二语习得考试题库
英语二语习得66题问答+答案
Discussion Questions of SLAChapter 1: Learning a first language1. Think of three or four ‘telegraphic’sentences that a young child might produce. These may be in English or another language you know well. How are these ‘little sentences’ similar to those in the adult language? How are they different?Both of sentences contain the necessary key words, especially nouns, verbs and adjectives. But, telegraphic sentences are shorter, and lack function words, in which grammatical elements are often omitted or inserted incorrectly, and single-clause.2. Researchers have used both longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches to investigate the order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes in English by young children. Describe these approaches in your own words. What are the challenges and the potential benefits of each?Cross-sectional approach studies subjects at different ages and stages of development. Longitudinal approach study the same learner’s over a period of time.Longitudinal study approach takes a lot of time and are very expensive and inconvenient. Meanwhile longitudinal studies track the same people, avoid differences of cultural differences across generations, and make observing changes more accurate.When it comes to cross-sectional approach, routine data not designed to answer the specific question, and other variables will affect the relationship between the cause and effect. The use of routinely collected data allows large cross-sectional studies in large scale, and cost less to the researcher.3. What is the ‘wug test’? What do the findings from the wug test tell us about Children’s developing language? What advantages does the wug test have over studies that observe children’s language in natural settings? Can you think of some disadvantages?“Wug test” is designed as showing students make-up words, and blank filling exercise, to explore children’s knowledge of language.By age four, children have mastered the basic structure of the language.It can be demonstrated that children not only know a list of memorized word pairs, but can apply these rules to words which they have ever heard before.The acquisition of the more complex grammatical structures of the language requires a different sort of explanation.4. What is metalinguistic awareness? Why is it a prerequisite for being able to understand most jokes and riddles? Think of a joke or riddle you know. How is metalinguistic awareness related to your understanding of what makes this joke funny?The ability to treat language as a object, separate from the meaning it conveys.Metalingusitc awareness also includes the discovery of such things as ambiguity---words and sentences that have multiple meaning.A joke always relates to funny pun, which is closely related to metalinguistic awareness.5. What have researchers observed about the frequency with which young children engage in imitation and repetitive practice? In what way are young children’s linguistic imitation and practice patterns different from those of some foreign language classes?From less than 10 percent to 40 percent.Young children choose what they will imitate and practice, and the choice is based on something they have already begun to understand, which is different from foreign language classes.6. Give examples of both grammatical and lexical overgeneralization errors found in early child language. What is the general learning principle that underlies such errors?Randall(2,9): Are dogs wiggle their tails?Randall(3,0) asks: Why? So he can doc my little bump?Children appear to pick out patterns and then generalize them to new contexts.7. How do the stories of Victor and Genie (pages 19–21) support the critical period hypothesis? Do you find this evidence convincing? Why do most researchers consider that the evidence from users of American Sign Language that was collected by Newport and her colleagues (page 21) is stronger support for the CPH?Victor and Genie who have been deprived of contact with language in their early years, CANNOT learn language like normal people, reason of which may be that their language acquisition device was stimulated too late.No, because the sample is too unusual and other factors are not excluded.Because the children are usual learners and the circumstances of their early lives are known to the researchers.8. How are Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s views of first language acquisition similar? How do they differ?Both of them stand in the interactionist position, believe that children are active learners and development declines with age.Piaget believes that children's cognitive development would partly determine how they use language; while Vygotsky believes that Language develops entirely from social interaction.9. What was unusual about Jim’s exposure to language? How does this case support an interactionist perspective on language acquisition?Jim had little contract with hearing/speaking adults up to the age of 3,9, only contract with oral language was through TV. His parents did not use sign language with Jim.It was Jim’s conversations with sessions with an adult improve his language development, which is highlighted in interactionist perspective.Chapter 2: Theoretical approaches to explaining second language learningThe behaviourist perspective10. State the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) and explain why it is often linked to the behaviourist theory. What are its limitations?①The CAH predicts that where there are similarities between the first and second languages, the learner will acquire second language structures with ease; where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty.②Because the CAH is based on behavi orists’ explanation on the learning of L1, that language development is the formation of habits; it is assumed that a person learning a second language starts off with the habits formed in the first language and that these habits interfere with the new ones needed for the second language.③limitations: a) The theory itself has its imperfections: the differences of the first and second languages do not necessarily lead to difficulties; students’ difficulties in using second language does not lead to errors. b) According to empirical evidences: only a few errors made during the second language learning attributes to the interferences of the mother tongue; not all errors predicted by the CAH are actually made; many of the errors which learners do make are not predictable on the basis of the CAH.11. What contribution has behaviourism made to our understanding of how languages are learned? What is the theory not able to explain?①Behaviorism accounts for the learning of L1 in terms of imitation, practice, reinforcement and habit formation, and helps to explain that the process of L2 learning would be interfered by L1.②Behaviorism fails to explain children’s acquisition of the m ore complex grammatical structures of the language in L1 learning.The innatist perspective12. Sum up, in your own words, the main points surrounding the debate about the nature and availability of UG in SLA. Where do you stand?①Main points: a) the nature and availability of UG in L2 acquisition is no different from that which is hypothesized to guide L1 learners. b) UG operates in L2 acquisition, but via the L1. c) UG is not available to L2 learners.②I agree on that UG operates in L2 acquisition the same as L1, because UG is considered to consist of a set of principles which are common to all languages and it has explained L2 acquisition to some extent, for example, error correction.13. Name the five hypotheses that make up Krashen’s Monitor Model. According to this model, what conditions must be present for ‘acquisition’ to take place? What are the conditions for language ‘learning’?①The acquisition-learning hypothesis; The monitor hypothesis; The natural order hypothesis; The input hypothesis; The affective filter hypothesis.②Meaningful interaction in the target language; exposure to adequate and comprehensible input:" i+1".14. W hat are the limitations of Krashen’s theory? Why do you think that Krashen’s ideas have been so influential in second- and foreign-language education?①The main limitations are: a) there are difficulties to define; b) it is mostly based on observation, but lacks empirical researches.②It appears to have immediate implications for classroom practice; it appeals intuitively to those who have tried unsuccessfully to learn a language in conditions where they felt stressed or uncomfortable.The cognitive perspective15. How does information-processing model explain SLA?From the view of information processing, SLA is the building up of knowledge systems that can eventually be called on automatically for speaking and understanding.Interactionist position16. In what way are proponents of the interactionist position in SLA in agreement with Krashen’s monitor model? In what way do they go beyond it?①Interactionists agree that comprehensible input is necessary for languageacquisition.②They are more concerned with the question of how input is madecomprehensible;③they assume that all cognitive development arises as a result of socialinteractions between individuals.17. What kinds of conversational modifications do native speakers make when they talk to non-native speakers? What similarities and differences would you expect tofind between these modifications and those that are observed in child-directed speech? Why?①Modified interaction involve linguistic simplification, elaboration, slower speech rate, gesture, or the provision of additional contextual cues.②similarities: they are both conversational interaction; they both involve a slow rate of delivery, repetition, some clues, etc.③differences: a) child-directed speech: children still learn language by their siblings even without such modification from parents; comprehensible input is the focus; b) these modification in interaction: how the input is made comprehensible is more important; it is not the simplification but an opportunity to interact with others.④Different objects—one is for the first language learning and one is for the second language learning; the difficulties—it’s harder to learn the second langu age.18. Several theories for L2 learning have been proposed in this chapter. Is one of them more consistent with your own understanding of how languages are learned? If so, how have your experiences as a learner brought you to this view?I agree on Krashen`s monitor model. He cites evidences of some fluent speakers without having learned rules, while others may 'know' rules but fail to apply them in real language use( like some incompetent 'high-score' learners). According to my experience, adequate practice can make learned knowledge habitual so that it is available for spontaneous use in real communication. In this case, the learned language becomes the acquired knowledge.Chapter 3: Factors affecting second language learning19. Why is it difficult to assess the influence that personal characteristics have on the development of L2 proficiency?①it is not possible to directly observe and measure qualities such as motivation and intelligence.②personal characteristics are not independent.③it is not widely acknowledged that how the language proficiency is defined and measured.Intelligence20. Lan guage learners’ performance on IQ tests is related to certain aspects of L2 ability but not to others. Give examples to explain this statement.In our experience, many students whose academic performance has been weak have experienced considerable success in second language learning.Aptitude21. What lessons can language teachers learn from the research on language aptitude and L2 instruction by Wesche (1981)?It is that a high level of student and teacher satisfaction when students were matched with compatible teaching environments.Learning styles22. Based on what you read in this chapter, do you think that there is an ideal way to teach/learn a language? For example, as a foreign language learner or teacher, what are your views about teaching grammar? Do you have any specific preferences for how it should be taught or when? Do you know what your students’ preferences might be for grammar teaching and do you think it would be useful to find out?①I don't think there is an ideal way to teach or learn a language.②Teaching grammar is of great importance. It is not only about what the rules are but also how to use the rules.③I have a preference for teaching grammar in context, and I think that it should be taught in early childhood.(Before age 15)④Funny and challenge activities might be students’preference for grammar teaching. It would be useful to find out students’preference for it.Personality23. What can we learn from research about the relationship between L2 learning and• extroversion• inhibition①It is often argued that an extroverted person is well suited to language learning. However, research does not always support this conclusion.②Inhibition is a negative for L2 learning as it discourages risk-taking. It may also has more influence in language performance than in language learning.Motivation and attitudes24. Define instrumental and integrative motivation in your own words and give an example to illustrate each. Comment on how these types of motivation might be manifested differently in different learning environments.①Instrumental motivation refers to languange learning for immediate or practical goals. Example: Many college language learners have a clear instrumental motivation for language learning: They want to fulfill a college language requirement!Integrative motivation refers to language learning for personal growth and cultural enrichment. Example: Someone becomes a resident in a new community that uses the target language in its social interactions.②In learning environment such as school, these types of motivation might bemanifest as integrative or instrumental. In learning environment such as society they might be manifest as mono-cultural or bicultural.Learner beliefs25. How did Carlos Yorio (1986) reveal that it is important for teachers to consider the beliefs their students hold about language instruction? How might this change their approach to teaching a particular group of students?①In a survey for international students learning ESL in a highly communicative program, students express their dissatisfaction and concern about the type of communicative instruction they received, which implied with their beliefs about language instruction.②Guide them to choose the suitable learning strategies or adjust his own teaching method.Age of acquisition26. Which language features were studied in Patkowski’s (1980) study to examine L2 development of immigrants? Does his study support the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)? How?①Accent, syntax, phonological development, Morphology.②He sets limits on the development of native-like mastery of a second language and that this limitation does not apply only to accent.27. Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle carried out a comprehensive study in which they assessed language development of L2 speakers on a variety of measures. Describe the development of the child, adolescent, and adult L2 learners in relation to each other. In your own words, explain why the results may not be relevant for assessing the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH).①In the first period, the adolescents made the most progress. In the first period, the adults did better than the children and adolescents on pronunciation. By the end of the year, children were catching up and even surpassed the adults on several tests.②Some of the tasks were too difficult for young learners. For adults and adolescents, L2 may be similar to L1, they may learn faster. Young children eventually catch up if they have enough exposure to L2. Adults and adolescents can make rapid progress because they can make use of L2 in daily interaction. Chapter 4: Learner LanguageLearner Language28. A language learner begins making errors with a feature of the language that was previously used correctly. What does this suggest about the way in which thefeature was previously learned? Why might one be justified in concluding that the learner has actually made progress? Illustrate with examples.①It suggests that movement from one point in a sequence of development to another can actually lead from apparently correct performance(Sometimes based on rote learning or very limited knowledge.) to incorrect performance(Based on an emerging understanding of the underlying rules or grammatical relationships in the language being learned.).②I buyed a bus ticket.Second language learners usually learn the irregular past tense forms of certain verbs before they learn to apply the regular simple past -ed marker. It means that a learner who says 'I buyed a bus ticket' may know more about English grammar than one who says 'I bought a bus ticket.'29. What was an important difference between the error analysis approach to understanding L2 learner language and the contrastive analysis approach?The main difference between these two is that contrastive analysis was the basis for identifying differences between the first and second languages and for predicting areas of potential error, but error analysis tries to discover and describe differnt kinds of erros in an effort to understaning how learners process L2 data, and it focus on identifying the errors from L2 production.(Error analysis differed from contrastive analysis in that it did not set out to predict errors. Rather, it sought to discover and describe different kinds of errors in an effort to understand how learners process second language data. )30. What phenomenon did Larry Selinker describe when he coined the term interlanguage? What does it mean to say that interlanguages are both systematic and dynamic?Characteristics influenced by:①learner's previously learned language(s)②some characteristics of the second language③some characteristics which seem to be very general and tend to occur in all or most interlanguage systemSystematic: Interlanguage is relatively independent of the language system, it has a unique set of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary rule system.Dynamic: Interlanguage is continually evolving as learners receive more input and revise their hypothese about the second languge.31. There are various kinds of errors made by learners, such as developmental errors, overgeneralization, simplification, transfer (or interference errors), and avoidance. Give an example of each to explain.Developmental errors are errors which reflect learners’ understanding of the second language system itself rather than an attempt to transfer characteristics of their first language.(eg. a cowboy go, they plays )Overgeneralization: errors caused by trying to use a rule in a context where it does not belong.(eg. I play the game. We play the game. She play the game.He play the game.)Simplification: errors where some elements of a sentence are left out or where all verbs have the same form regardless of person, number, or tense.(eg. I play games today. I play games yesterday. / I play games today. He play games, too.)Transfer (interference errors) are errors which caused by the habits formed in the first language interfere with the new ones needed for the second language.(eg. In French, direct objects which are nouns follow the verb, but pronoun direct objects precede the verb, so a French learner of English may say ‘The dog it eats’.)Avoidance: Learners sometimes avoid using certain features of language which they perceive to be difficult for them.(eg. “A+倍数+the size/height/length/width+of+B”This street is four times the length of that one./This street is four times as long as that one.)Developmental Sequences32. An L2 learner, in speaking about his brother, tells you ‘he don’t eat meat’. What stage of negation would he be at: Stage 2 or Stage 3? What evidence would you need to have confidence in your assessment?don’t →negation →The speaker is in stage 2.(or stage 3?)Stage 1：The negative element (no/not) is typically placed before the verb or the element being negated.（E.g. I not like it.）Stage 2：‘no’and ‘not’may alternate with ‘don’t’. However, ‘don’t’is not marked for person, number, or tense and it may even be used before models.(E.g. He don’t like it. /I don’t can sing.)Stage 3: Learners begin to place the negative element after auxiliary verbs like ‘are’ ‘is’ and ‘can’. But at this stage the ‘don’t’ form is still not fully analyzed.(E.g. You can not go. /He was not happy./She don’t like rice.)Stage 4: ‘do’ is marked for some tense, person, and number.(E.g. He doesn’t like it. We didn’t see it.)For some time, however, learners may continue to mark tense, person, and number on both the auxiliary and t he verb.(E.g. I didn’t went there. )33. The description of developmental stages suggests that a learner’s L1 interacts with developmental sequences in the L2 acquisition of negation, questions, relative clauses, and past tense. Give an example of each, using either the information in the text or from your knowledge of how learners from other L1 backgrounds developthese language features.Second language learners from different first language backgrounds behave somewhat differently with the stage of using negation.(eg. 4 stages)Second language learners learn to form questions in a sequence of development which is similar in most respects to first language question development. (eg. ‘Können sie tanzen?', 'Can they dance?' German learners of English wil l pass through a pharse of asking quesitons without inversion, However, once they reach stage4 and ask English questions with subject-auxiliary inversion, they may assume that suject-verb inversion is also possible. They may form questions such as ' Play you baseball?')Second language learners first acquire relative clauses which refer to nouns in the subject and direct object positions, and only later(and in some cases, never) learn to use them to modify nouns in other sentence roles(for example, indirect object and object of preposition) (eg. In Chinese, we don't have sentence structure like this. We usually use many adjs to modify a noun instead of using subordinate clauses.) Reference to psat is one example of developmental sequence which reflects learners’ changing ability to express the same meaning. (eg. In Chinese, we don't have the grammatical morpheme -ed being attach to the verb when we talk about something happen in the past. We may notice that by the influence of our mother tounge many students forget to add -ed especial in spoken English.)34. The car that mine is similar to is over there. According to the accessibility hierarchy for relative clauses in English, which clause type is this? If we find evidence that an L2 learner is capable of producing this sentence, what other relative clause types can this learner probably also produce?This is a object clause in which the object is introduced by the preposition “to”. This learner can also produce subject clause, direct object clause, indirect object clause. Languages which included the structures at the bottom of list would also have those at the top. Research on this aspect of second language development: A learner can use one of the structures at the bottom of the list, he/she can use any the precede it.35. Which of the following verbs would beginner level learners most likely mark with past tense? Which would they be least likely to use past with? Explain your response by discussing how the verbs are different from each other.need a haircutmake lasagnawin a prizelike action moviesfeel nervousbreak a glassmost likely to marked past tense: break a glass/make lasagna/win a prizeleast likely to marked past tense: need a haircut/like action movies/feel nervousIn the beginning, learners with very limited language may simply refer to events in the order which they occurred or mention a time or place to show that the event occurred in the ter, learners start to attach a grammatical morpheme which shows that the verb is marked for the past.Even after they begin marking past tense on verbs, however, learners may still make errors such as the overgeneralization of the regular -ed ending.Kathleen Bardovi-Harlig and her collegues found that learners are more likely to mark past tense on some verbs(completed events) than on others(states and activities which may last for extended periods without a clear end-point).First language influence36. In addition to influencing how learners pass through developmental sequences, what other ways has a learner’s knowledge of L1 been observed to influence L2 acquisition? You should be able to identify at least four ways.①AvoidanceIf a feature in the target language is so distant and different from their firstlanguage, they prefer not to try it (Schachter 1974).②Learner’s sensitivity to degrees of distance or difference between L1 and L2Swedish and English belong to the same language family, while Finnish belongsto a different one. Because Swedish and English are closely related languages,bilinguals(who can speak Swedish and Finnish) tend to avoid using Finnish as asource of possible transfer, whether their own first language is Swedish orFinnish (Hakan Ringbom 1985).③Similar but not identical language patternsSometimes, L1 makes it difficult for learners to notice that something they aresaying is absent from the target language, as the learner’s interlanguage form doesnot cause any difficulty in conveying meanings (Lydia White 1989).④Interaction when learners encounter in the inputThe interaction during the input sessions includes L1, some universal knowledgeor processes, and the samples of the target language. We may see how instructionand metalinguistic information contribute to this interaction in Chapter 6.Chapter 5: Observing second language teaching37. Make use of the table on P93 and try to explain the characteristics of natural acquisition, traditional instruction and communicative instruction.①In natural acquisition settings, learners’ errors are rarely corrected. Learners will be exposed to a wide variety of vocabulary and structures, is surrounded by the language for many hours each day, usually encounters a great number of proficient or native speakers of the target language, observe or participate in many different types of language events, have less pressure to speak. Modified input is available in many one-to-one conversations.②In traditional instruction settings,learners’ errors are freq uently corrected. Linguistic items are presented and practiced one at a time. Learning is often limited to only a few hours a week. The teacher is often the only proficient speaker the students interact with. Learners experience a limited range of language discourse types and often feel great pressure to speak or write the second language. Modified input is given only when they use the target language, ensuring comprehension and compliance.③In communicative instruction settings, error correction is limited. Input is simplified and made comprehensible by the use of contextual cues, props, and gestures, rather than through structural grading. Learners usually have only limited time for learning, limited contact with proficient or native speakers of the language, have access to a variety of discourse types, have little pressure to perform at high levels of accuracy. Modified input is a defining feature of it.38. When conducting classroom-based SLA studies, what might be some advantages of using observation schemes such as the COLT? What disadvantages might there be?Advantages: ①Observation schemes,like COLT and others can be used to examine relationships between differences in teaching practices and differences in second language learning.②It can also be used in the training of new teachers and in the professional development of experienced ones.③It can lead to a greater understanding of the complexities of the teaching process as well as to more critical reflection on our pedagogical practices.Disadvantages:①Sometimes observation schemes are perceived as judgemental rather than developmental.②Some observation schemes need people spend a long period to observe before making a conclusion.③Observation schemes usually cost money and some forms of them are expensive.。
二语习得复习题
二语习得复习题1. 第二语言习得研究发展的路径（P19）（1）。
上世纪六十年代的第二语言习得研究的理论初创阶段。
在这一时期，第二语言习得研究与第二语言教学研究尚未分离。
当时站主导地位的是以行为主义为心理学基础的“对比分析”方法。
（2）上世纪70年代，第二语言习得研究已经发展成为一个独立的研究领域，是第二语言习得研究大发展的阶段。
偏误分析应运而生，产生了“中介语”理论假设。
还有两个重要的理论研究和创建，一是以Dulay和Burt为代表的第二语言习得顺序研究二是克拉伸的“监控模式”等（3）上世纪80 年代，第二语言习得研究作为一个独立的学科开始逐渐走向成熟。
受其他学科的影响构成了第二语言习得研究的跨学科特点形成了不同的理论视角，如语言学视角、社会语言学视角、认知视角等。
2. 语言输入观P181：（1）行为主义学习理论认为，语言输入在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，强调外在因素的中心地位。
行为主义学习理论认为外在因素是语言习得的决定因素，否定学习者内在因素的作用。
（2）与行为主义学习理论相反，心灵学派认为，学习者的内在因素，即语言习得机制，在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，他们把语言习得机制看做语言习得的决定因素。
（3）“互动论”的观点。
Elis认为，在互动论的旗帜下包括两个不同理论：一是以认知心理学为基础的“认知互动理论”二是“社会互动理论”。
认知互动理论不单单强调语言输入环境的重要性，也不仅仅强调语言习得内在因素的重要性，而是将两者结合起来。
3. 学习策略的含义P304：学习策略是指学习者在整个语言习得或语言使用过程中，与某个特定阶段相关联的心理行为或行动。
学习策略的分类P306：（一）Skehan(1989)的分类：1.根据学习者处理学习情景的能力来分（1）主动参与策略（active task approach）学习者主动寻找学习机会，并参与练习活动，反映积极。
（2）解释与确认策略（clarification and verification）学习者利用查字典和意译的方式，获得词语等的应用实例，并从句子里确认词语等的意义。
二语习得考试复习资料
第二语言习得研究期末考试复习题1、简述第二语言习得研究发展的途径分为三个阶段：1）20世纪50-60年代，这一阶段为理论初创阶段，占主导地位的是以行为主义心理学为基础的“对比分析”方法。
2）20世纪70年代，理论研究大发展阶段，开始关注学习者的语言偏误，产生了“中介语”理论假设。
三个理论研究，即以Dulay和Burt 为代表的第二语言习得顺序研究、克拉申的“监控模式”、Schumann的“文化适应模式”。
3）20世纪80年代，作为一个独立的学科，并开始走向成熟。
不同的发展途径构成了第二语言习得研究的跨学科特点。
不同的发展途径体现在：1）语言学理论对第二语言习得研究的影响，构成了第二语言习得研究的语言学视角。
2）社会语言学及其研究范式对第二语言习得研究的影响，构成了第二语言习得研究的社会语言学视角。
3）认知科学对第二语言习得研究的影响，构成了第二语言习得研究的认知视角。
2、针对语言输入有哪几种不同的语言输入观？1）行为主义学习理论认为，语言输入在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，强调外在因素的中心地位，基于以下假设：a，语言输入是由外在的语言刺激和反馈构成的 b，语言输入通过正面的反馈和纠正得到强化 c，通过语言形式的操练可以达到语言学习的目的。
2）心灵学派认为，学习者的内在因素，即语言习得机制，在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，他们把语言习得机制看做语言习得的决定性因素。
语言输入不过是语言习得发生的“触发”因素而已，语言输入是贫乏的，学习者不可能通过外在的语言输入获得完整的语言能力。
3）“互动论”：认知心理学为基础的“认知互动理论”强调将语言输入环境与语言习得内在因素两者结合起来；社会互动理论主要是从社会语言学的角度来研究语言输入环境与第二语言习得的关系。
3、学习策略的含义是什么？学习策略如何分类？学习策略是指学习者在整个语言习得或语言使用过程中，与某个特定阶段相关联的心理行为或行动。
1）Skehan（1989）根据学习者处理学习情境的能力来分：主动参与策略、解释与确认策略根据学习者的方法素质来分：跨语言比较策略、归纳策略根据学习者的评价能力来分：监控策略、自我评价策略2）O’Malley（1987）根据信息加工模型分类：认知策略（重复策略、记笔记策略、关联策略）；元认知策略（直接注意策略、自我管理策略）；社会/情感策略（合作策略、要求解释策略）3）Oxford的分类（1990）直接策略：直接影响语言学习，需要对语言学习进行心理操作间接策略：通过集中注意、计划、评价自我、控制焦虑感和增加与他人合作机会等间接影响语言学习4、如何区分下列概念：母语、目的语、第一语言、第二语言？母语通常是指学习者所属种类、社团使用的语言，也叫本族语，母语通常是指儿童出生以后最先接触、习得的语言；目的语也称目标语，一般是指学习者正在学习的语言，它强调的是学习者正在学习的任何一种语言；第一语言是指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言；第二语言是相对于学习者习得的第一语言之外的任何一种其他语言而言，包含第三、第四或更多的其他语言5、简述社会文化理论的主要内容及意义主要内容：调节论：主要用于解释儿童的认知发展，在语言的调节下，儿童的认知从“客体调控”阶段发展到“他人调控”阶段，最后到“自我调控”阶段。
二语习得导论习题集
---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------二语习得导论习题集二语习得导论习题集一、填空 1. 在儿童语言发展的研究中，（）是指学会一种语言的某一方面和最终学会整个语言的过程或结果。
这个研究的领域通常称作（）。
2.习得与学会的区别在于：前者被视为一种（）过程，它是达到外语流利表达的主要动力；后者则被视为一种（）的过程，它监测习得的进展并引导说话人的语言运用。
3.（）是指一个人幼年学会的第一种语言，并且这种语言会被用来进行社会交际。
4.（）是指一个人生下来后接触到的第一种或几种语言，但是这种（些）语言不一定会进入社会交际。
5.目的语是指（）语言。
6.（）第二语言学习者所使用（掌握）的一种语言系统，或者是学习者某一时间的第二语言状态，它既不同于第一语言，也不同于第二语言。
7.认知策略是指学习者藉以执行语言学习任务两大类学习策略的其中之一，另一类为（）。
8.（）指学习者用以提高学习及记忆能力，特别是在执行具体课堂任务和活动使用的过程和行为。
1 / 149.（）指的是人们已建立起的第一语言的习惯对学习新语言、建立新的语言习惯的过程产生的影响。
表现为中介语中所包含的第一语言的特点。
10.迁移这个概念始于（）心理学指导下的语言学习理论。
11.在第二语言学习中，学习者无论被纠正了多少次均会重复一个错误的形式直至语言水平达到相当高的程度，这种现象被称为（）。
12.（）是指一群体的语言、文化和价值体系在与另一不同语言、文化和价值体系的群体相互交流中产生变化的过程。
13.语言习得的关键期假设（亦称作自然成熟说）理论认为，儿童的语言发展过程实际上是（）的自然成熟过程。
14.随着儿童年龄的增长，发音器官、大脑等制约语言的神经机制逐渐成熟，这个过程大约是（）岁以前完成，这个阶段最适合语言学习，过了这个阶段，学习语言就不那么容易了。
第二语言习得考试试题
第二语言习得考试试题一、选择题（每题 2 分，共 40 分）1、第二语言习得中的“中介语”是指（）A 学习者母语和目的语之间的过渡语言B 学习者在学习过程中创造的一种独立语言C 教师为帮助学习者而使用的简化语言D 一种国际通用的辅助语言2、以下哪项不是影响第二语言习得的个体差异因素（）A 学习动机B 性格特点C 社会环境D 认知风格3、在第二语言习得中，“输入假说”的提出者是（）A 克拉申B 乔姆斯基C 皮亚杰D 布鲁纳4、学习者在第二语言习得过程中出现的“石化”现象，指的是（）A 语言能力停止发展B 语言错误固定化C 学习兴趣丧失D 学习方法不当5、以下哪种教学方法更注重语言的交际功能（）A 语法翻译法B 直接法C 听说法D 交际法6、第二语言习得中的“情感过滤假说”认为，以下哪种因素会影响语言输入的吸收（）A 自信心B 焦虑程度C 学习态度D 以上都是7、对于儿童和成人在第二语言习得方面的比较，以下说法正确的是（）A 儿童学习速度更快B 成人学习效果更好C 儿童在语音方面更有优势D 成人在语法方面更有优势8、以下哪项不是第二语言习得中的语言输出的作用（）A 检验语言知识B 提高语言流利度C 促进语言输入的理解D 减少语言错误9、学习者在第二语言习得中，对目的语规则的过度概括所产生的错误属于（）A 语际错误B 语内错误C 诱导错误D 随机错误10、以下哪种语言环境更有利于第二语言习得（）A 课堂教学环境B 自然语言环境C 双语环境D 单一语言环境11、在第二语言习得中，“监控假说”认为，学习者的语言输出主要受到（）的监控。
A 潜意识B 有意识C 情感因素D 语言规则12、以下哪项不是第二语言习得中的学习策略（）A 认知策略B 元认知策略C 情感策略D 语法策略13、对于第二语言习得中的“文化适应”，以下说法错误的是（）A 有助于语言学习B 只是了解文化知识C 包括价值观的适应D 能提高交际能力14、以下哪种测试方法更能准确测量学习者的第二语言实际运用能力（）A 标准化测试B 口语测试C 书面测试D 听力测试15、第二语言习得中的“关键期假说”认为，语言学习的最佳年龄是（）A 儿童时期B 青少年时期C 成年时期D 没有固定年龄16、以下哪项不是影响第二语言习得的外部因素（）A 教学方法B 教材质量C 学习者年龄D 语言环境17、在第二语言习得中，“可理解输入”的特点不包括（）A 略高于学习者现有水平B 有趣且相关C 语法复杂D 大量重复18、以下哪种反馈方式对第二语言习得最有效（）A 积极反馈B 消极反馈C 直接纠错D 引导自纠19、学习者在第二语言习得中出现的回避现象，主要是为了（）A 避免错误B 节省时间C 简化表达D 显示个性20、以下关于第二语言习得和第一语言习得的比较，错误的是（）A 学习动机不同B 学习环境相似C 认知能力有差异D 语言输入质量不同二、简答题（每题 10 分，共 30 分）1、请简述第二语言习得中的“输入假说”的主要内容。
【免费下载】二语习得定义题
IV. Explain the following terms（整理成简答或填空）1. Ferdinand de Saussure2. Textual function3. The London School of Linguistics4. Surface structure5. Transformational-Generative grammar6. Language Acquisition Device(LAD)7. Innateness hypothesisIII. Explain the following terms.1. Applied linguistics2. Interlanguage3. Contrastive analysis4. face validity5. Error Analysis1. Define the following terms briefly.first language acquisition: behaviorist approach innateness approachsecond language acquisition: contrastive analysis: error analysislanguage aptitude: field dependence field independencelearning strategiesIV. Explain the following terms.1. Interlanguage2. Universal Grammar3. contrastive analysis4. Error Analysis1. Define the following terms briefly..applied linguistics grammar-translation method audiolingual method communicative language teaching testing achievement test validity reliability proficiency test subjective test objective test language aptitude test diagnostic test backwash effectII. Explain the following terms.1. applied linguistics2. the audiolingual method of language teaching3. the direct method of language teachingIV. Explain the following terms.1. Ferdinand de Saussure is a Swiss linguist who is often described as “father of modern linguistics”. The great work, Course in General Linguistics, which was based on his lecture notes, marked the beginning of modern linguistics. Saussure’s idea on the arbitrary nature of sign, one the relational nature of linguistic units, on the distinction of langue and parole and of synchronic and diachronic linguistics, etc. pushed linguistics into a brand new stage.2. Textual function: The textual function is one of the three meta-functions language is composed of. It refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or writtendiscourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living message different from a random list of sentences.3. The London School generally refers to the kind of linguistic scholarship in England. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was J.R. Firth.4. Surface structure: It is a term used in generative grammar to refer to the final stage in the syntactic representation of a sentence, which provides the input to the phonological component of the grammar, and which thus most closely corresponds to the structure we articulate and hear. For instance, “John is easy to please.” and “John is eager to please.” are two sentences with the same surface structure.5. Transformational-generative grammar is proposed by Noam Chomsky. He postulated asyntactic base of language (called deep structure), which consists of a series of phrase-structure rewrite rules, i.e., a series of (possibly universal) rules that generates the underlying phrase-structure of a sentence. The end result of a transformational-generative grammar is a surface structure that is identical to an actual sentence of a language, after the mediating of a series of rules (called transformations) that act upon the deep structures.6. Language Acquisition Device: LAD refers to an innate faculty of language in general with which children are born. It is posited by Chomsky, who argues that LAD probably consists of three elements: a hypothesis-maker, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.7. The “Innateness Hypothesis” of child language acquisition was proposed by Noam Chomsky, who states that language are somewhat innate and that children are born with what he calls a language acquisition device, which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning.III. Explain the following terms.1. Applied linguistics: It is a branch of linguistics which studies the application of linguistics in reality. For example, there are studies on multilingualism, language acquisition, first and second language teaching and learning.2. It refers to the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language. It’s a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language, and imperfect compared with the target language, but not mere translation from the learner’s native language. For example, when the Chinese student is learning English, he may make errors like “to touch the society”.3. Contrastive analysis is an approach to analysis of second language acquisition, based on a belief that a more effective teaching pedagogy would come out when the similarities and differences between native language and target language are taken into consideration. By such an analysis, it is supposed that some leaning difficulties could be predicted in terms of language transfer.4. Face validity: Unlike the other three forms of validity, face validity is based on the subjective judgment of an observer. If the test appears to be measuring what it intends to measure, the test is considered to have face validity.5 Errors are significant in telling the teacher what needs to be taught，in telling the researcherhow learning proceeds and those errors are a means whereby learners test their hypotheses about the language to be learnt. They are worth further probing Error Analysis involves，first independently or objectively，describing the learners’ interlanguage (that is，their version of the target language and the target language itself)，then a comparison of the two is followedto locate mismatches. Different from contrastive analysis, Error Analysis, EA for short, gives 1ess consideration to learners’ native language. The procedure of Error Analysis consists of the following steps:(1) Recognition(2) Description.(3) Explanation.For example, explanation: the absence of an item that must appear in a well-formed utterance:e.g. She sleeping. Type of error: Omissions.1.First language acquisition: First language acquisition (L1 acquisition) is the term mostcommonly used to describe the process whereby children become speakers of their native language or languages, although some linguists prefer to use the term language learning. Behaviorist approach:Behaviorist approach holds that language is learned by a process of habit-formation. It is a standard “stimulus- response-imitation-reinforcement” approach. Innateness approach: Innateness approach treats human being’s ability in learning a language as a part of the biologically innate equipment and the infant is born with a language acquisition device (LAD). It regards language acquisition as a process of “hypothesis-deduction”. Second language acquisition:Second language acquisition (L2 acquisition) refers to the learning of a foreign language in addition to the mother tongue, inside or outside a classroom. Contrastive analysis: It is a method of analyzing languages for instructional purposes whereby a native language and target language are compared with a view to establishing points of difference likely to cause difficulties for learners.Error analysis: Error analysis (EA) refers to the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners in order to identify causes of errors of common difficulties in language learning. It is an alternative to contrastive analysis.Language aptitude: The natural ability for learning an L2 is termed as language aptitude, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, etc.Field dependence: Field dependence is a learning style in which a learner tends to look at the whole of a learning task which contains many items. The learner has difficulty in studying a particular item when it occurs within a field of other items.Field independence: Field independence is a learning style in which a learner is able to identify or focus on particular items and is not distracted by other items in the background and context. Learning strategies: Learning strategies are the particular approaches or techniques that learners use to try to learn an L2. They can be behavioral or mental and they are typically problem-oriented.IV. Explain the following terms.1. Interlanguage. refers to the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language. It’s a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language, and imperfect compared with the target language, but not mere translation from the learner’s native language. For example, when the Chinese student is learning English, he may make errors like “to touch the society”.2. Universal grammar is a theory of linguistics postulating principles of grammar shared by all languages, thought to be innate to humans (linguistic nativism). It attempts to explain language acquisition in general, not describe specific languages. Universal grammar proposes a set of rules intended to explain language acquisition in child development.3. Contrastive analysis is an approach to analysis of second language acquisition, based on a belief that a more effective teaching pedagogy would come out when the similarities and differences between native language and target language are taken into consideration. By such an analysis, it is supposed that some leaning difficulties could be predicted in terms of language transfer.4. Errors are significant in telling the teacher what needs to be taught，in telling the researcher how learning proceeds and those errors are a means whereby learners test their hypotheses about the language to be learnt. They are worth further probing Error Analysis involves，first independently or objectively，describing the learners’ interlanguage (that is，their version of the target language and the target language itself)，then a comparison of the two is followed to locate mismatches. Different from contrastive analysis, Error Analysis, EA for short, gives 1ess consideration to learners’ native language. The procedure of Error Analysis consists of the following steps:(1) Recognition(2) Description.(3) Explanation.For example, explanation: the absence of an item that must appear in a well-formed utterance:e.g. She sleeping. Type of error: Omissions.1. Applied linguistics: Applied linguistics is the study of language and linguistics in relation topractical issue, e.g. speech therapy, language teaching, testing, and translation.Grammar-translation method: Grammar-translation method refers to a method of foreign or second language teaching which makes use of translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activities.Audiolingual method: Audiolingual method refers to the teaching of a second language through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. It emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing and the use of mother tongue in the classroom is not allowed.Communicative language teaching: Communicative language teaching refers to the approach to foreign or second language teaching which emphasizes that the goal of language learning is communicative competence.Testing: It refers to the use of test, or the study of the theory and the practice of their use, development, evaluation, etc.Achievement test: Achievement test is a test which measures how much of a language someone has learned with reference to a particular course of study or program of instruction.Validity: Validity (in testing) refers to the degree to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure, or can be used successfully for the purposes for which it is intended. A number of different statistical procedures can be applied to a test to estimate its validity. Such procedures generally seek to determine what the test measures, and how well it does so.Reliability:Reliability(in testing) refers to a measure of the degree to which a test gives consistent results; a test is said to be reliable if it gives the same results when it is given on different occasions or when it is used by different people.Proficiency test: Proficiency test is a test which measures how much of a language someone has learned without bothering the syllabus, duration and manner of learning.Subjective test:Subject test refers to a test which is scored according to the personal judgment of the marker, such as an essay examination or translation.Objective test: Objective test is a test that can be marked without the use of the examiner’s personal judgment.Language aptitude test: Language aptitude test is a test which measures a person’s aptitude for second or foreign language learning and which can be used to identify those learners who are most likely to succeed.Diagnostic test: Diagnostic test refers to a test which is designed to show what skills or knowledge a learner knows or doesn’t know. For example, a diagnostic pronunciation test may be used to measure the learner’s pronunciation of English sounds. It would show which soundsa student is and is not able to pronounce. Diagnostic test may be used to find out how much alearner knows before beginning a language course.Backwash effect: Backwash effect refers to the effect of tests on classroom L2 teaching and learning.II. Explain the following terms.1. Applied linguistics. It is a branch of linguistics which studies the application of linguistics in reality. For example, there are studies on multilingualism, language acquisition, first and second language teaching and learning.2. It is the teaching of a second language through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. It emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing and the use of mother tongue in the classroom is not allowed.3. The learning of a second language by using the target language directly and associating speech form with action, gesture, objects and situations. Mother tongue is never or rarely used in the classroom, and the students supposedly acquire the second language in a way similar to the way they acquired their first language.。
二语习得博士入学考试复习题
二语言习得考试复习题1. acquisition& learning➢The term “acquisition” is used to refer to picking up a second language through exposure, whereas the term “learning” is used to refer to the conscious study of a second language. Now most of the researchers use them interchangeably, irrespective of whether conscious or unconscious processes are involved2. incidental learning & intentional learning➢While reading for pleasure a reader does not bother to look up a new word in a dictionary, but a few pages later realizes what that word means, then incidental learning is said to have taken place.➢If a student is instructed to read a text and find out the meanings of unknown words, then it becomes an intentional learning activity. ngauage➢Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication .That is to say , language is systematic (rule-governed ), symbolic and social.nguage Acquisition Device➢The capacity to acquire one’s FIRST LANGUAGE , when this capacity is pictured as a sort of mechani sm or apparatus.5.Contrastive analysis❖Under the influence of behaviorism, researchers of language teaching developed the method of contrastive analysis (CA) to study learner errors. Its original aim is to serve foreign language teaching.6.Error analysis❖Error analysis aims to 1) find out how well the learner knows a second language, 2) find out how the learner learns a second language, 3) obtain information on common difficulties in second language learning, and to 4) serve as an aid in teaching or in the preparation and compilation of teaching materials (Corder, 1981).It is a methodology of describing Second Language Learners’ language system s.7.interlanguage❖It refers to the language that the L2 learner produced .❖The language produced by the learner is a system in its own right.❖The language is a dynamic system, evolving over time.8.Krashen and His Monitor Model❖ 1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis❖ 2. The Monitor Hypothesis❖ 3. The Natural Hypothesis❖ 4. The Input Hypothesis❖ 5. The Affective Filter Hypothsis9. input hypothesis❖Its claims : The learner improves and progresses along the “natural order” when s/he receives second language “input” that is one step beyond his or her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a le arner is at a stage “i”, then acquisition takes place when s/he is exposed to “Comprehensible Input” that belongs to level “i+1”.10. affective filter hypothesis❖The hypothesis is based on the theory of an affective filter, which states that successful second language acquisition depends on the learner’s feelings. Negative attitudes (including a lack of motivation or self-confidence and anxiety) are said to act as a filter, preventing the learner from making use of INPUT, and thus hindering success in language learning.11.Shumann’s Acculturation Model❖This model of second language acquisition was formulated by John.H.Schumann(1978), and applies to the natural context of second language acquisition where a second language is acquired without any instruction in the environment. Schumann defines acculturation as the process of becoming adapted to a new culture or rather , the social and psychological integration of the learner with the target language group.12.Universal Grammar⏹The language faculty built into the human mind consisting of principles and parameters.⏹This is the universal grammar theory associated with Noam Chomsky.⏹Universal Grammar sees the knowledge of grammar in the mind as having two components: “principles＂that all languages have incommon and “parameters” on which they vary.13.M acLaughlin’s Information processing model☐SLA is the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill that must progress from controlled processing to automatic processing.14.Anderson’s ACT☐This is another general theory of cognitive learning that has been applied to SLA☐Also emphasizes the automatization process.☐Conceptualizing three types of memory:1. Working memory2. Declarative long term memory3. Procedural long-term memory15.fossilization☐It refers to the phenomenon in which second language learners often stop learning even though they might be far short of native-like competence. The term is also used for specific linguistic structures that remain incorrect for lengthy periods of time in spite of plentiful input.munication strategies⏹Communication strategies, known as CSs, consist of attempts to deal with problems of communication that have arisen in interaction.They are characterized by the negotiation of an agreement on meaning between the two parties.1.What it is that needs to be learnt in language acquisition?➢Phonetics and Phonology➢Syntax➢Morphology➢Semantics➢Pragmatics2.How experts study the children’s acquisition➢Observe young children’s learning to talk.➢Record the speech of their children➢Create a database➢Have a single hypothesis3.What are learning strategies? Give examples ?➢Intentional behaviour and thoughts that learners make use of during learning in order to better help them understand, learn or remember new information .➢Learning strategies are classified into :1. meta-cognitive strategies2. cognitive strategies3. socio-affective strategies4.What are the factors influencing the success of SLA ?●Cognitive factors :1. Intelligence2. Language aptitudenguage learning strategies●Affective factors:nguage attitudes2.Motivation5.What are the differences between the Behaviorist learning model and that of Mentalist?➢Behaviorist learning model claims that children acquired the L1 by trying to imitate utterances produced by people around them and by receiving negative or positive reinforcement of their attempts to do so. Language acquisition, therefore, was considered to be environmentally determined.6.What are the beneficial views obtained from the studies on chi ldren’s L1 acquisition?1. Children’s language acquisition goes through several stages2. These stages are very similar across children for a given language, although the rate at which individual children progress through them ishighly variable;3. These stages are similar across languages;4. Child language is rule-governed and systematic, and the rules created by the child do not necessarily correspond to adult ones;5. Children are resistant to correction;6. Children’s mental capacity limits the numb er of rules they can apply at any one time, and they will revert to earlier hypotheses when two ormore rules compete.7.What are the differences of error analysis from contrastive analysisContrastive analysis stresses the interfering effects of a first language on second language learning and claims that most errors come from interference of the first language. (Corder ,1967). However, such a narrow view of interference ignores the intralingual effects of language learning among other factors. Error analy sis is the method to deal with intralingual factors in learners’ language (Corder, 1981).it is a methodology of describing Second Language Learners’ language systems .Error analysis is a type of bilingual comparison, a comparison between learners’ interla nguage and a target language, while contrastive analysis between languages. (native language and target language)8.What are UG principles and parameters?➢The universal principle is the principle of structure-dependency, which states that language is organized in such a way that it crucially depends on the structural relationships between elements in a sentence.➢Parameters are prnciples that differ in the way they work or function from language to language. That is to say there are certain linguistic features that vary across languages.9.What role does UG play in SLA？➢Three possibilities :1. UG operates in the same way for L2 as it does for L1.2. The learner’s Core grammar is fixed and UG is no longer available to the L2 learner, particularly not to the a dult learner.3. UG is partly available but it is only one factor in the acquisition of L2. There are other factors and they may interfere with the UGinfluence.10.What are classifications of communication strategies?Faerch and Kasper characterizes CSs in the light of learners’ attempts at governing two different behaviors and their taxonomies are achievement and reduction strategies , and they are based on the psycholinguistics.➢Achievement Strategies:⏹Paraphrase⏹Approximation⏹Word coinage⏹Circumlocution⏹Conscious Transfer⏹Literal translation⏹Language switch (borrowing)⏹Mime⏹Use body language and gestures to make communication open⏹Appeal for assistance➢Reduction Strategies⏹Message abandonment（topic shift）:Ask a student to answer the question :How old are you ? She must utter two orthree sentences to answer the question, but she mustn’t tell her age.⏹Topic avoidance(Silence)。
第二语言习得试题及答案
第二语言习得试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共10分）1. 第二语言习得理论中，克拉申的“输入假说”主张学习者需要接收到什么样的语言输入？A. 完全理解的输入B. 可理解的输入C. 无理解的输入D. 超过理解的输入答案：B2. 根据斯金纳的操作条件反射理论，语言习得主要依赖于什么？A. 模仿B. 强化C. 内化D. 社会互动答案：B3. 在语言习得中，“临界期”假说主张语言学习的最佳时期是？A. 任何年龄B. 儿童时期C. 青少年时期D. 成年时期答案：B4. 语言习得的“自然顺序假说”认为语言技能的发展遵循一定的顺序，以下哪项不是该假说的内容？A. 语法结构的习得顺序是固定的B. 词汇的习得顺序是固定的C. 发音的习得顺序是固定的D. 语言习得的速度是个体差异决定的答案：D5. 语言习得的“社会文化理论”强调以下哪个因素在语言学习中的作用？A. 认知发展B. 社会互动C. 语言输入D. 语言输出答案：B二、填空题（每空1分，共10分）1. 语言习得的“监控假说”是由________提出的。
答案：克拉申2. 语言习得中的“输入假说”认为，学习者需要接收到________的输入。
答案：可理解的3. 语言习得的“自然顺序假说”认为，语言技能的发展遵循一定的________。
答案：顺序4. 根据斯金纳的操作条件反射理论，语言习得主要依赖于________。
答案：强化5. 语言习得的“社会文化理论”强调________在语言学习中的作用。
答案：社会互动三、简答题（每题5分，共20分）1. 简述克拉申的“输入假说”。
答案：克拉申的“输入假说”认为，为了习得第二语言，学习者需要接收到略高于其当前语言水平的可理解输入，这样的输入被称为“i+1”输入。
2. 描述斯金纳的操作条件反射理论在语言习得中的应用。
答案：斯金纳的操作条件反射理论认为，语言习得是通过强化机制实现的。
当学习者正确使用语言时，他们会受到奖励（强化），这会增强他们使用正确语言形式的倾向。
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二语习得笔记
一、二语习得
1、什么是二语习得？（p3）
人们学习母语外的一种语言的途径。
这种学习可以是课堂上的，也可以是课堂外的。
2、第二语言习得的目的是什么？（p4）
二语习得的目标之一是对二语习得进行描述，另一个目标是对二语习得进行解释，鉴别内部因素和外部因素，这些因素可以用来解释二语习得者在二语习得过程中所使用的方法。
外部因素之一是学习发生的社会环境，社会环境影响二语习得者必须使用目的语进行交流(听和说)的机会，并且影响学习者对于二语习得的态度；另一个外部因素是学习者接收到的语言输入。
内部因素是指学习者的认知机制，而认知机制受学习者的母语、百科知识、交际策略以及它的语言普遍性知识的影响。
最后一个内部因素是学习者的个体差异，这包括学习者的一些常规因素的差异，比如，学习者的语言学能以及学习动机的不同，另外学习策略的不同也属于学习者的个体差异。
总的来说，二语习得的目标是描述二语习得的进程，并且对之进行解释，解释为什么有的学习者看起来要好于其他的学习者。
二、偏误和偏误分析
1、偏误分析的作用是什么？（p14）
①它们是学习者语言的一个显著特色，这就提出了“学习者为什么
会产生偏误？”的重要问题。
②有助于教师了解学习者产生的偏误，便于教学。
③学习者在自我改错时有助于学习者习得。
2、偏误分析的步骤
①偏误的辨别
②偏误的描写
③偏误的解释
④偏误的评估
3、偏误归类的方法（p18）
①按语法范畴归类：我们可以把所有关于动词的偏误聚集起来，然
后在我们的案例中识别出不同种类的动词偏误（比如过去时态的动词偏误）。
②按识别学习者的话语与重建的目的语的差异的一般方法归类，包
括遗漏（漏掉了句中应有的语法成分而导致的偏误）、误用（用一种语法形式代替另一种语法形式）、错序（在话语中，把词语按错误的顺序排列）
三、行为主义和心理主义在看待语言习得方面有何不同？(p31)
行为主义：
根据行为主义理论，语言习得就和任何其他种类的习得一样，包括习惯的形成。
学习者在对环境刺激产生反应并且随之强化他们的反应来便于他们记忆的过程中形成习惯。
因此，习惯是一种刺激与反应的联结。
一般认为所有的行为，包括在语言习得中发现的那种复杂行为，都可以解释为以习惯为依据。
当学习者有机会练习对一个给定的刺激做出正确的反应时，学习产生了。
学习者会模仿正确的语言模式，如果他们是正确的，他们得到的是正强化，如果是错误的，得到的就是负强化。
应该清楚的是，行为主义理论在解释第二语言习得时，只强调外部反映和外部行为结果，不探讨内部心理机制，把内部过程看成“黑箱”。
行为主义理论不能充分地解释第二语言习得。
学习者语言的描述性工作是显而易见的。
学习者经常不输出而是简单地再输入。
此外，他们偏误的系统性表明他们在积极地参与于构建他们自己的规则中，这种规则有时与输入的语言模式相似性很小。
简而言之，学习不仅仅是对外部刺激的一个反应。
心理主义：
在1960s和1970s，第一语言习得的心理主义理论产生。
内容是：
①只有人类有能力习得语言，语言是人类独有的机制。
②人类的头脑具备语言习得的一种能力，称为语言习得机制。
它独
立于智力发展的认知机制。
③这种能力是语言习得的主要决定因素。
④输入是必须的，但仅仅是“引发”了语言习得机制的运转，语言
习得机制并非由输入“激活”。
中介语的概念直接吸收了这些第一语言习得的心理主义观点。
四、中介语理论的基本假设有哪些？(p33)
①学习者建构了抽象的语言规则系统，作为第二语言理解与生成的
基础。
这个规则系统被看作一种“心理语法”，即“中介语”。
②学习者的语法是可渗透性的。
语法可以从外部（通过输入）影响，
也可以从内部影响。
③学习者的语法是过渡性的。
学习者通过增加规则，删除规则，重
新构造整个系统来一次次地改变他们的语法。
这就造成了一种中介语的连续统。
学习者随着逐渐增加他们第二语言知识的难度来构建一系列心理语法或中介语。
④一些研究者表明，学习者构造的系统中包含变量的规则。
他们表
示，学习者在发展的任何一个阶段都有可能有竞争规则。
然而，另一些研究者表示，中介语系统是同类的并且它的可变性反映出当学习者尝试去用他们的知识交流时，他们会犯错误。
这些研究者把这种可变性看做是性能的一个方面，而不是能力。
这个中介语系统的假设本身是可变的，因此是有争议的一个。
⑤学习者用不同的学习策略来发展他们的中介语。
学习者生成的不
同种类的偏误反映出不同的学习策略。
⑥学习者的语法有可能产生僵化现象。
Selinker认为只有大约百分之
五的学习者会像母语者那样继续发展相同的心理语法。
大多数人会在很短的时间内就停止了。
倒退（代表发展的一个早期阶段的偏误的生成）是僵化学习者的特点。
僵化现象并不出现在第一语言习得上，因此它对于第二语言语法来说是独特的。
五、简述克拉申的输入假说（P47）
根据克拉申的输入假说，当学习者能理解包含“i+1”语法形式（即略高于学习者现有的中介语水平）的输入时，第二语言习得就发生了，i代表学习者现有第二语言的水平，1代表略高于学习者现有水平的语言材料。
克拉申认为，当谈话双方在交际中能成功地让别人理解自己时，这种自动获得的输入程度是恰好的。
在对外谈话中，使用情景让自己的信息更加清楚，并通过这种输入的修改能达到交际的成功。
根据克拉申的说法，二语习得依赖于这种可理解的输入。
六、以关系小句为例说明语言类型研究对二语习得研究的作用（P63）
1、一个关于语言的获得如何阐明中介语发展的很好的例子可以在关系小句中被发现。
正如我们所见，语言的不同显现于它们是否有关系小句结构。
一些语言，像英语和阿拉伯语有这样的结构，而其他语言，像汉语和日语却没有。
这种语言上的差异影响了学习者学习关系小句的难易。
研究发现，母语中有关系小句的学习者比母语中没有关系小句的学习者习得起来更加容易，而且他们相对来说，会更少地避免使用关系小句。
2、关系小句的语言性质从另一方面影响第二语言习得。
以学习英语为例：
关系小句可以附在主句末端，如：The police have caught the man who bombed the hotel.
同样，关系小句也可以插入主句，如：The man who bombed the hotel has been caught by the police.
当英语第二语言的学习者开始学习关系小句时，他们典型地会从
第一种类型开始。
因此，英语的语言结构影响习得进程。
3、关系小句结构对第二语言习得的第三种影响已经被确定。
语言学家表明，语言中的主语关系代词引导的从句比宾语关系代词引导的从句多，这种关系的层级就叫做可达层级。
层级能预测关系小句习得的顺序。
研究发现，层级能预测学习不同关系小句时，学习者所犯错误的频率，主语关系代词引导的关系小句出现的错误最少，比较对象的关系从句出现的错误最多。
七、关键期假说（P67）
关键期假说认为，语言习得时有一个时期，在这一时期内，语言习得是容易的，并且是完整的（获得了母语者的能力），过了这一时期，语言习得就是很困难的，而且是不完整的。
该理论所依据的事实依据：
1、对失去语言能力的人所进行的调查。
比如，由于车祸丧失语言能力的人，在青春期（大约12岁）之前能重新完全获得语言能力，但是过了青春期就不能完全获得了。
这一点又被后来一些研究证明了，这些研究是针对一些在幼年时就被剥夺了学习母语的权利的人进行的，比如，Genie在其幼年的时候被完全孤立，并且在她13岁之前一直没有学习语言（英语），然而，后来她获得了进行日常交际的能力，却没有完全掌握语法规则。
2、这有一个证据证明成人学习第二语言无论是在语法上还是在语音上都不能获得母语者的能力。
在美国对移民的研究中，也说明如果他
们在青春期之前到达美国，要比在青春期之后到达，更加精通语法规则，有时候他们和母语者没什么差别。
然而，对于年龄没有明显的界限，并不是超过这一界限，就不可能获得完整的语言能力。
而这获得完整语言的能力是在逐渐下降的，在大约16岁之前完成。
有趣的是，到达美国的年龄比在美国接触目的语的时长要能更好的预测最终的成果。
在研究发音的时候，关键期出现得更早，最早可能达到6岁。