语言学第一二章知识点
语言学教程[第一章语言学导论]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
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第一章语言学导论复习笔记Ⅰ．语言的定义语言是人类以口头交流的任意的符号系统。
该定义揭示了语言的五个要素：系统，任意，口头，符号，人类。
Ⅱ．语言的定义特征语言的定义特征是人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点。
1．任意性任意性是语言的核心特征，是指符号的形式或者声音与意义之间没有逻辑或内在联系。
虽然语言从本质上讲是任意的，但也不是完全任意的。
一些词语，例如一些拟声词的发音与其意义还是有一定联系的。
2．二重性二重性是指拥有两层结构的这种属性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。
二重性只存在于这样的系统之中，既有元素又有它们组合成的单位。
3．创造性创造性指语言的能产性，它能够使人造出和理解无穷的长句，其中很多句子是以前从未听过的。
4．移位性移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、事件和观点。
移位性赋予人们的概括和想象力使人类受益无穷。
5．文化传递性语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6．互换性互换性是指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
Ⅲ．语言的起源1．圣经的记载语言是上帝的恩赐。
2．“汪汪”理论语言是模仿自然的声音，例如动物的叫声，如 (鸭子)的刮刮声，嘎嘎声，布谷鸟的叫声。
3．“噗噗”理论语言来源于人本能的情感声音，表达疼痛或喜悦。
4．“哟一嘿一吼”理论语言起源于原始人共同劳动时发出的有节奏的哼哟声。
5．进化理论语言起源于劳动的过程，满足了社会的需求。
Ⅳ．语言的功能1．信息功能语言用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理。
信息功能是语言最重要的功能，一般出现在陈述句中。
2．人际功能人际功能是语言最重要的社会功能。
人们由此建立和维持他们的身份和社会地位。
3．施为功能语言的施为功能主要是用来改变人的社会地位，例如在婚礼、判刑，为孩子祈福和在首航仪式上为船命名、诅咒敌人。
在这些言语行为中，语言通常是非常正式的，甚至是仪式化的。
语言学知识点串记
语言学知识点串记余晓敏Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsLinguistics is the science of language, or the scientific study of language. It is a rich and exciting field. Its object is language.The design features of language1. Arbitrariness（任意性）：the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance/relationship to theirmeaning. The link between them is a matter of convention, and convention differ radically across languages.2. Duality（二重性）：Human language operates on two levels of structure, both in spoken language and inwritten language. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning.3. Creativity（创造性）：Human languages are resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We canuse human languages to create new meanings. Human languages are creative in another sense, that is, its potential to create endless sentences. Creativity is an important factor which differentiates human languages from sounds animals produce.4. Displacement（移位性）：Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and conceptswhich are not present （in time and space）at the moment of communication. Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.Functions of language1. Informative（信息功能）：Language is the instrument of thought. The use of language to record the facts isa prerequisite of social development. Some scholars may call it as ideational function.2. Interpersonal function（人际功能）：Through this function, people establish and maintain their status in asociety.3. Performative（行事功能）：It is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies,the sentencing of criminals, etc. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized4. Emotive function（感情功能）：It is sometimes called expressive function. It is a means of getting rid of ournervous energy when we are under stress, e.g. swear words and such.5. Phatic communion（寒喧交谈）：This function refers to expressions that help define and maintaininterpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, regional dialects. We have to learn a large repertoire of such usages if we are to interact comfortably with different people.6. Recreational function（娱乐功能）：This means language has the power of providing joy and pleasure for itsusers, for example, in the form of poems, lyrics of songs, etc.7. Metalingual function（超语言功能）：Our language can be used to talk about itself. We can change thelinear structure of the sentence to change our perspective about the concerns of the clause.Main branches of linguistics1. Phonetics It studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds areactually made, transmitted and received.2. phonology It studies the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds and theshape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. 或Phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute the language and meaning.(some sounds are meaningless)3. Morphology It is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units ofmeaning --- morphemes and word-formation processes.4. Syntax It is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences. The rules of syntaxspecify word order, sentence organization and the relationships between words, word clauses and other sentence elements.5. Semantics It examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings ofwords as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it, e.g. meaning of morphemes and sentences.6. Pragmatics This is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particularsituations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. It is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is structured.7. Macrolinguistics This is sub-ranches of linguistics which are interdisciplinary. That is other fields whichhave relations with language.8. Sociolinguistics It is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of theirfunctions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.9. Anthropological linguistic It concerns the history and structure of formerly unwritten languages.10. Computational linguistics This is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers toprocess or produce human language.Several important concepts in linguistics1. Descriptive vs. prescriptive (描述与规定)By descriptive rule/study, we mean the rule/study tries to describe how things (here language itself) are. By prescriptive rule/study, we mean the rule/ study tries to prescribe how things ought to be.Linguistics is a descriptive science because linguists try to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms.2. Synchronic vs. diachronic (历时与共时)A synchronic description/study takes a fixed instant (usually, but unnecessarily, the present) as its point of observation/study.A diachronic study examines things through the course of their histories. There is a way of study in linguistics, historical linguistics.3. Langue vs. paroleLangue（语言）refers to the linguistic competence of the speaker.Parole（言语）refers to the actual phenomena or utterance/data of linguistics.4. Linguistic Competence and Linguistic performanceLinguistic competence（语言能力）refers to the language user‘s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.Performance (语言运用) refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. Segment（音段）: the sound unit in a word, for example, in the word ―above‖, there are four segments. Thesound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels.2. Divergence（分化）:the enormous different ways of denoting a segment, or between spelling andpronunciation. For example, the sound /f/, can be denoted by f, gh.3. Phonetic transcription（标音法）: in the course of developing a written system to record the sound system,people developed different ways of transcribing sounds into words/pronunciations. Now there is the notation system of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).4. Consonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract（声道）at some place to divert,impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity（口腔）.A. Manners of articulation（发音方法）: the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way inwhich the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract;stop (plosive)塞(爆破)；fricative (擦音)；(median) approximant (通音)；lateral approximantB. Places of articulation（发音部位）: the places in the vocal tract where there is approximation, narrowing orthe obstruction of air.bilabiallabiodentalDentalAlveolar (齿龈音)Postalveolar(后齿龈音)Retroflex (卷舌音)Palatal (腭音)V elar (软腭音)Uvular(小舌音)Pharyngeal咽Glottal(声门音)The consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative5. Vowels (元音)：A vowel is produced without any obstruction of the air in the vocal tract so no turbulence or atotal stopping of the air can be perceived.The criteria of vowel description (four basic requirements)①the part of the tongue that is raised the position of the highest part of the tongue – front, central or back.②The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate the height of tongue raising (high, mid,low);.③The kind of opening made at the lips lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).④the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short),Consequently, we describe the vowels in this way:[i:] high front tense unrounded vowel[u] high back lax rounded vowel[a] central lax unrounded vowel6. Co-articulation is the simultaneous or overlapping articulations of the sound segments.A. When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a BROAD TRANSCRIPTION.B. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a NARROWTRANSCRIPTION.Take [p] for example, it is ASPIRA TED in peak and UNASPIRA TED in speak.This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic h, as [p h], whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as [p =] for contrast.7. Minimal pairs: In phonology, minimal pairs are pairs of words or phrases in a particular language, whichdiffer in only one phonological element, such as a phone, phoneme, toneme or chroneme and have a distinct meaning. They are used to demonstrate that two phones constitute two separate phonemes in the language.As an example for English vowels, the pair ―let‖ + ―lit‖ can be used to demonstrate that the phones [ɛ] (in let) and [ɪ] (in lit) do in fact represent distinct phonemes /ɛ/ and /ɪ/. An example for English consonants is the minimal pair of ―pat‖ + ―bat‖. In phonetics, this pair, like any other, differs in a number of ways. In this case, the contrast appears largely to be conveyed with a difference in the voice onset time of the initial consonant as the configuration of the mouth is the same for [p] and [b]; however, there is also a possible difference in duration, which visual analysis using high quality video supports.[citation needed]8. Allophone: In phonetics, an allophone is one of a set of multiple possible spoken sounds (or phones) used topronounce a single phoneme. For example, [ph] (as in pin) and [p] (as in spin) are allophones for the phoneme /p/ in the English language. Although a phoneme's allophones are all alternative pronunciations for a phoneme, the specific allophones selected in a given situation are often predictable. Changing the allophone used by native speakers for a given phoneme in a specific context usually will not change the meaning of a word but the result may sound non-native or unintelligible. Speakers of a given language usually perceive one phoneme in their language as a single distinctive sound in that language and are "both unaware of and even shocked by" the allophone variations used to pronounce single phonemes.9. Phonological processes (音系过程)A. Assimilation（同化）is the process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of aneighboring sound.B. Phonological rules (音系规则)A phonological rule is a formal way of expressing a systematic phonological or morphophonologicalprocess or diachronic sound change in language. Phonological rules are commonly used in generative phonology as a notation to capture sound-related operations and computations the human brain performs when producing or comprehending spoken language. They may use phonetic notation or distinctive features or both.10. Sonority scale（响音阶）: A sonority hierarchy or sonority scale is a ranking of speech sounds (or phones) byamplitude. For example, if you say the vowel [a], you will produce much louder sound than if you say the plosive [t].Most sonorous 5 V owels4 Approximants3 Nasals2 FricativesLeast sonorous 1 Stops11. Syllabification and the maximal onset principle章节划分和最大节首规则12. STRESS refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.Chapter 3 Lexicon1. The formation of wordA. Morpheme(语素) is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering themeaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.B. Morphology(形态学) is the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words areformed.The relationship between morpheme and phonemeA phoneme is the smallest unit of sound and a morpheme is the smallest unit in grammar. A singlephoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical. Divergence: a phoneme may represent several morphemes.C. T ypes of morphemesFree morpheme and bound morphemeRoot, affix and stemInflectional affix and derivational affixD. Inflection（屈折变化）is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition ofinflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached to.E. Word formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships.①Compound合成词②Derivation派生词2. Morpheme and phoneme语素和音位3. Morphemic structure and phonological structure语素结构和音位结构4. Allomorph语素变体5. Lexical change词汇变化Lexeme: denotes an item of vocabulary with a single referent whether it consists of one word or more, e.g.kick the bucket = dieLexical changes take place in two ways. On the one hand, new words appear rapidly. On the other hand, there are always words that become obsolete or disappear from the language.Ways of creating new words①Invention（新创词汇）: New words have been invented in various economic activities or other fields. Sinceeconomic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names, such as Kodak, Coke, nylon, Xeros, and others to cope with the Invention of new entities.②Blending（混成法）is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended byjoining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.Eg. transfer + resister →transistorsmoke + fog →smogpositive + electron →positronboat + hotel →boatelbreakfast + lunch →brunchtelevision + broadcast →telecast③Abbreviation（缩写词）This is the shortening of words in different ways.. It is also called CLIPPING, that is,a new word is created by Cutting certain part of the word (or with a slight variation).advertisement adbicycle bikemathematics mathprofessor profaeroplane planetelephone phoneinfluenza flurefrigerator fridge④Acronym（首字母缩略语）is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword . (CIA, WTO, WHO, FBI....)This process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology and other special fields.Aids acquired immune deficiency syndromeEEG electroencephalogramRadar radio detecting and rangingV A T value added taxWTO world trade organization⑤Back-formation（逆构词法/反推法：先有派生词再找到词根）derived by deleting an imagined affix froma longer form already in the language. Take televise for example, the word television predated theoccurrence of the word televise. The first part of the word television was pulled out and analyzed as a root, even though no such root occurs elsewhere in the English language.gangling →gangleeditor →editpeddler →peddlehawker →hawkenthusiasm →enthuselaser →lase⑥Analogical creation (类推造字/ “将错就错”) This is the creation of new words according to grammaticalrules. The principle of ANALOGICAL CREA TION can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs. For instance, people know quite well that the past tense suffix for English verb should be -ed, and they tend to apply it to all verbs.(past tense) (old) (new)work wrought ----- workedslay ------ slew slayed⑦Borrowing（借词P101）This is a way of creating new words by taking words from other languages.Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in this process.Throughout its history, the English language has adopted a vast number of words from various sources.Chapter 4 SyntaxSyn- (together), tax (arrange)Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to from sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1. The traditional approach传统学派A. number, gender and caseNumber is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun. Languages differ in numbers.Gender is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun. In English, the gender distinctions are on the whole natural, determined by the biological gender of the creature. In other languages, such asFrench and Russian, gender is grammatical. Chair may be male, while desk is female.Case is another category of the noun and pronouns.B. tense（时：过去/现在）and aspect（体：完成/未完成）C. Concord and government (一致与支配)Concord, also known as agreement, is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories. There is a relationship of controlling and being controlled between words.For example, in English the determiner and the noun it precedes should concord in number as in this man, these men;a book, some books.And the form of a subject should agree with that of the verb in terms of number in the present tense as i s shown by He speaks English, They speak English. Some languages have more cases of concord. Some have the category of gender.Government is the relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form or others in terms of certain category. It is another type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic constructions.It differs from concord in that this is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form as in She gave him a book. She gave a book to him. In other words, the verb, or the preposition, determines, or governs, the form of the pronoun after it. The former is the governed.Different languages have different ways of government.2. The structural approach结构主义学派(Saussure)A. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations(组合与聚合关系)In Saussure's view , Language is seen as a system of signs, each of which consists of two parts: signified (concept) and signifier (sound image). The relationship between the two parts is arbitrary. The linguist must try to find the value of a sign from its relations to others, or rather, its position in the system. There are two major types of relations: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations.Syntagmatic relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present. Eg.:If the weather is nice, we will go out.There are syntactic and semantic conditions the words in a syntagmatic relation must meet .a. The boy kicked the ball.b. *Boy the ball kicked the.c. *The ball kicked the boy.Paradigmatic relation is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.For example, in the contextThe _______ is smiling,there are constrains on the possible elements occurring here.B. Immediate constituent analysis直接成分分析法IC analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents --- word groups, which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and this process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached (till the morpheme level).There are two ways of doing IC analysis: bracketing and tree diagramming.AdvantagesThe internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly and ambiguities will be revealed.Disadvantages/Problems①Binary division or three-way division?②Constructions with discontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for tree diagrams.③The ambiguity in some structures cannot be revealed. For example: the love of god (love from / forgod)3. The generative approach生成学派ChomskyThis approach was established by American linguist Noam Chomsky. It was established to solve the problems that IC analysis cannot solve, i.e., solving the ambiguities of some structures.The earliest theory (P132)In 1957, Chomsky established the earliest generative theory. The basic idea is that superficially different sentences actually generated from deep structures of the same structure. Chomsky proposed a linguistic model consisting of three components.Phrase Structure deep Transformational surface Morpho-phonemicComponen t ———→ Component ———→Componentstructure structureAdvantage: can reveal the ambiguity which can not be revealed by IC analysis. back to the question of the love of God .The love of God is only a surface structure. There are in fact two deep structures underneath: God loves somebodySomebody loves God.It is the transformations like nominalization, object-deletion, and subject-deletion, which are responsible for the convergence of the two deep structures when they surface.the love of god (surface structure)Deep structure:A. God loves somebody.Nominalization + object deletion: God‘s love of somebody --- the love of god (of somebody)B. Somebody loves god.subject deletion+ nominalization: (somebody) loves god--- the love of godTry to analyze the following in the same way.Flying planes can be dangerous.John is eager to please.Problem:It does not include meaning in the model. Therefore it is possible to generate meaningless sentences.For example: The boy hit the dog.The dog hit the boy. (faulty)The standard theory (P135)In 1965 Chomsky introduced some modifications to his first model.The most important of them is that at the suggestion of John Katz and others he added a semantic component to it.This is a natural development in that transformational-generative grammar purports to be a description of the ideal speaker-hearer's knowledge of this language, which inevitably includes his knowledge about meaningA. Deep structure is the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e., theunderlying level of structural relations between its different constituents, or to put it in simple language, the meaning we want to convey.B. Surface structure is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closelycorresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive, or to put it in simple language, utterance that people actually produce.C. Government管辖D. Binding约束所谓管辖，就是成分之间的支配关系，它要说明短语中的各个成分是否在同一个管辖区域内，以及什么是主管成分，什么是受管成分。
(完整word版)语言学概论知识点
导言、第一章、第二章一、名词解释1、历时语言学-—就各种语言的历史事实用比较的方法去研究它的“亲属”关系和历史发展的，叫历时语言学。
2、语言——语言是一种社会现象,是人类最重要的交际工具和进行思维的工具。
就语言本身的结构来说,语言是由词汇和语法构成的系统.3、符号——符号是用来代表事物的一种形式，词这样的符号是声音和意义相结合的统一体。
任何符号都是由声音和意义两方面构成的。
4、语言的二层性—-语言是一种分层装置,其底层是一套音位；上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列,这一层又分为若干级，第一级是语素，第二级是由语素构成的词，第三级是由词构成的句子。
5、社会现象——语言是一种社会现象和人类社会有紧密的联系.所谓“社会"，就是指生活在一个共同的地域中，说同一种语言，有共同的风俗习惯和文化传统的人类共同体。
语言对于社会全体成员来说是统一的、共同的；另一方面，语言在人们的使用中可以有不同的变异、不同的风格。
二、填空1、结构主义语言学包括布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学三个学派。
2、历史比较语言学是在19世纪逐步发展和完善的，它是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。
3、人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的左半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。
4、一个符号,如果没有意义，就失去了存在的必要，如果没有声音，我们就无法感知,符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。
5、用什么样的语音形式代表什么样的意义,完全是由使用这种语言的社会成员约定俗成。
6、语言符号具有任意性和线条性特点。
7、语言的底层是一套音位，上层是符号和符号的序列，可以分为若干级,第一级是语素,第二级是词，第三级是句子.8、语言系统中的所有符号,既可以同别的符号组合，又可以被别的符号替换,符号之间的这两种关系是组合和聚合。
9、组合是指符号与符号相互之间在功能上的联系，聚合是指符号在性质上的归类。
三、判断正误（正确的打钩，错误的打叉)1、文字是人类最重要的交际工具。
语言学概论复习资料
第一章语言和语言学第一节认识人类的语言一、语言的性质和类型1.只有人类才有语言【领会】语言是人类所独有的。
人类的语言跟动物的“语言”相比较,有几个显著和重要的特点:一是“内容更多”。
多种场合、多种方式、多种内容。
二是“用处更大”。
主要:交际功能。
其它:标志、记录、思维、认知,等等。
三是“能够创造”。
具有离散性,能用有限的声音和意义按照一定规则组配成无限的话语。
2.语言和民族、国家的关系【领会】大多数情况:一个民族使用一种语言。
但不能把“相互能够听懂”作为确定语言的标准,并进一步作为确定民族和国家的标准。
这种理解只适合于欧洲的“新兴民族国家”,对一个历史悠久、幅员辽阔的国家是不适应的。
尽管“语言”是最直观、最容易识别的民族标志,但事实上还不是最可靠的标志。
从目前了解到的情况来看,“共同的历史文化传统和由此产生的民族认同感”也许是维系一个民族的最根本的因素,因而也是确定一个民族的最根本的标准。
3.语言的谱系分类和语言的形态分类【领会】语言的谱系分类就是从“历时”演变角度划分不同的语言,是根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同来源和相似性的大小对语言进行的分类。
也叫“语言的亲属关系分类”。
从语言的“共时”角度来划分不同的语言,可以建立“语言的形态分类”,也叫“语言的结构类型分类”。
可分为“形态语”和“孤立语”,或者分成“综合性语言”和“分析性语言”。
4.语系、语族;屈折语、孤立语;综合性语言、分析性语言【识记】谱系分类层级:语系、语族、(语支)、语言、方言、次方言(土语)。
语系是根据语言有无历史同源关系划分出来的语言类别,是语言谱系中最大的类。
语系的下一级叫作“语族”,同一语族的语言不但有相同的来源,相似点也更多。
形态语(综合性语言)指通过词的形态变化来体现各种结构意义的语言。
包括“屈折语、黏着语”等小类。
如俄语、维吾尔语。
孤立语(分析性语言)指没有形态变化的语言。
如汉语。
屈折语主要是句子中某些词本身有丰富的形态变化,是形态语中的一个小类。
现代语言学知识点
Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication
Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used in communication
Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words
Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences
Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.
语言学概论自学考试 知识点总结 详细版
第一章语言和语言学第一节认识人类的语言1.人类的语言跟动物的“语言”相比较，有哪些显著特点？P50（1）“内容更多”。
人在各种场合都可以说话；人也可以用各种方式说话；人还可以说各种各样的话。
（2）“用处更大”。
交际功能；标志功能；记录功能；思维功能；认知功能。
（3）“能够创造”。
人类的语言有极强的生成能力和极高的运转效率；其他动物无论自身多么完善，都无法做到这一步。
人类与其他动物区别最重要的标志就是人类具有语言能力，只有人类才有语言。
2.为什么不能以“相互能听懂”为标准来区别方言和语言？P51-52【简】单以“相互能够听懂”为标准来确定方言和语言不但会将复杂的问题简单化，而且很可能会在政治上引起严重后果。
如果单凭这一条标准来衡量，则英国人、美国人、澳大利亚人，加拿大人等，说话相互能听懂，因此他们所说的话就都应视为英语的“方言“才对，然而这样处理，他们在民族感情上是不能接受的。
另外，北欧的瑞典，挪威，丹麦三个主权国家的语言差别很小，相互都能听懂，如果按“相互能听懂”来处理，这三个国家使用的就是同一种语言，至少是同一种语言的各个方言，但这三个国家又是不同的民族，应当承认他们使用的是不同的语言。
因此，不能以“相互能够听懂“为标准来区别方言和语言。
3.简述“语言的谱系分类”和“语言的形态分类”P53【名/简】不同的语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面有所不同，根据这些特点可以将语言分为“语言的谱系分类”和“语言的形态分类”。
1)从语言“历时”演变角度来划分不同的语言，就可以建立“语言的谱系分类”，也叫“语言的亲属关系分类”。
根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同的来源和相似性的大小对语言进行的分类，就是语言的谱系分类。
2)从语言“共时”状态角度来划分不同的语言，就可以建立“语言的形态分类”，也叫做“语言的结构类型分类”。
4.语言的谱系分类是个层级系统，从大到小分别是：P53语系——语族——（语支）——语言——方言——次方言（土语）5.“语言”和“言语”P54 【名/简】“语言”—说话使用的工具（比如英语、汉语）。
语言学概论 (00541)知识点汇总(第一章)
语言学概论（00541）知识点汇总第一章语言和语言学（一）语言和民族、国家的关系★★1.一个民族使用一种语言，这种说法（不正确）2.一般而言，一个民族使用同一种语言，语言是民族的重要标志3.同一民族使用多种语言，不同民族使用同一语言的现象客观存在。
语言不是识别民族的可靠标志（二）语言特点和语言类型★★★1.从语言历时演变角度来划分不同的语言，可以建立语言的（谱系分类）2.与英语亲缘关系最近的是（德语），都属于印欧语系-日耳曼语族3.根据语言是否有形态变化，可以分为分析性语言即（孤立语）和形态语即（屈折语、黏着语）4.汉语属于（分析性语言/孤立语），没有丰富的形态变化，主要由词序和虚词来体现各种结构意义5.德语、俄语属于形态语中的（屈折语），日语、朝鲜语、维吾尔语、芬兰语属于（黏着语）（三）“语言”和“言语”★★1.区分“语言”和“言语”的主要目的是（明确语言学的研究对象）2.（语言）是由有限材料、有限规则组成的系统，是社会的，如“语言能力是每个正常人都具有的”3.（言语）是具体的、无限的、个人的，如《红楼梦》的语言、“法官认为证人说的话可信”中的“话”（四）“口语”和“书面语”★★★1.口语就是有声的口头语言，任何一种语言都有口头存在形式，它是书面语产生的基础。
2.书面语：是用文字记录的语言形式，是文字产生后在口语的基础上产生的，书面语是经过加工、提炼和发展了的口语的书面形式。
3.书面语与口语基本一致，但不是口语绝对忠实的记录，也不是口语的机械记录和重复。
（五）“能指”和“所指”★★★★★1.属于符号的是（语言、文字、红绿灯、旗语）2.符号中能够指称某种意义的成分被称为（能指），符号所指的意义内容是（所指）3.语言符号的能指是（语音），语言符号的所指是（意义）4.首先提出“能指”和“所指”这对概念的语言学家是（索绪尔）5.能指和所指的关系是（不可分割）的，一旦分开，语言符号就不存在了。
（六）“约定”和“任意”★★★★★1.交通信号灯中红灯表示“停”的意思，红灯和“停”之间的关系是（约定的）2.语言符号的任意性是指（语言符号的物质实体和意义内容之间没有必然联系），即：声音和意义之间没有必然联系的理据关系，在语言符号产生之初，它的声音和意义的结合是任意的，是由社会约定俗成的，它们之间的关系是不可论证的3.语言符号具有可变性的根本原因在于语言符号的（任意性）4.语言符号的强制性是指（个人不能任意改变已经约定的符号）（七）“线性”和“离散”★★★1.语言结构的线性特征：语言符号的结构必须是按照时间顺序成一条线的样子排列。
(完整版)《语言学纲要》知识点整理
《语言学纲要》知识点整理导言1.语言学的研究对象是（语言）。
2.语言学的三大发源地是（中国)(印度）(希腊—罗马).古印度宗教典籍梵文古希腊拉丁语语法学中国文言文典籍小学3.什么是“小学”？分析字形的文字学、研究字音的音韵学、解释字义的训诂学，被视为经学的附庸，统称“小学"。
4.语言学是(19）世纪成为独立的学科的，其标志是（历史语言学）。
第一章语言的功能1.语言的功能是多方面，从宽泛的意义上讲，大致都可归入语言的(）功能和（）功能两个方面。
2.语言的社会功能包括（信息传递功能）和(人际交往功能）。
第二章语言是符号系统1.什么是符号？符号的特点是什么？符号是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号、标记。
甲能代表乙或指称乙，甲就有条件成为乙的符号。
（1）符号的形式和意义是不可分离的，二者的结合才构成符号，没有无意义的符号形式.（2）符号的形式和意义是一般性的。
（3）符号的形式和意义之间没有本质上的、自然属性上的必然联系。
2.为什么说语言具有符号性？1）语言包含形式和内容两方面。
“音“是语言符号的物质表现形式，“义”是语言符号的内容。
2)音义的不可分离性.语言中的语素、词、短语、句子等均有意义,也均有发音。
3)形式指示意义的一般性。
4）形式和意义结合的任意性。
3.如何理解语言符号的任意性？4方面语言符号的任意性指的是,作为符号系统的成员，单个语言符号的语音形式和意义之间没有自然属性上的必然联系，只有社会约定的关系。
1）同一意义，在不同语言中的语音形式不同.举例略。
2)同一意义，在同一语言不同历史时期的语音形式不同。
举例略。
语言符号在形成初始，音与义的结合是不可论证的,在社会交际过程中自然形成。
但一旦形成，全体成员必须遵守,任何人都无权擅自改动。
也即初始的任意性,使用的强制性。
4.什么是语言符号的线条性?语言符号在使用中以符号序列的形式出现，符号只能一个跟着一个依次出现，在时间的线条上绵延，不能在空间的面上铺开.5.（组合关系）和(聚合关系）是语言系统中最基本、最根本的结构关系。
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Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性）Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence（抽象）Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance（具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。
7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue（抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole（具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
2.几种观点和现象的提出者：⑴瑞士语言学家F.de Saussure :Langue和parole的区别⑵美国语言学家N.Chomsky:in1950针对Saussure’s langue&parole提出Competence和performance⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家Sapir---language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.Hall----language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.Chomsky---from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.⑷美国语言学家Charles Hockett :提出了语言的识别特征design features3.the word ’language’ preceded by the zero-article ,it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language.Language一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。
4.in order to discover the nature of the underlying language system ,what the linguists has to do first if to study language facts.nguage is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facts, so it's hardly possible for the linguistics to deal with it all at once. 判断题6.Frist drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in languages.最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。
三、问答题1.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?Phonetics----it’s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.Morphology---It’s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language. Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words.Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.2.why do we say language is arbitrary?Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, it’s only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance.A typical example to illustrate the ‘arbitrariness’ of language is ‘a rose by any other name would smell as sweet’.3. what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spokenlanguage date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。