ｉffiｃult. Ｔhesｅａｃｔoｒｓａｒe ｃontractｅd thrｏｕｇh a traditionａl prｏcurｅｍeｎｔmeｔhod. Ｔｈeir tａsｋs ａre specific，their inｖolvｅment is rather sｈort－term iｎ a cerｔａin prｏｊecｔphase,thｅｉr reｓpoｎsｉbilities and ｌiabilitieｓaｒｅlimited，aｎd there is no ｔanｇible inceｎｔive for ｉｎｔeｇratｅd collａbｏration.Frｏｍthe ｃｕrｒeｎｔprogrｅss oｆｂoth projects, ｉt ｃan be obsｅrved thａt ｔhe typｅand structurｅof ＢＩＭrｅlies heａｖilｙon the choice for BIM software ａpplicａｔｉons．RevｉｔArｃhitecture aｎd RevｉｔStructure by Autoｄesk。
有关工程管理的英语文献
有关工程管理的英语文献Engineering management is the application of thepractice of management to the practice of engineering. It involves the planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting of engineering activities. It is a discipline that focuses on the application of engineering principles and techniques to the planning, organization, and control of engineering projects and activities.Engineering management involves the integration of engineering, business, and management principles to develop and implement effective engineering solutions. It requires a deep understanding of both technical and managerial aspects of engineering projects.One of the key responsibilities of engineering management is to ensure that engineering projects are completed on time and within budget. This requireseffective planning and coordination of resources, as well as the ability to identify and mitigate risks.In addition, engineering management involves the development and implementation of strategies to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of engineering processes. This may involve the adoption of new technologies, the development of new processes, or the implementation of new management practices.Overall, engineering management plays a critical role in the success of engineering projects. It requires a unique blend of technical and managerial skills, as well as the ability to effectively communicate and collaborate with a wide range of stakeholders.工程管理是将管理实践应用于工程实践的一种学科，它涉及工程活动的规划、组织、人员配备、指导、协调、报告和预算。
工程管理英文文献1500词范文
工程管理英文文献1500词范文Project Management in the Construction Industry: A Comprehensive Overview.Introduction.Project management plays a pivotal role in the construction industry, ensuring the successful execution and delivery of construction projects. It encompasses a wide range of activities, from project planning and coordination to resource allocation and risk management. This article provides a comprehensive overview of project management in construction, exploring its key principles, processes, and best practices.Principles of Project Management.The fundamental principles of project management guide the way construction projects are planned, executed, and controlled. These principles include:Project Planning: Establishing a clear and detailed plan that outlines project objectives, scope, deliverables, and timelines.Communication: Maintaining effective communication among project stakeholders, including owners, contractors, suppliers, and consultants.Risk Management: Identifying and mitigating potential risks that may impact project outcomes.Collaboration: Fostering teamwork and collaboration among project members to achieve common goals.Control: Regularly monitoring and evaluating project progress to ensure adherence to plans and objectives.Project Management Processes.Project management in construction involves several key processes that are typically executed sequentially:1. Project Initiation: Defining the project scope, objectives, and feasibility.2. Project Planning: Developing a detailed project plan that outlines tasks, resources, and timelines.3. Project Execution: Implementing the project plan and managing resources to achieve project deliverables.4. Project Monitoring and Control: Tracking progress, identifying deviations, and taking corrective actions to ensure successful project completion.5. Project Closure: Finalizing deliverables, completing documentation, and evaluating project performance.Best Practices in Project Management.To optimize project outcomes, construction industry professionals follow established best practices, such as:Use of Project Management Software: Utilizing project management software can streamline planning, scheduling, and collaboration.Stakeholder Engagement: Actively engaging project stakeholders throughout the project lifecycle to ensure alignment and buy-in.Risk Management Framework: Implementing a structured risk management framework to identify, assess, and manage project risks effectively.Change Management Process: Establishing a clear and proactive process for managing project changes to minimize disruptions and ensure project success.Continuous Improvement: Regularly reviewing project performance and seeking opportunities for improvement to enhance future project outcomes.Benefits of Effective Project Management.Effective project management in construction brings numerous benefits, including:On-Time Delivery: Adherence to project schedules and timelines, meeting stakeholder expectations.Cost Control: Managing project costs effectively, minimizing overruns and staying within budget.Quality Assurance: Ensuring high-quality construction outcomes that meet project specifications and industry standards.Risk Mitigation: Identifying and managing risks proactively, safeguarding projects from potential threats and ensuring smooth execution.Improved Stakeholder Satisfaction: Maintaining strong relationships with project stakeholders by delivering successful projects that align with their needs and objectives.Conclusion.Project management is essential for the successful execution of construction projects. By understanding its key principles, following established processes, and implementing best practices, construction industry professionals can optimize project outcomes, ensure on-time delivery, control costs, manage risks, and enhance stakeholder satisfaction. As the construction industry continues to evolve, leveraging advanced technologies and innovative approaches to project management will become increasingly critical for project success.。
工程管理英文文献
Engineering supervision system in China's Engineering constructionin the positionWith the dominance of China's socialist market economy, the determination of the project supervision system in China's highway construction is gradually becoming more mature. Talking about the project in the country, people always focus on project quality side, it seems that the focus of the task of supervision is to protect the quality of projects, in fact, it is very comprehensive, according to FIDIC provisions in the project construction, project quality, of course, crucial, but only to protect the project supervision of the three objectives (quality, duration, cost), one of these three goals are interrelated and influence, from different angles to protect the owners of the project efficiency. Of which cost control is also very important to the management aspect of this work, good or bad, is directly related to whether the quality of the project can achieve the desired goals, and whether the progress can be completed on time.First, the design phase of the design phase of SupervisionThe introduction of engineering supervision, determine a reasonable design, mature technology, reduce the construction phase of major design changes and program changes to occur, the effective cost control will play a certain role. Experts say: If the project supervision involved in the design stage, then, and can be ruled out, to correct 80% of the errors, but to the construction stage to be involved in supervision of works, at best, can only save 20% of the investment. According to the information briefing, a German university laboratory building, the original design is three and a basement, the project management company to meet the commission's space requirements and functional conditions, proposed to increase the layer to shorten the two-axis then the abolition of the basement. But also reduces the flow of people to evacuate distance (to the required standards), so modified after the design is not only reduced costs, has also been improved functionality, access to credit and praise of the municipal government. At present, China for engineering supervision at the design stage to introduce the practice is still rare, we should learn from foreign countries mature and developed system, the development of relevant systems, and standardize the market. Advocates strengthening the design phase of the supervision, control and management from a cost sense, ex ante control, prevention, which is scientific and reasonable. Therefore, to enhance the design stage to control the cost ofsupervision is necessary.Second, the construction phase of the SupervisionAs we all know, domestic and international construction markets are the dominant owners of a buyer's market, the construction of competition among enterprises is very cruel. In order to bid, bidders tend to almost zero profits or even below cost bids, but the owners often use low-cost way of winning. While the bidders promised to abide by the provisions of contract documents, but once the contract, they refused to the end there is no profit or losing money, so, often with inferior materials, do not follow standard construction, bribery, or layers of subcontracting means to profit. This time, the absence of an effective supervision mechanism, the victims can only be the owners.From the process, process control the cost of supervision of supervision engineer should not only be concerned with whether the works to meet the required quality goals, he should be the focus all the objectives of the project design, in the actual operation, the contractor engaged in construction prior to permanent per days must be carried out by a variety of inspection, testing, content or face a new job, workload, construction methods, measures, materials testing and sub-contracting part of the work or works submitted to the approval of supervisory engineer. The contractor can only work within the approved, without approval or beyond the approved engineer's work can not be recognized. At the same time is also an engineer approved the contractor to obtain a basis for progress payments. Engineers, contractors, any non-approved inputs (manpower, materials, equipment) will not receive compensation, meaning that there is no engineer's approval, the contractor shall not proceed to the next one process or face, shall not be put into construction materials, use, shall not subcontract part of the project or work.Supervision and Control of project cost from the cost of the engineering supervision of the project cost management goal is to project to be completed within the contract price can not be there far exceed estimates. Supervision of the strict monitoring of the project, due to the contractor causes the possibility of super-budget is almost zero. This is because: Engineering Super-budget, no more than two kinds of reasons, the first rise in unit labor and materials, first, during the construction works increased volume, while the contractor's bid is a commitment to its binding, and the contractor not entitled to their own works to increase the amount of the project, even if there are engineers, required the contractor to increase the input of resources toprotect the project design goals, the contractor has no right to be compensated, therefore, because in the tender document, the contractor can protect a large number of frequently cited the successful completion of the project personnel and mechanical equipment. From equipment costs, materials costs and equipment costs control supervision, materials costs in the capital projects account for about 70% of the entire cost. It is the project a major component of direct costs. Materials, equipment, high and low prices will directly affect the size of the construction costs.Thus, in the supervision process, can not be ignored that part. To introduce competition, and create competitive conditions. Owners can delegate the direct supervision through public tender selecting the suppliers, so that contractors can avoid unauthorized lower prices, delays in provider payments and thus lead to shoddy supplier, delivery is not timely, thereby affecting the progress of projects happening. The contractor in the preparation of tender prices, mainly the prices of materials and equipment owners and suppliers signed price quotation, by the suppliers of materials and equipment will be mainly transported to the scene by the supervising engineers and contractors to co-sign, the by the owner will focus on the procurement of materials and equipment shall be paid directly to suppliers.From the above procedures is easy to see the contractor in addition to supervising engineers no choice but to obey. This is because the supervising engineer contractor performance has a strong economic constraints means, economic means of payment by the project system and the deposit system, composition, they are the heads of the two contractors, "inhibition".The project payment system: in fact, the project payment system is to project the economic risk of being transferred to the contractor. Contractor must obtain economic benefits (the bid price and the difference between the actual cost of the project) prior advance money or other resources, that is: He had to buy the materials, equipment, payment of wages and other expenses, under the supervision of the supervising engineer contract documents all requests to create a project. Can only be the work of the contractor to complete the written approval of the supervisory engineer and the quality of bond, after deducting there from the owner to obtain compensation (for projects). If the contractor's work should not be so satisfied with supervision, he not only no hope of profit, and even the cost of inputs can not be recovered.Project Margin System: As a rule, signed contract before the contractor must pay the contract price equal to 10% of the performance bond or letter of guarantee. Thecontractor prior to commencement of course, can be obtained from the owners of 10% of the total contract price of the advance payment, but he must also be matched to the owners to submit a bond or letter of guarantee. Even if the contractor has received final acceptance certificates from the project, he will be leaving 5% of total contract price of the retention money. Here the performance bond and retention payments totaling 15% of the project contract price, far greater than the contractor's profit margin. The contractor's default can cause bond be forfeited, and whether the breach of contract only to evaluate the supervisory engineer.Third, completion of the project closing of SupervisionThe first job done in several stages, based on the completion of settlement on a lot easier. Labor Exchange acceptance of the project handled immediately after completion of billing processing. Completion of the contract price settlement value is value of claims already liquidated damages.According to FIDIC terms or model of China's construction contract terms and the actual text of the provisions of the terms of the contract is signed: involving construction claims and breach of contract issues, supervision engineers must clearly define the responsibilities to minimize the claims, to reduce the claim should note the following: strengthening contract management, improve the terms of the contract; before projects should be fully prepared to work; enhance the design of the review, the timely detection of problems in the design to avoid the construction.Engineering design changes due to claims arising; to strengthen quality management, and strengthen the quality of tracking, to avoid or reduce the contract sample tests or works outside the review of claims arising; to improve the quality of supervision engineers found that claims in a timely manner.In short, the supervision engineer in Cost Control of the importance of the role and status is beyond question, supervision is entrusted by the owners on the implementation of the project to conduct supervision and management, reform and opening up of China's foreign towards WTO needs. Project Management is a need for a variety of professional and technical, economic, legal and other integrated management of multi-disciplinary knowledge and skills in intellectual-intensive service work, which requires supervisors controlling costs, management contracts and information, the ability to mediate economic disputes, continually improve their own quality, and enhance awareness of contract management, improve the legal system. To this end, the state unit of the Ministry of Construction Supervision of social hierarchyand the corresponding conditions and qualification standards, supervision of qualified engineers to make separate provision accordingly. Project Management in China has generally been carried out, as a mature project management experience in the management of cost control will certainly play a key role.。
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工程管理制度专业外文文献翻译(中英文)————————————————————————————————作者：————————————————————————————————日期：2xxxxxx 大学本科毕业设计外文翻译Project Cost Control: the Way it Works项目成本控制：它的工作方式学院（系）： xxxxxxxxxxxx专业： xxxxxxxx学生姓名： xxxxx学号： xxxxxxxxxx指导教师： xxxxxx评阅教师：完成日期：xxxx大学项目成本控制：它的工作方式在最近的一次咨询任务中，我们意识到对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的，仍有一些缺乏理解。
所以我们决定描述它是如何工作的。
理论上，项目成本控制不是很难跟随。
首先，建立一组参考基线。
然后，随着工作的深入，监控工作，分析研究结果，预测最终结果并比较参考基准。
如果最终的结果不令人满意，那么你要对正在进行的工作进行必要的调整，并在合适的时间间隔重复。
如果最终的结果确实不符合基线计划，你可能不得不改变计划。
更有可能的是，会 (或已经) 有范围变更来改变参考基线，这意味着每次出现这种情况你必须改变基线计划。
但在实践中，项目成本控制要困难得多，通过项目数量无法控制成本也证明了这一点。
正如我们将看到的，它还需要大量的工作，我们不妨从一开始启用它。
所以，要跟随项目成本控制在整个项目的生命周期。
同时，我们会利用这一机会来指出几个重要文件的适当的地方。
其中包括商业案例，请求（资本）拨款（执行），工作包和工作分解结构，项目章程(或摘要)，项目预算或成本计划、挣值和成本基线。
所有这些有助于提高这个组织的有效地控制项目成本的能力。
业务用例和应用程序(执行)的资金重要的是要注意，当负责的管理者对于项目应如何通过项目生命周期展开有很好的理解时，项目成本控制才是最有效的。
这意味着他们在主要阶段的关键决策点之间行使职责。
他们还必须识别项目风险管理的重要性，至少可以确定并计划阻止最明显的潜在风险事件。
在项目的概念阶段•每个项目始于确定的机会或需要的人。
通常是有着重要性和影响力的人，如果项目继续，这个人往往成为项目的赞助。
•确定潜在项目的适用性，大多数组织呼吁编制“商业案例”和“量级”成本，用来证明项目的价值，以便使其可以与其他所有的项目竞争。
这项工作是在项目的概念阶段进行，并且作为组织管理整个项目管理的投资组合的一部分被完成。
•准备商业案例的工作的成本通常包括企业管理开销，但是它可以作为最终项目的一个会计成本来结转。
毫无疑问，因为这将为该组织提供一个税收优惠。
问题是，那么你如何占有所有不结转的项目?•如果业务有足够的价值，将批准继续发展和定义阶段。
在项目的发展或定义阶段•开发阶段的目标是建立一个涉及到生产所需的产品，估计成本和为该项目的实际执行寻求资本融资的良好的工作的理解。
•在正式的场合，特别是在大型项目，这个拨款申请通常被称为请求(资本)拨款(RFA)或资本拨款请求(CAR)。
•这需要更详细的要求和数据的收集，建立工作所需要完成的来生产所需产品或“可交付成果”。
从这个信息来看，一个准备了足够细节的计划在一美元价格的请求上给予足够的信心。
•在一个不太正式的环境中，每个人都试图蒙混过关。
工作包和WBS项目管理计划，项目简介或项目章程•如果可交付的成果由许多不同的元素组成，这些被识别并组合成工作包(WPs)，用工作分解结构(WBS) 的方式提交。
•每个WP包括一系列的活动，“工作”被计划和安排为项目管理计划的一部分。
但是请注意，该计划仍将处于相对较高的水平，在执行期间如果项目获得批准，更详细的规划将是必须的。
•顺便说一下，这个项目管理计划应该成为项执行阶段目的“圣经”，有时它被称为“项目简介”或“项目章程”。
•然后估计各种活动的成本，这些估算成本汇总以确定WP的估计成本。
这种方法被称为“详细估算”或“自底向上的估算”。
还有其他的方法来估计，我们将在一分钟内。
不管怎样，结果是该项目的总工作的估计费用。
注:该项目风险管理规划是这次演戏的一个重要组成部分。
这应该检查项目的假设和环境条件来确定该计划中到目前为止的任何弱点，并确定值得注意缓解的这些潜在风险事件。
这可能需要特定的应急计划的形式和/或留出谨慎的资金储备。
资本要求转换估计•不过，单独的工作的估计是不能满足资本要求的。
为了达到一个资本的要求，一些转换是必要的，例如，通过添加谨慎津贴等，如开销，应急准备金来支付正常的项目风险和管理外汇储备来应付未知和可能的变化范围。
•另外，估算数据转换成财务会计的满足企业或赞助商的格式是必要的，目的是比较与其他项目和后续资金的批准。
刚才所描述的方法中，所有的数据类型为“自下而上”，在实践中可能无法使用。
在这种情况下，替代的估算方法是在时尚中通过提供不同程度的“自上而下”的可靠性。
例如：数量级估计——“球公园”估计，通常只留给概念阶段类似的估计——基于先前的类似项目的估算参数估计——基于历史数据的统计关系的估算•无论采用哪种方法，希望因此抵达总和将全额批准并被证明是令人满意的！这是触发启动项目的执行阶段注意:一些管理层将批准一些较小的总和，错误地认为这将帮助每个人“削铅笔”和“更聪明地工作”的利益组织。
这是一个错误的观念，因为管理层未能了解项目工作的不确定性和风险的性质。
因此，效果更有可能导致“切角”对产品质量产生不利影响，或减少产品范围或功能。
这通常会导致一个“游戏”的估计被放大，管理可以向下调整它们。
但公平地说，管理也清楚地意识到，如果超过分配资金，无论如何它会得到花费。
明智的管理要做的就是留出应急储备基金、不同项目的风险，并保持这些钱小心的控制之下。
核准资本的所有权•如果高级管理层批准的RFA，总和的问题变成了指定的项目发起人的责任。
然而，如果批准资本要求包括津贴如“管理储备”，这可能会或可能不会被传递给项目的赞助商，这取决于本组织的政策。
•RFA批准，项目发起人，反过来，进一步将支出权力委托给项目的项目经理，将不包括任何补贴。
一种异常可能涵盖工作表现正常变化的应急准备。
•净金额从而到达构成了项目经理的批准的项目预算。
注意:如果管理层不批准RFA，你不应该考虑这个项目的失败。
或是这个目标的目的，而规划需要重新考虑，以增加交付项目的价值。
项目的执行阶段项目经理的项目预算责任•此项目预算批准后发布的项目经理，一个逆过程必须将它转换成一个工作控制文档。
即资金必须划分在不同的WBS，顺便问一下，现在可能已经被升级。
这个结果作用于项目执行控制预算或项目基线预算，或简单地说，项目预算。
在一些项目管理的应用领域，它被称为一个项目成本计划。
•在一个大的项目中，不同的公司生产部门，可能会有进一步的中间步骤为单独的部门，创建“控制账户”，每个部门将细分他们分配资金投入自己的WBS WPS。
•观察到，因为总项目预算得到高级管理层的正式批准，你，作为项目经理，同样也必须寻求并获得执行管理，通过该项目的赞助商，正式批准任何更改总项目预算。
通常这只是合理的和接受的基础上要求的产品范围变化。
•在这种情况下项目的赞助商要么减少管理储备在他的财产，或提交补充RFA高层管理。
•现在我们项目预算资金分配给工作包，我们可以进一步分配在每个WP的各种活动，以便我们知道我们有多少钱作为“基线”为每个活动的成本。
•这为我们提供了参考的基础成本控制功能。
当然，根据情况做同样的事情可能在WP级别，但控制然后在更高的能力和粗水平。
使用挣值技术•如果我们有必要的细节另一个控制工具，我们可以采用监控正在进行的工作是“挣值”(EV)技术。
这是一个相当大的艺术和科学，你必须了解文本的主题。
•但基本上，你掌管日程安排活动的费用，并在适当的时候绘制他们作为累计。
再次，你可以做的活动水平，或整个项目的水平越低，您可用的控制信息就越多。
成本基线•这个计划参考S-曲线有时被称为“成本基线”，通常在EV的说法。
也就是说，它是“预算成本工作计划”(BCWS)，或更简单“计划价值”(PV)。
•注意到，你需要修改这个成本基线每次有一个批准范围变化，成本和/或进度影响，从而改变了该项目的核准项目预算。
•现在，随着工作的深入，你可以绘制“执行工作的实际成本”(ACWP或简单的“实际成本”-交流)。
•你可以绘制其他东西，如上面提到的图，如果你不喜欢你所看到的，你需要“纠正措施”。
注意：整个过程是一个循环，态势操作，这可能是普遍名不副实“项目的生命周期”中“循环”一词的来源”。
顺便说一句，挣值权威人士提供的EV过程中的各种其他技术设计能帮助预测最后的结果，也就是说，“估计在完成”（“选管会”）。
选管会是你真正应该感兴趣的，因为在运动项目中，它是唯一不变的。
因此，必须考虑这些延长EV技术在同一领域的自上而下的估算精度。
他们是有用的，但前提是你认识到了其局限性和知道你在做什么!但是，正如我们在开始时说的，它在实践中困难得多，需要大量的工作。
但是，让我们面对现实吧，这就是项目经理被雇佣的原因，不是吗?Project Cost Control: the Way it WorksIn a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up a description of how it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory.First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyze the findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end results are not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycle at suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have to change the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway.But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projects that fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might as well start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire project life span.And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significant documents. These include the Business Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution), Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget or Cost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability to effectively control project costs.The Business Case and Application for (execution) FundingIt is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive management responsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. This means that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision points between the major phases. They must also recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head off at least the most obvious potential risk events.In the project's Concept Phase• Every project starts with someone identifying an opportunity or need. That is usually someone of importance or influence, if the project is to proceed, and that person often becomes the project's sponsor.• To determine the suitability of the potential project, most organizations call for the preparation of a "Business Case" and its "Order of Magnitude" cost to justify the value of the project so that itCan be compared with all the other competing projects. This effort is conducted in the Concept Phase of the project and is done as a part of the organization's management of the entire project portfolio.• The cost of the work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporate management overhead, but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventual project. No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization. The problem is, how do you then account for all the projects that are not so carried forward?• If the Business case has sufficient merit, approval will be given to proceed to a Development and Definition phase.In the project's Development or Definition Phase• The objective of the Development Phase is to est ablish a good understanding of the work involved to produce the required product, estimate the cost and seek capital funding for the actual execution of the project.• In a formalized setting, especially where big projects are involved, this application fo r funding is often referred to as a Request for (a capital) Appropriation (RFA) or Capital Appropriation Request (CAR).• This requires the collection of more detailed requirements and data to establish what work needsTo be done to produce the required product or "deliverable". From this information, a plan is prepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in a dollar figure to be included in the request.• In a less formalized setting, everyone just tries to muddle through.Work Packages and the WBSThe Project Management Plan, Project Brief or Project Charter• If the deliverable consists of a number of different elements, these are identified and assembled into Work Packages (WPs) and presented in the form of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).• Each WP involves a set of activities, the "work" that is planned and scheduled as a part of the Project Management Plan. Note, however, that the planning will still be at a relatively high level,And more detailed planning will be necessary during execution if the project is given the go ahead.• This Project Management Plan, by the way, should become the "bible" for the execution phase of the project and is sometimes referred to as the "Project Brief" or the "Project Charter".• The cost of doing the var ious activities is then estimated and these estimated costs are aggregated to determine the estimated cost of the WP. This approach is known as "detailed estimating" or "bottom up estimating". There are other approaches to estimating that we'll come to in a minute. Either way, the result is an estimated cost of the total work of the project.Note: that project risk management planning is an important part of this exercise. This should examine the project's assumptions and environmental conditions to identify any weaknesses in the plan thus far, and identify those potential risk events that warrant attention for mitigation. This might take the form of specific contingency planning, and/or the setting aside of prudent funding reserves.Request for capitalConverting the estimate• However, an estimate of the work alone is not sufficient for a capital request. To arrive at a capital request some conversion is necessary, for example, by adding prudent allowances such asOverheads, a contingency allowance to cover normal project risks and management reserves to cover unknowns and possible scope changes.• In addition, it may be necessary to convert the estimating data into a financial accounting formatThat satisfies the corporate or sponsor's format for purposes of comparison with other projects and consequent funding approval.• In practice all the data for the type of "bottom up" approach just described may not be available.In this case alternative estimating approaches are adopted that provide various degrees of reliability in a "top down" fashion. For example:Order of Magnitude estimate – a "ball park" estimate, usually reserved for the concept phase onlyAnalogous estimate – an estimate based on previous similar projectsParametric estimate – an estimate based on statistical relationships in historical data• Whichever approach is adopted, hopefully the sum thus arrived at will be approved in full and proves to be satisfactory! This is the trigger to start the Execution Phase of the project Note: Some managements will approve some lesser sum in the mistaken belief that this will help everyone to "sharpen their pencils" and "work smarter" for the benefit of the organization. This is a mistaken belief because management has failed to understand the nature of uncertainty and risk in project work. Consequently, the effect is more likely to resultin "corner cutting" with an adverse effect on product quality, or reduced product scope or functionality. This often leads to a "game" in which estimates are inflated so that management can adjust them downwards. But to be fair, management is also well aware that if money is over allocated, it will get spent anyway. The smart thing for managements to do is to set aside contingent reserve funds, varying with the riskiness of the project, and keep that money under careful control.Ownership of approved capital• If senior management approves the RFA as presented, the sum in question becomes the responsibility of the designated project sponsor. However, if the approved capital request includes allowances such as a "Management Reserve", this may or may not be passed on to the project's sponsor, depending on the policies of the organization.• For the approved RFA, the project sponsor will, in turn, further delegate expenditure authority to the project's project manager and will likely not include any of the allowances. An exception might be the contingency allowances to cover the normal variations in work performance.• The net sum thus arrived at constitutes the project manager's Approved Project Budget.Note: If management does not approve the RFA, you should not consider this a project failure. Either the goals, objectives, justification and planning need rethinking to increase the value of the project's deliverables, or senior management simply has higher priorities elsewhere for the available resources and funding.The Project's Execution PhaseThe project manager's Project Budget responsibility• Once this Approved Project Budget is released to the project manager, a reverse process must take place to convert it into a working control document. That is, the money available must be divided amongst the various WBS WPs that, by the way, have probably by now been upgraded! This results in a project execution Control Budget or Project Baseline Budget, or simply, the Project Budget. In some areas of project management application it is referred to as a Project Cost Plan.• On a large project where different corporate production divisions are involved, there may be a further intermediate step of creating "Control Accounts" for the separate divisions, so that each division subdivides their allocated money into their own WBS WPs.• Observe that, since the total Project Budget received formal approval from Executive Management, you, as project manager, must likewise seek and obtain from Executive Management, via the project's sponsor, formal approval for any changes to the total project budget. Often this is only justified and accepted on the basis of a requested Product Scope Change.• In such a case the project's sponsor will either draw down on the management reserve in his or her possession, or submit a supplementary RFA to upper management.• Now that we have the Project Budget money allocated to Work Packages we can further distribute it amongst the various activities of each WP so that we know how much money we have as a "Baseline" cost for each activity.• This provides us with the base of reference for the cost control function. Of course, depending on the circumstances the same thing may be done at the WP level but the ability to control is then at a higher and coarser level.Use of the Earned Value technique• If we have the necessary details another control tool that we can adopt for monitoring ongoing work is the "Earned Value" (EV) technique. This is a considerable art and science that you must learn about from texts dedicated to the subject.• But essentially, you take the costs of the schedule activities and plot them as a cumulative total on the appropriate time base. Again you can do this at the activity level, WP level or the whole project level. The lower the level the more control information you have available but the more work you get involved in.The Cost Baseline• This planned reference S-curve is sometimes referred to as the "Cost Baseline", typically in EVParlance. That is, it is the "Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled" (BCWS), or more simply the "Planned Value" (PV).• Observe that you need to modify this Cost Baseline every time there is an approved scope change that has cost and/or schedule implications and consequently changes the project's Approved Project Budget.• Now, as the work progresses, you can plot the "Actual Cost of Work Performed" (ACWP or simply "Actual Cost" - AC).• You can plot other things as well, s ee diagram referred to above, and if you don't like what you see then you need to take "Corrective Action".CommentaryThis whole process is a cyclic, situational operation and is probably the source of the term "cycle" in the popularly misnamed "project life cycle".As an aside, the Earned Value pundits offer various other techniques within the EV process designed to aid in forecasting the final result, that is, the "Estimate At Completion" (EAC). EAC is what you should really be interested in because it is the only constant in a moving project. Therefore, these extended EV techniques must be considered in the samerealm of accuracy as top-down estimating. They are useful, but only if you recognize the limitations and know what you are doing!But, as we said at the beginning, it is a lot more difficult to do in practice – and involves a significant amount of work. But, let's face it, that's what project managers are hired for, right?。