《英语词汇学》期末课程论文
英语词汇学期末论文
英语词汇学期末论文题目：浅析英语词汇巧记法专业：英语班级：13级3班学号：201313010309姓名：黄旷静完成时间：2015年1月14号浅析英语词汇巧记法摘要：词汇是英语学习的基础，没有足够的词汇量就不可能高水平的掌握英语这门外语，而浩瀚的词汇海洋让很多人望而生畏。
尽管花费了大量时间精力去背，记忆的效果却差强人意，原因就在于没有使用科学的方法记忆词汇。
其实，世间万物都是有规律性的，英语单词的组词与构词方法也有规律，了解了它的规律有利于我们有效甚至高效学习英语单词。
为了提高单词记忆的效率，本文从不同方面介绍几种记忆方法。
关键词：词汇科学记忆规律效率一．读音记忆法1.拼读法英语是拼音文字，英语中的单词的读音大多是有规律的，熟悉字母及字母组合的发音规则，掌握正确的拼法与读音之间的关系，可以根据单词的读音，降低记忆难度，正确地拼写单词。
例如ay读[ei]。
带有ay字母组合的词，如say，day，way，pay，may，play，spray，不仅发音容易，而且拼写也没有任何困难。
Sh ch tion ture 等也都有固定读音，ee发音为i:culture 文化pasture牧场mature 成熟的architecture 建筑学带有true的单词也都能很方便的记忆下来2.谐音法尽管有些人认为用这种谐音记忆法记忆单词不科学，不利于正确掌握发音，但实践证明，对尚未掌握外语的构词特点和记词规律的初学者来说，采用谐音法记单词确实能有效地记住一部分难记的单词。
但是，在用谐音法记单词时需要特别注意，绝不可将其作为模仿发音的依据，只能作为记忆单词时的谐音联想手段，以加强记忆，而必须按照单词的标准发音去读记，以避免这种记词法干扰正确发音。
用谐音法记单词是，根据外语单词的读音到中文中寻找与其读音相似的谐音，寻找到谐音与单词的联系。
用这种方法甚至可能达到终身不忘，这也正是谐音记忆法的绝妙之处。
例如：mouth嘴[联想：说话“冒失”的就是嘴]think想[联想：想时要“深刻”]二．联想法1.拆分联想科学研究表明：联想是记忆的基础。
词汇学论文
英语的发展这学期我们学习了词汇学这门课程，从这门课程的学习中我了解了英语发展的历史。
从这门课的学习中，我知道了英语语言的历史发展可以分为三个阶段，分别是：古英语（Old English），中世纪英语（Middle English）和现代英语（Modern English）。
(一) 古英语时期 (Old English Period, 450-1150)。
有记载的英语语言起始于449年，当时包括央格鲁－撒克逊人（Angles-Saxons）在内的德国部落入侵大不列颠。
他们把原来的居民凯尔特人（the Celts）赶到不列颠的北部和西部角落。
凯尔特人的领袖King Arthur带领部队勇敢作战，英勇抗击德国入侵者。
这之后在不列颠岛上央格鲁人、撒克逊人和一些德国部落都说着各自的英语。
尽管85％的古英语词汇现在已经不再使用，但一些常用词汇如：child, foot, house, man, sun等等还是保留下来。
和现代英语相比，古英语中的外来词很少，但派生词缀较多。
古英语中还有较多描述性的复合词。
如“音乐”是earsport；“世界”是age of man。
在著名的英雄史诗《贝奥武甫》（Beowulf）中对此有详尽描述。
这是最早居住在不列颠(Britain) 的民族塞尔特人所说的塞尔特语(Celtic)，他们虽然最早到英国，但留下来的事迹不多，现在威尔斯、苏格兰高地仍有人说塞尔特语。
公元前43年凯撒大帝征服不列颠，罗马人统治不列颠人，同时也将当时罗马人使用的拉丁语传入，但并未被一般老百姓采用。
公元410年罗马帝国自英国撤离，这时，来自英国北方的皮刺人 (Picts) 和苏格兰人分别从南部和西北侵扰，不列颠无力抵抗，只好求救于往昔经常困扰罗马军队的日耳曼人。
根据大英民族编年史的记载，日耳曼民族于公元449年在英格兰登陆，将日耳曼语带到英国，而发展成现在的英语，因此，英语是属于印欧语系Indo-European 日耳曼语族的语言。
词汇学结课论文
Narcissism※Definition of the wordAre you familiar with the word “narcissism”? Nowadays this word is very widely used on different occasions, especially among the young people.Narcissism, according to the definition of Oxford dictionary, means the habit of admiring oneself too much, especially one’s appearance. In Chinese ,it means “自恋”.To be more precise, narcissism is the personality trait of egotism, vanity, conceit or simple selfishness. Applied to a social group, it is sometimes used to denote elitism or an influence to the plight of others. The term “narcissism” was firstly introduced by Havelock Ellis(later developed further by Freud in On Narcissism)after Narcissus who in Greek Mythology was a self－absorbed young man who fall in love with his own reflection in a pool. From Freud’s point of view, he held that some narcissism is an essential part of all of us from birth. And Andrew P.Morrison claims that a certain amount of healthy narcissism allows the individual’s perception of his needs to be balanced in relation to others. However, in Spain, where psychoanalysis is not used in public health, the world “narcissism”has a different meaning. It means “overindulgence at considering one’s faculties or acts”. Thus, the term “healthy narcissism”is replaced by “healthy self－love”. Some experts believe a disproportionate number of pathological narcissists are at work in the most influential reaches of society such as medicine, finance and politics.※The source of the wordIn Greek mythology, Narcissus was a handsome Greek youth who had never seen his reflection. The nymph Echo had been punished by Hera for gossiping by being cursed to forever "have the last word". One day Echo saw Narcissus walking through the forest and wanted to express her love for him. Narcissus heard her but could not see her and when he asked, "Who's here?” all Echo could reply, because of the curse, was "here". When Echo finally revealed herself, she was shocked when Narcissus scornfully rejected her and she fled into the mountains. One day, whenNarcissus became thirsty and stopped by a pond to take a drink, he saw his reflection in the water for the first time. Not knowing any better, he fell in love and started talking to it. Not yet understanding reflections, Narcissus thought his reflection was speaking to him and became more engaged. Unable to consummate his love, Narcissus pined away at the pool and changed into the flower that bears his name, the narcissus.※The representatives of the wordNowadays the word “narcissism”is very popular with Chinese people. People behave narcissistically out of special reasons. For example, I have a very good friend who is a tall but fat girl. Every time when we talk about appearance, she will say in a weird but amusing voice, “well, don’t you even know that? I come from the south of China, so it’s no doubt that I’m a mild and fragile young lady.” Hearing that, I know she is a little bit narcissistic considering her real appearance. But by saying so and claiming in such a voice, she wisely avoids embarrassment and animates the atmosphere. Next time when we talk about what kind of person she is, we will unanimously say she is a wise and humorous girl instead of despising her as a narcissistic person.However, things can go quite contrary to what we have expected them to achieve if we are not capable of keeping a subtle balance when behaving narcissistically. I will give you another corresponding example. I also know a very competent person who is a member of the English debate society. He can handle different situations appropriately, but he is not popular with the other members. Why? From the other members of the association, I can figure out the reason. They just think he is too arrogant and self－conceited. Every time the other members put forward a suggestion, he is always opposed to it as if to say, “Well, my suggestion is the best, you guys can not possibly come up with a constructive idea.”Also, he is used to contending that he has good appearance, so it won’t be hard for him at all to find a girlfriend. However, he is still single now in that he even doesn’t give any chance to the girls who desperately fall in love with him. I guess the reason why he is so unpopular lies in thefact that he isn’t able to hold the appropriate degree of narcissism.※The conclusion of the wordFrom what have been mentioned above, I’m sure more or less we are familiar with the word “narcissism”, ranging from the precise definition of the word, the etymology of the word to the special occasions of using the word. Therefore, we have an overall look at the word－narcissism. However, it’s just a tip of the iceberg. If we would like to get to know more about the word, we will have to do further research so that we can apply the use of it to our daily life appropriately.Last but not the least, there is something that I would like to mention, that is, whatever our original intentions are of behaving narcissistically, we should always bear in mind that our behavior should not arouse the other people’s resentment and unhappiness. In our daily communication, we do not expect the uneasiness to generate between people, so while we are trying to be humorous by behaving narcissistically, it’s better for us to be a little bit modest.。
英语词汇学的论文怎么写[共5篇]
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英语词汇学的论文怎么写[共5篇]第一篇：英语词汇学的论文怎么写英语词汇学的论文怎么写？英语词汇学习在英语词汇学习过程中，学习者要遵循第二语言习得的规律，掌握并灵活运用多种词汇学习策略。
可分为词汇表策略、语境策略、精加工策略、语义场策略。
一．词汇表策略（Word list strategy）词汇表策略一般为：一列是按字母顺序排列的英语单词，另一列是这些单词的汉语意思（等值词、同义词或近义词）。
有些学者认为，通过词汇表策略能够迅速且有效地学会大量的词汇。
然而，Gaims 和Redman 却指出，通过词汇表记忆词汇会阻碍对所记词汇进行充分地处理和系统地组织，因此就失去了有效的长时记忆的基础。
语言大师桂诗春教授也认为，词汇表策略既费时又费力，徒劳无功，因为这种做法不仅把外语的词语和母语的词语等同起来，而且把它从语言和语境中孤立出来。
二．语境策略（Context strategy）语境策略就是学习者通过上下文语言环境所提供的信息对出现在语境中的生词进行猜测，从而习得这个单词。
语境策略是目前比较流行的词汇学习策略之一，它不仅仅可以扩大词汇量，而且可以让学生了解有关目的语的文化知识。
但是，Channell(Carter &McCarthy ,1988:89)认为，音节认知和重音认知对学习者理解词汇起着非常重要的作用。
为了更好地理解词汇，学习新单词的方法应使学习者准确地内化和吸收新单词：即学会单个音标的发音、了解音节数、掌握重音位置。
从这一方面来看，运用语境策略学习词汇不能算是一个很好的方法。
三．精加工策略（Elaborative strategy）精加工策略是指通过对学习材料进行深入细致的分析、加工，理解其内在的深层意义并促进记忆的一种策略。
皮连生（1998）在《学与教的心理学》一书中也曾提到：“精细加工策略”（同“精加工策略”）指对学习材料作精细的加工活动，即通过在要记忆的材料上增加相关的信息来达到对新的材料记忆的学习方法。
英语词汇学课程论文
英语词汇学课程论文题目：网络英语的词汇类型及其特点院系：辽宁大学外国语学院英语国际商务系班级：09级01班学号：290811507姓名：金文Abstract: With the development and popularity of Internet, English thereupon develops and changes as main language in Internet. New vocabulary of English on Internet has a new vocabulary which either describes the new things, or the newly formed abbreviation for easy inputting, or the common symbolic language of the world. New vocabulary of the English has the character of easy- to- understand, vivid and proper, succinct and easy to remember the meaning of a word and swift input. It also has certainmetaphor nature. The semantics of the English neologisms of network appears and upgrades fast and in large quantity.Keywords: Internet; English; V ocabulary; CharacteristicBody:In twenty-first Century, the mankind has entered the era of the Internet network, as the economic, social development of the most powerful agents, to promote human. The society enters a new era. The development of society, the progress of language development is the important soil. With the development and popularity of Internet, Englishas the main language in Internet thereupon develops and changes.I. New vocabulary of English on InternetSince the Internet has been generated, about generate more than1000English new words. The lexicons mainly has the following kinds. 一．Describing the new thing new vocabulary.Taking the information technology as the representative of a series of new technologies, human social life appeared a few new things. These new things and computer technology are inseparable, describe these things new vocabulary in the network produces and began to be widely used, such as knowbot, mailbot, infobahn, coopetition, E- mail, infwindow, Internet, internet, download, netspead and so on. These new vocabulary is a portmanteau word, such as interpedia, Telnet and so on. There are compound words, such as multimedia, homepage, componentware and so on. In the new course of old words, sometimes directly was given a new meaning, its meaning has been further development, it becomes the new words in a large class. For example “mouse” translate to “老鼠”，in computer technology says “鼠标”；“flame”translate to “火焰激情”，in computer technology says“反病毒程序”.二．AbbreviationsThe Internet to narrow the distance between people, and also the main way to communicate with the main text. In the Internet chat or send e-mail, in order to speed up typing speed appeareding a lot of new English abbreviations and non-standard spelling. Internet abbreviations is a major formation means, they have made use of the characteristics of simplicity, simple, has the very strong vitality. Abbreviation sentence is generally used for connecting role phrases, even if the initial network of people do not understand its meaning, will not understand each other's intentions affect too much. These abbreviations are usually soon accepted by the majority of Internet users. These words abbreviated method basically has the following kinds:1. Homophone use abbreviationsThe English emphasize shape, Chinese emphasize meaning, and the Internet words emphasize pronunciation. According to the pronunciation of the words or sentences to simplify the rewritten as Internet language characteristic there a new method to spell a word: for example “IC” means “I see”, “Y” means “Why”, “U” means “You”. There is a phrase to describe only according to pronunciation, which no longer has one one corresponding to the substitution alphabet. For example, ICQ ( I seek you ) seek K and you note together with pronunciation the same letter Q instead of.2. The beginning letter abbreviationThe beginning letter abbreviation use the first letter of each word ( usually capitalized ) are combined to replace the phrases or sentences, is the most common internet language, also the one that most early Internet users understand. Among them, also have a letter on behalf of the entire word, there is also a letter represents partial word abbreviations. For example, IOW( In other words) , LOL( Laughing out loud) , BTW( By the way) , TLA( Thanks in advance) , ASL( Age Sex Location).3. Truncated abbreviationIn order to facilitate the importation, users are sometimes truncated suffix, prefix or remove the vowels, write some new words. Section termination: hang on a sec=hang on a second, rep=reputation.Some words even as only the first letter:P=Pardon、G=Grin or Giggle.Section header: cause(or cuz) =because、m=am. To remove the vowels refers to words of vowels, consonants, retaining only the pronunciation of the prominent appearance marked the letters. For example, “ MSG” means MESSAGE“、PLS” means PLEASE“、PPL” means PEOPLE“、THX” means THANKS.4. Borrow digit abbreviationInternet English is a special abbreviated forms, namely digital alternative to repeated letters or homophones numbers instead of a letter, it can becalled a numeral abbreviation. This is a development of abbreviations, and Internet English new things. For example, B2B(商家与商家, Business to business)、3W(万维网,World Wide Web)、4P's(4p 营销策略, 电子商务中的一种营销术语, 指consumer's wants and needs, costto satisfy wants and needs, convenience, communication) 、3A( 3A 服务,anyone, anytime, anywhere).三．Universal symbol languageWith the development of Internet, also generates some features of English hieroglyphic words：“ {}”means “拥抱“, “＄- )” means “贪婪”,“ X=”means “希望成功“, XOXO”means”拥抱和亲吻“, ZZZ”means ”无聊或在睡觉”.As in Hotmail, Internet users to type in a left parenthesis, a specific letter and a right parenthesis, there will be unexpected image effect. For example, type" ( R )", there will be a rose ( because R is rose. ); type " ( G )", then there will be a gift box ( because G is gift. ). Japanese also created some of these words, and on the Internet has been recognized, as in the use of"@^- ^@" said blushed. These words and phrases first in English in the network appears, has gradually been accepted by users, has become a kind of special no pronunciation symbols, vividly expressed the people's thought. Of course, the letters and letter combinations expression power is very limited, and the different chat room setting, therefore, here is notto do further discussion. It can be expected with the development of the network, is very likely there will be unified alphabet emoticons.II. The characteristics of Internet English new wordsLanguage dynamic development process of people to meet the communicative needs, but also reflects the society and language, cognition and communication relationship. Network English is in the rapid development of network technology and social context of increasingly rich, develop gradually rise, and embodies the media popularization and the progress of science and technology. Network English is the product of net culture, with the rule of development of the language. Internet words semantic has vivid characteristics of practice, in the network communication can better express one's thoughts or ideas, but also is easy to be accepted by people.一．Word easy to understand, vividNetwork communication is different from face-to-face communication, communicators exchange information only with words, not with the help of body language, this requires the network English new words must be easy to understand. Its formation should be familiar, even if the reader has not been previously in contact vocabulary, can also according to the most familiar vocabulary guess. Network English popular mainly reflectin the word-building ways to use a large number of derivatives and synthesis, so that Internet users need to understand the meaning of the affix, can be inferred and master derived from the large number of new words: “cyber” comes from the Greek, meaning the helmsman, can be understood as " computer, network" or transliterated as " cyber", derived from cyber. The word cyber activist, cyber addict, cyber attack, cyber cop, cyber brain, cyber surfing etc. Network English compound words in large quantity, variety. Many new words are common words and has specific meaning word combinations, the newsemantic equally easy to understand, easy to understand memory. As of web means " spider's Web", extended to the network, its synthesis in the word webmaster, webster, webzine, web site work people in addition to the use of some language symbols to represent tone and emotion, but also often use a few words to describe some nonverbal behavior, such as describing the netizen action, emotion and posture. People are facing the cold screen, used to describe the language users, emotion and action figure, with pure text there is nothing comparable to this role, can make the network more humane, more vivid and attractive, closer to the actual exchange. Such as" haha" means" LOL" laugh, laugh" Smile said," said smiling," Rose" means send roses," ROTFL" means roll with laughter," jump" means happy like children like skipping in the chat room," think" means tilted his head like a down" praise said," said" really smart, admire, admire".二．Succinct and easy to remember, quick inputMany novel and unique internet vocabulary is the use of commonly used roots and affixes, grouped by lexical rules, creative recombination. This kind of vocabulary has to be Yi Ming, easy reading, easy memory characteristics. Simple, easy to remember network English so that visitors will not remembering the tedious terms and jargon, effectively improve the keyboard input speed, to network dissemination of information. Network English brevity mainly embodies in the network on the emergence of abbreviated terms, abbreviations are made by simplicity, ease of use, more colloquial, less formal, lack of social other fields widely accepted rules of use. But because of its user-friendly, simple, easy to remember and spread, therefore, this kind of abbreviation in Internet communication by Internet users consistent recognition and widely accepted and used. These words common features are simple in form, with no single, rich associative meaning.The use of abbreviations can not only simplify the printing, saving space and time for reading, but also can effectively increase the input speed, so as to adapt to the computer science and network technology high speed development requirements. Therefore, in order to improve the input speed, network English often ignore the first letters.三．MetaphoricalMetaphor is an important cognitive style and mode of thinking. Richards ( Richards ) once said, metaphor is omnipresent principle. P.F'ontanier (1830) for the metaphor cognitive characteristics further elaborated, he points out that metaphor is a kind of thing as another kind of thing.Any kind of art form embodies the features of metaphors, either as a thing to experience another kind of the way things are called metaphor, network language which contains. Net language the main formation is in a category to another.A category of things, either the digital category digital network language, network language or symbols category symbols and netizen created the network language reflects its metaphorical, embodies the netizen know world usually cognitive form.Network new words often rely on people familiar vocabulary, with the aid of the metaphorical meaning, stimulate the readers' Association and imagination, showing old things or concepts similarity or relevance, endowing the old words with new meanings, to create the vivid, figurative rich description of new things, new ideas of vocabulary. The network includes a number of professional English vocabulary and vocabulary of computer network technology. In general, the metaphor cognition in humans has two functions: to create new meaning and offer new angles of viewing things. We found that, in the development ofnetwork and computer technology in the process, people continuously by means of metaphor to create new words and concepts. The general vocabulary through the semantic change of metaphor and the modification of the original meaning, extended, extension, from a new point of view to look at it, it has a new meaning. Such as the computer virus virus refers to the biology of the virus. In the computer field, is defined by the programmer designed to hide in a computer program, intended to destroy the computer operating system to disturbance or missing data and other secret program. Similar terms and gopher, archive, menu, memory, run, path etc.Thus, in the role of metaphor, reification of abstract concepts, complex meaning of scientific terminology, popular, well strengthen social science and science communication, so that a subject from another discipline of inspiration. It is because of known from concept to cognitive unknown concepts from the known to the unknown, register register mapping, network English technical terms and people's daily life vocabulary, both concise and vivid, and easy to remember. This has largely contributed to the development of network technology and the development and popularization of computer knowledge.四．Novel words in the semantic representation and update speed, numberThe rapid development of computer, the popularization of the Internet, resulted in a network of new words have emerged, including a rich network of English new words. The presentation of the new words and update speed, number of any one dictionary is difficult to collect. So in the network era of rapid development of new English words so, understanding of its structure and semantic features, contribute to the accumulation of knowledge, broaden our horizons.Nowadays, network culture influences people's learning, life, job, thinking mode, value concept. Therefore, to strengthen the network of new words in English study, the structure and semantic features, the people familiar with the Internet, learning English and daily life will be of great help.Biliography：[1]Gao Liwei ,Digital age, digital English [J]. English Today 2001(17):12-13[2]Steward ,Doug. Flame thrower [A].[3] W.H.&Turgeon Gregoire . About languages: A Reader for Writers[C][4] 付辛斌,张雪梅.英语因特网语的形式与功能[J].外语电化教学,2006(2).[5] 杨金菊.网络英语词汇特点初探[J].嘉兴学院学报,2002(3).[6] 乐勇.网络英语缩略语[J].中国科技翻译,2002(1).[7] 干福.论因特网英语的特点及意义[J].连云港师范高等专科学校学报,2001(2).[8] 林丽芳.论计算机英语的隐喻性[J].厦门大学学报: 社科版,2001(1).。
词汇学期末论文
A brief introduction of the major differences between British English and American EnglishAbstractThis article describes some of the main differences in the English of British and American speakers. Differences in the way that the same language is spok en in different places are called varieties or dialects. These varieties may be regional or national. For example, we can hear different forms of English in various regions of the UK, or in different parts of the English-speaking world. There are numerous varieties of English, such as Indian English, Australian English, and West African English. But for historical reasons, British English and American English are the two most influential varieties and it is the differences between these two that we will discuss here.Key Words：British English，American English，differences，varieties，dialects，IntroductionAmerican and British English are dialects of English which have a recognised standard form and are equally acceptable in Academic English as long as the style and register used are appropriately formal. There are no significant differences in the academic form of other varieties of English.These tend to resemble either the American or British form. For example, Australian English generally uses the same spelling as British English. Those people who complain about the difficulties of learning German, don't know how lucky they really are - they only have one language to master. Admittedly, there are regional differences of dialect in German-speaking countries, but the non-native speaker who has learned Hochdeutsch (high or standard German) should have no problems in making himself understood by citizens of Germany, Austria or Switzerland. The difficulty for the nonnative learner of English on the other hand is that there is no standard English form. He is confronted with two English dialects to learn: British English and American English (leaving aside Australian, Indian, South AfricanEnglish etc.) And despite the many cross-cultural influences, it seems that the vocabularies, spellings and pronunciations of these two dialects are diverging year by year.To be consistent in his use of English and, more importantly, to be understood , the nonnative speaker needs to know which words have distinct meanings and pronunciations depending on whether they are used by a Briton or an American. This is necessary not only for sake of communication, but also to avoid embarrassment. For example, if a Londoner tells a resident of New Y ork that she has left her child's dummy in the pram and its nappy in the boot, she will merely be greeted with a look of bewilderment. If the New Y orker then tells the London woman that she has nice pants, he may well wonder why she doesn't seem to take his remark as a compliment.What follows are brief examples of the major areas of difference between the two languages:Spelling differencesThe most noticeable difference in the academic context is in spelling. Where there are differences between British English (BE) and American English (AE) spelling, it can be said that American English has the more economical and phonetic spelling. Unnecessary letters are left out andIn general, both American and British spelling are acceptable, but it is important to be consistent, at least with the use of the same word - theatre or theater, but not both - and in your choice of ize or ise endings as in criticize or criticise, plagiarize or plagiarise. The Cambridge International Dictionary of English gives British, American and Australian English spelling. American spelling tends to reflect pronunciation and British spelling tends to reflect grammatical or historical implications as well.However, there may be advantages in using British spelling in certain situations. For instance, two forms: programme and program exist in British English. The former can be a noun referring to television programmes or programmes of events (plans, conferences, a theatre programme etc.). The latter can be a noun referring to computerprograms. Both forms can be verbs, but there is no spelling distinction between them except in the infinitive form (as in She learned how to program the computer to calculate the value of the pound against the Euro at twelve hourly intervals) and the present tense. If you wish to make reference to both meanings in your writing, then British English makes a useful reference (meaning) distinction between the two, while American English has only one form program to refer to both.An obvious example is the omission in AE of the letter u in words such as color, neighbor, honor etc. Compare also the AE words traveling, jewelry and program with their BE counterparts travelling, jewellery and programme. However, this rule does not always apply. For example, you would expect skilful to be the AE spelling and skillful the BE spelling, but unfortunately you would be wrong!Pronunciation differencesThere are a number of easy-to-hear differences in the way that English is pronounced by British and American speakers. Here we will look at the following areas: stress, some vowel sounds, and vowels followed by an 'r'.British and American speakers have different stress patterns in their speech when they say certain words with two or more syllables. For example:word BritishEnglishAmerican Englishballet/b le/ /b le/debris/debri/ /d bri/The same differences can be heard in words like gourmet, chalet, garage, parquet, and paté. In words with several syllables like secretary, American speakers emphasize the ending more than British speakers, so that the word seems to have an extra syllable:word BritishEnglishAmerican Englishsecretary/sekr tri/ /sekr teri/territory/ter tri/ /ter t ri/There are of course great regional differences in pronunciation within both countries, but the following is a list of words which are pronounced differently by most Americans and most British. The difference in lies either in using different vowel sounds or by stressing the word in a different place.Vocabulary differencesAs a percentage of the total English vocabulary the number of words which are used only in one or the other country is very small, but the problem for learners of English is that these words are among the most common in the language. There are many words that are used almost exclusively by Americans which are understood by most Britons, and vice versa. But there are others which can cause difficulty. For example, most Britons know that Americans call biscuits cookies and flats apartments, but not so many know what an alumnus or a fender is. Similarly, Americans know that what they call their yard is called a garden in Britain and that trucks are lorries, but common British English words like plimsolls or off-licence may mean nothing to them.Grammar differencesBritish English and American English grammar are mostly in agreement; there are however some interesting variations. For example there are differences in certain verb forms. In AE the past tense of fit is fit; in BE it is fitted. Americans say I've gotten to know her well; Britons I've got to know her well. In BE the present perfect tense is used for situations in which AE would typically use the past simple. For exampleusing the words just or already, Britons would be more likely to say: I've just seen him or I've already done it whereas in AE it would be common to hear I just saw him or I already did it.As another example, Americans are much more likely to be technically correct in the agreement of collective noun and verb form than Britons. So in standard AE it would be: The team is playing well this season whereas in BE it is common and acceptable to say The team are playing well. Similar differences can be seen in the use of words like government, committee etc.: The government is .. (AE), The government are .. (BE).American English accepts the use of the simple past tense with just, already and yet (Did you see him yet?/He just went out?/Did you go there already?) while British English requires the use of the present perfect (Have you seen him yet?/He has just gone out/Have you been there already?) In Academic English, the British form is preferable as the American form tends to be perceived as informal (rather than inaccurate).Particle differences - Clinton met with the representatives of the Daughters of the Revolution / Clinton met the representatives - are not significant, though British markers may 'correct' the with as it seems informal.American English can make what British English considers to be uncountable nouns plural, for example technologies. When this occurs with formal, technical vocabulary in a specific context - the new technologies - British English, over time, tends to adopt the same form.Semantics differencesThere are two important types of difference in the meanings of words in the two varieties:1 The same object may have a completely different name2 The same word is used in both varieties, but it mayhave a completely different meaning.Type 1: same object, different namesSome of the biggest differences are in the words used for basic everyday things, such as common foods, household equipment, and the parts of a car. For example:British word American wordmobile phone cellphonepetrol gastap faucetcooker stovedustbin garbage canaubergine eggplantsweets candybonnet (on a car) hoodboot (on a car) trunkwindscreen windshieldType 2: same word, different meaningsDifferences of this type can be very confusing, even for people whose first language is English. The Macmillan English Dictionary provides over 25 special usage notes that deal with these American/British 'false friends'.word British meaning American meaningfootba ll a game played all over the world,with a round ball that the players kick(but do not throw). Americanspeakers call this game soccer.a game played in the US, with anegg-shaped ball that the players canthrow or kick. British speakers callthis game American football.chips long thin pieces of potato, fried and eaten hot. American speakers callthese fries or French fries. thin flat pieces of potato, fried and eaten cold. Also called potato chips. British speakers call these crisps.vest a piece of underwear that you wearunder a shirt. American speakers callthis an undershirt.a piece of clothing with buttons on thefront and no sleeves that men oftenwear over their shirt as part of a suit.British speakers call this a waistcoat.Usage differencesThere are countless other small and interesting differences between AE and BE, which come under the heading of usage. Take the useful expression used in AE through, meaning up to and including. E.g., The exhibition is showing March through June. The equivalent expression in BE is from March to June, but this is ambiguous. Does the exhibition close at the end of May or the end of June? To avoid any misunderstanding, it is necessary to say something like The exhibition is showing from March to the end of June.As another example: for Americans the number billion has 9 zeros (a thousand million); for most Britons it has 12 zeros (a million million). Zero itself is a much more common word in AE than in BE, where nought is more widespread. Americans say the number 453 as four hundred fifty three, whereas in Britain it would be said four hundred and fifty three.ConclusionAmerican and British English will be two major varities of one language bacause of the similarities of the basic word stock,the basic grammer and the basic phonetic system, and because of rapid development of modern science, technology, mass media, and constant cultural and economic exchanges between these two nations.Bibliography1 Practical English Usage, M. Swan (1995) , Oxford University Press2 The Right Word at the Right Time (A guide to the English language and how to use it) (1985) Readers Digest3 Doreen du Boulay, Sussex Language Institute 1998-2001.4 British and American English，by Don R. McCreary5 British English and American English，陈福生，厦门大学外文系6 An Introdyction To English Lexicology, 林承璋，刘世平著，武汉大学出版社7语音学教程，林焘，王理嘉著，1992年11月，北京大学出版社8语音学与音系学入门，[英]克拉克，[英]亚洛坡著，史宝辉导读，2000年08月，外语教学与研究出版社9英国英语和美国英语的词汇差异现象，孟宪友，广东农工商职业技术学院学报，2003，第1期。
词汇学期末论文
李易忱教授：吴建设英语学院0892010-6-18<论词汇的力量>我是个篮球迷，经常关注NBA的比赛。
前一段时间我在看球的时候总感觉央视解说员在解说的时候有一些奇怪的地方，细细观察才发现，他们在解说的过程中凡是遇到英文的单词或者缩略词都换成了中文来表达，例如最常用的缩略词“NBA”换成了“美国职业男子篮球联赛”或“美职篮”。
而且在很多其他的媒体节目中也是这样做的。
我开始觉得很好笑，因为对于现在大多数人来说，在日常生活中，运用一些英文缩略词或者英文单词来表达事情是很常见的。
这件事在互联网上也引起了很多人的争议和讨论。
很多网友纷纷表示不理解央视的做法（其实一开始也包括我）。
认为这是多此一举，甚至会惹来很多麻烦。
有的人开玩笑说如果非要按照央视这种套路办，那会出现滑稽的表达，比如“我去医院做了个B超。
”要说成“我去医院做了个第二型超声波检查”, CT会变成“电子计算机X射线断层扫描。
网友们说的也不无道理，毕竟英语词汇在我们的生活中已经渗透的太多太多了，这些词汇也带给了我们李易忱很多方便，如果真要屏蔽或者换掉肯定会造成一种尴尬的境地。
但是，凡是都有两面性，如果我们从另一方面考虑这个事情，也许会得出不一样的结论。
我看到支持这项举措的大多数是一些老一辈的语言学家等。
他们的理论也很简单，就是如果放任这种英语单词的渗入，会对我们自己的语言文字，甚至文化产生影响。
正巧本学期我选了词汇学这门课，通过这门课的学习，我对上述这个事情有了更深一层的看法。
词汇作为一门语言的最基本的组成部分之一，虽然看起来是很不起眼，但它却也是最重要的组成部分。
一个词语所包含的意义是很深的，而我们在日常生活中运用的知识它的基本含义而已。
如果我们细细研究，便能发现词汇能影响我们很多方面，知识，素质，意识等等。
我认为，词汇对意识的影响是最大的，也恰恰是人们最容易忽略掉的一点。
所以词汇学这个研究分支是有意义的。
它让我们知道学习一门语言，甚至一种文化，不仅仅是把它的单词全部背下来就可以的。
词汇学作业
《英语词汇学》期末接结课论文A study on metaphor in semantic shiftThe word can be used by literally or figuratively to show its meaning, which are called literal meaning and figurative meaning respectively. When a word has transferred from literal meaning to figurative meaning, then it has experienced the semantic shift. Semantic shift includes metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, transferred epithet, synaesthesia and onomatopoeia. Every one of them have experience the semantic shift.Among these, the concept of metaphor plays an important role in the process of human’s understanding and reforming the world. Its birth and development has interrelationship with that of culture. The similarity of metaphor in different language is based on human’s common function of physiology and psychology, living environment, etc. The culture-specific aspects such as the particular religion, custom, history, and geography, turn out to be the main cause of the difference usage of metaphor in different language. So, it is very necessary for us to learn the different meaning of words which have experienced the semantic shift, especially the metaphorical shiftment of meaning.What is metaphor? Prior to answering the question, I must mention some of its history. The English word “metaphor” derives from Greek word “metaphora”. It is composed by “meta” and “pherein”, which has respective meaning as “over” and “to carry”. Hence the original meaning of “metaphora” was “to carry over”. Aristotle, perhaps the first sch olar to define metaphor, argues “Metaphor is the application to one thing of a name belonging to another thing”. However, this version of definition is only confined to the subject of rhetoric while metaphor nowadays is no longer considered as only connected to literature classes, rather, it is omnipresent. Brown (1976), a specialist in the sociology of art, notes that metaphors provide a perspective on knowledge just as scientific paradigms provide a perspective on theoretical knowledge. Some other famous sentences are as follows:“To know is to use metaphor.”—Friquegnon“The whole of nature is a metaphor of the human mind.”—Emerson“Metaphor was the beginning of wisdom, the earliest scientific method.”—C.Day-LewisAmong the innumerable definitions of metaphor in recent years, the one presented by Lakoff (in Ortony, 1993:203) is quite notable. He holds the sense of metaphor as a cross-domain mapping, a way of thinking. For instance, “love” and “war” are two completely different “domains”, but we can use wo rds used to depict war to describe love. Hence, we have the metaphor “He wins her over in the game of love”.In our text book, according to the likeness between two objects, using one object to refer to another is called metaphor. Metaphor is based on likeness and association, so no matter which two objects, having outside, inner, or special similarity, they can use metaphor, or say they can refer to each other for metaphor. For example: we can say the teeth of a comb because there is the similarity between teach and comb.The basis of metaphor consists in one similarity between two objects, just because of this basis, we can use one to replace of the other. The so called similarity can include three kinds of situations: the similarity of appearance, the similarity of the function and the similarity of the connotation.The appearance means that the two objects have a likeness of their shape. There are many examples for this kind of situation: forest can be use as a forest of chimneys, or a forest of red flags; the word neck can be used as the neck of a gourd, or the neck of a bottle. All of these actions are based on the similarity of their shaps.Functional similarity refers to the likeness of the usage ofthe two objects. Here are some examples to show this: root (the root of the matter), fruit (reap the first fruits of one’s research), balance (a balance of payments), flash (a flash of hope), coat (a coat of paint) and so on. The similarity of the connotation means whether the two objects have a common connotation, or say whether the two words are both a bad or good symbolic meaning. When we say beast, we mean a brutal animal. Then the semantic-shifted metaphorical meaning can be cruel human beings. Here are some other examples for the like: bitch has a literal meaning for a female dog, at the same time has a metaphoric meaning for a loose woman.As a general rule, metaphor is here and there in our daily life. If carefully, we can find a lot of normal words are semantic-shifted by metaphor. There is a great variety of metaphor, and here I will mainly point out five kinds: the metaphorical sense of the human body, the metaphorical sense of animals, the metaphorical sense of plants, and the metaphorical sense of color.1. The examples of the human body are showed in the table below:As a matter of fact, there are still many other examples, nearly all of the elements of human body have the figurative meaning, such as nose, eyes,teeth,hands, shoulder,lips,heart and so on. Then here are the examples for heart because of its common and usefulness.A. There had been a row with her boyfriend, and she was heart-broken.B. her letters have been heart-breaking.C.Take heart, for all is not lost.There are many such like words, which include big-hearted, faint-hearted, half-hearted,whole-hearted,cold-hearted,kind-hearted,down-hearted,light-hearted,tough-hearted,ge nerous-hearted,open-hearted,warm-hearted,gentle-hearted,seft-hearted,and hard-hearted.2. The examples of the animals are showed in the table below:4．The examples of the plantsConclusionMetaphors are considered as the way we live by and the basis for human cognition, thinking, experience, language and even acts; it could be regarded as a reflection of human culture. Western communication theory is based on the conduit metaphor. The conduit metaphor articulates the complexity of human thought and promotes the sharing of knowledge. Metaphor in western country is a mirror of its culture as well. The study of metaphor is one of the best means to learn the mentality and customs of western country.According to what have been talked above, metaphor in semantic shift are here and there in our lives, human body, plants, colour and animals are included. For understanding of the correct meaning of this semantic shift, it is better for us to learn the culture. By learning these metaphors, we also can learn well of the culture of western countries.References:1. Eugene A. Nida. Language, Culture, and Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 1991.2. Hornby A. S. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary (fourth Ed). Oxford University Press. 1989.3. Tu Guoyuan, Liao Jin. On the Translator’s Cultural Awareness and Cultural Creativity. Foreign Language and translation (4), 2000.4. Zhou Rong. A Cross-Cultural Study of the Metaphorical Representation of Time. Modern Foreign Languages (1). 2000.5. Basil Hatim. Communication across Cultures. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001.6. Chinese Translation Journal (1-6), 2002.7. Jennifer D. Mayton, ENGL 500, Prof. Oakley. A Cross-cultural Analysis of Magic and Rhetoric in Ancient Greece and China.1998.8. Fernando Mateos, S.J. Linguistic and Literary Structures of the Chinese Proverbs. Tamkang Review. 1971.9. Robert N. St. Clair. Cultural Wisdom, Communication Theory and the Metaphor of Resonance.。
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《英语词汇学》期末课程论文内容及格式要求：学生完成基础词汇学理论的学习后，应根据所学词汇学理论知识，参考相关文献，设计、完成自己的学期课程论文。
论文要求用英语撰写，长度1500字以上。
要求文字通顺、思路清晰、内容充实、有一定的独立见解。
评分除了考虑语言表达能力（40%）外，还把独立见解和创新意识（40%）及格式规范（20%）作为重要依据。
格式：标题-title中英文摘要、关键词-abstract & key words in English & Chinese正文：1. Introduction 2. Body 3. Conclusions参考书目：References至少3部，其中至少应有1部英文文献。
交稿期限：第17周星期五（2011-12-23）请提交打印稿，并在首页右上端注明作者班级、姓名、学号。
Semantic Changes in English Language （Times New Roman,三号，加粗，居中）Abstract（Times New Roman, 四号，加粗）: Although word meaning is stable within a certain period of time, it changes, even radically, after thousands of years. The development of English has gone through three stages: Old English period, Middle English period, and Modern English period. The influence of the vocabularies of French, Latin, Greek, and Scandinavian and so on enriches the English vocabulary. ．．．It is good for our future learning of English, if we learn something about semantic changes. （Times New Roman，小四，单倍行距，内容不超过100字）Key Words（Times New Roman, 四号，加粗）:semantic change; types; tendencies; causes （Times New Roman，小四，单倍行距，3-5个关键词）英语词义的变化（宋体, 三号，加粗，居中）摘要（宋体, 四号，加粗）：词语的意义在一定时期内是相对稳定的,但历经千百年后,则会发生一定的甚至是重大的变化。
．．．．．．详细分析词义演变的原因及类型,将有助于读者加深理解词语的本质,体会词义演变这一必然趋势而掌握词义变化的知识,将对我们今后的英语学习有所裨益。
（宋体，小四，单倍行距，内容不超过100字）关键词（宋体, 四号，加粗）：词义演变；变化类型；变化趋势；变化原因（宋体，小四，单倍行距，3-5个关键词）1. Introduction （一级标题：Times New Roman, 四号，加粗，下同）Innovations, which change the lexical meaning rather than the grammaticalfunction of a form, are classed as“change ofmeaning” or “semantic change”. [1]（Times New Roman，小四，单倍行距，段首缩进4字符，下同）It is a fact that all languages change through time, though they do so slowly. As a general rule, language change is universal, continuous and to a considerable degree, regular and systematic. Semantic change plays a very important role in widening the vocabulary of a language. It makes the existing wordsmulti-semantic, that is, to give a new concept to an old form, thus the meaning of a form is multiplied. [2]（引用文献用上标注明）Though change in meaning is an ongoing process and pervasive, we could still find some rules in semantic change. There are many kinds of semantic changes. There are both linguistic forces and extra-linguistic forces behind semantic change.The thesis begins with the types of semantic change, and then the author tries to illustrate the three tendencies in semantic change. The following part analyzes the reasons for semantic change. In this part the author puts forward the linguistic and extra linguistic forces, which play important roles in the causes of semantic change. In the conclusion, the author points out that the gradual change of meaning is a universal feature of human language and is always affected by many factors.2. Types of semantic change2.1 Widening （二级标题：Times New Roman, 小四，加粗，下同）In the course of sense development a great number of words have been enlarged in meaning. Widening is a process in which a word requires a more general meaning.Semantic changes of this kind may occur in three ways.2.1.1 Specific to general （三级标题：Times New Roman, 小四，不加粗，下同）It is through widening of meaning that a mono-semantic word is madepoly-semantic.The word pipe had been used only to refer to a simple tube like musical instrument, played by blowing. But it is now applied to a representation of a tube used for carrying liquids and gas, often underground.…2.1.2 Proper nouns to common nounsMany proper nouns including person names, place names, etc. have become common nouns used in everyday life. The following examples will illustrate this.…2.1.3 Concrete to abstractIn English many words stand for everything. Such words are: thing, affair, business, concern, regard, account, circumstance, fact, state, condition, position, situation, way, means, respect, matter. Each of these may be used in an abstract sense instead of a concrete meaning as used in the past.…2.2 NarrowingSemantic narrowing is the reverse process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning. [3] There are three kinds of narrowing.…2.3 AmeliorationBy amelioration, a word is assigned to a more favorable class of objects than previous, an improvement in meaning. [4]…2.4 DegradationThe opposite of amelioration is degradation. In this process, a word becomes attached to a less favorable class of objects than previously, that is become one with a derogatory sense.There are four kinds of degradation.…3 Three tendenciesMore interesting, perhaps, is the recent work of Elizabeth Traugott (1982, 1989). Traugott suggests three tendencies in semantic change, slightly reworded here. [12] Tendency I: …Tendency II: …Tendency III: …4 Reasons for semantic changeLet us now look at some further forces, both linguistic and extra-linguistics, behind semantic change.4.1 Linguistic factorsApart from such extra-linguistic factors, linguistic forces behind semantic change have been proposed, though they are less easy to prove.There are three kinds of linguistic factors.…4.2 Extra-linguistic factorsAnd there are three types of extra-linguistics factors.…5. ConclusionsIt is obvious that the gradual change of meaning in words is a common feature of human language. …References（Times New Roman, 四号，加粗）[1] 汪榕培. 英语词汇学教程读本[M]. 上海外语教育出版社，2005. p147[2] 胡壮麟. 语言学教程[M]. 北京大学出版社，2001. p107[3] 何兆熊. 现代语言学[M]. 英语教学与研究出版社，1999. p146[4] 林承璋. 英语词汇学引论[M]. 武汉大学出版社，2005. p127[5] 李福印. 语义学教程[M]. 上海外语教育出版社，1999. p408～409[6] 张迈曾. 语言与交际[M]. 南开大学出版社，1998. p209[7] 王丹. 现代语言学理论及应用[M]. 东北林业大学出版社，2004. P131～133 （宋体，五号，单倍行距）……。