语言学第一二章知识点
(精品)《语言学概论》复习知识点——汇总83
语言学概论复习知识点考题样题单项选择第一章1.公元前四世纪，古印度人波你尼编成的梵语语法书是（A）。
A.《波你尼语法》B.《语法术》C.《尔雅》D.《语言哲学》2.生成语法的创立者是（C）。
A.雅各布逊B.特鲁别茨柯依C.乔姆斯基D.布龙菲尔德3.公元前一世纪，古希腊人特拉斯写成古希腊语语法书是（B）。
A.《波你尼语法》B.《语法术》C.《说文解字》D.《语言学》第二章4.句子的语调属于（A）。
A.语言B.言语C.说话D.句法5.下列材料，属于聚合关系的是（D）。
A. 红得很B.我们的祖国C.啪地一声D.就、只、都、刚6.下列材料，属于组合关系的是（B）。
A.–er –ment –ness -enB.热爱党C.[g k x ŋ]D.就、只、都、刚第三章7.下列哪一组音是前元音? (B)。
A.[o a]B.[a e]C.[a u]D.[o u]8.在英语中spill的p[p]和pill的p[p h]发音不同，但说英语的人认为它们是一样的，这说明p[p]、p[p h]在这些词中是（B）。
A．同一音位的典型变体 B．同一音位的条件变体C．同一音位的自由变体 D．不同的音位9.汉语中的“天气”[t h ian ŋh i]读成 [t h anŋh]，发生的语流音变是（D）。
A.异化B.同化C.弱化D.脱落10.下列辅音中属于塞音的是(C)。
A.[f]B. [pf]C. [c]D. [R]11.下列辅音中属于舌叶-齿龈音的是（B）。
A.[n]B. [ŋ]C. [ŋ]D. [x]12.下列辅音中属于送气音的是（A）。
A.[ts h]B. [h]C. [ŋ]D. [x]第四章13.汉语词“阿姨”的“阿”是（A）。
A.附加语素B.词根语素C.词头D. 构形语素14.俄语“сделать”（做）中的“с-”是一个（C）。
A. 词根B. 词尾C. 词头D. 后缀15.英语“worker”、“meat”两个词是（B）。
语言学教程[第一章语言学导论]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
![语言学教程[第一章语言学导论]山东大学期末考试知识点复习](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/948fb3732b160b4e777fcf0b.png)
第一章语言学导论复习笔记Ⅰ．语言的定义语言是人类以口头交流的任意的符号系统。
该定义揭示了语言的五个要素：系统，任意，口头，符号，人类。
Ⅱ．语言的定义特征语言的定义特征是人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点。
1．任意性任意性是语言的核心特征，是指符号的形式或者声音与意义之间没有逻辑或内在联系。
虽然语言从本质上讲是任意的，但也不是完全任意的。
一些词语，例如一些拟声词的发音与其意义还是有一定联系的。
2．二重性二重性是指拥有两层结构的这种属性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。
二重性只存在于这样的系统之中，既有元素又有它们组合成的单位。
3．创造性创造性指语言的能产性，它能够使人造出和理解无穷的长句，其中很多句子是以前从未听过的。
4．移位性移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、事件和观点。
移位性赋予人们的概括和想象力使人类受益无穷。
5．文化传递性语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6．互换性互换性是指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
Ⅲ．语言的起源1．圣经的记载语言是上帝的恩赐。
2．“汪汪”理论语言是模仿自然的声音，例如动物的叫声，如 (鸭子)的刮刮声，嘎嘎声，布谷鸟的叫声。
3．“噗噗”理论语言来源于人本能的情感声音，表达疼痛或喜悦。
4．“哟一嘿一吼”理论语言起源于原始人共同劳动时发出的有节奏的哼哟声。
5．进化理论语言起源于劳动的过程，满足了社会的需求。
Ⅳ．语言的功能1．信息功能语言用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理。
信息功能是语言最重要的功能，一般出现在陈述句中。
2．人际功能人际功能是语言最重要的社会功能。
人们由此建立和维持他们的身份和社会地位。
3．施为功能语言的施为功能主要是用来改变人的社会地位，例如在婚礼、判刑，为孩子祈福和在首航仪式上为船命名、诅咒敌人。
在这些言语行为中，语言通常是非常正式的，甚至是仪式化的。
(完整word版)语言学概论知识点
导言、第一章、第二章一、名词解释1、历时语言学-—就各种语言的历史事实用比较的方法去研究它的“亲属”关系和历史发展的，叫历时语言学。
2、语言——语言是一种社会现象,是人类最重要的交际工具和进行思维的工具。
就语言本身的结构来说,语言是由词汇和语法构成的系统.3、符号——符号是用来代表事物的一种形式，词这样的符号是声音和意义相结合的统一体。
任何符号都是由声音和意义两方面构成的。
4、语言的二层性—-语言是一种分层装置,其底层是一套音位；上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列,这一层又分为若干级，第一级是语素，第二级是由语素构成的词，第三级是由词构成的句子。
5、社会现象——语言是一种社会现象和人类社会有紧密的联系.所谓“社会"，就是指生活在一个共同的地域中，说同一种语言，有共同的风俗习惯和文化传统的人类共同体。
语言对于社会全体成员来说是统一的、共同的；另一方面，语言在人们的使用中可以有不同的变异、不同的风格。
二、填空1、结构主义语言学包括布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学三个学派。
2、历史比较语言学是在19世纪逐步发展和完善的，它是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。
3、人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的左半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。
4、一个符号,如果没有意义，就失去了存在的必要，如果没有声音，我们就无法感知,符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。
5、用什么样的语音形式代表什么样的意义,完全是由使用这种语言的社会成员约定俗成。
6、语言符号具有任意性和线条性特点。
7、语言的底层是一套音位，上层是符号和符号的序列，可以分为若干级,第一级是语素,第二级是词，第三级是句子.8、语言系统中的所有符号,既可以同别的符号组合，又可以被别的符号替换,符号之间的这两种关系是组合和聚合。
9、组合是指符号与符号相互之间在功能上的联系，聚合是指符号在性质上的归类。
三、判断正误（正确的打钩，错误的打叉)1、文字是人类最重要的交际工具。
语言学概论复习资料
第一章语言和语言学第一节认识人类的语言一、语言的性质和类型1.只有人类才有语言【领会】语言是人类所独有的。
人类的语言跟动物的“语言”相比较,有几个显著和重要的特点:一是“内容更多”。
多种场合、多种方式、多种内容。
二是“用处更大”。
主要:交际功能。
其它:标志、记录、思维、认知,等等。
三是“能够创造”。
具有离散性,能用有限的声音和意义按照一定规则组配成无限的话语。
2.语言和民族、国家的关系【领会】大多数情况:一个民族使用一种语言。
但不能把“相互能够听懂”作为确定语言的标准,并进一步作为确定民族和国家的标准。
这种理解只适合于欧洲的“新兴民族国家”,对一个历史悠久、幅员辽阔的国家是不适应的。
尽管“语言”是最直观、最容易识别的民族标志,但事实上还不是最可靠的标志。
从目前了解到的情况来看,“共同的历史文化传统和由此产生的民族认同感”也许是维系一个民族的最根本的因素,因而也是确定一个民族的最根本的标准。
3.语言的谱系分类和语言的形态分类【领会】语言的谱系分类就是从“历时”演变角度划分不同的语言,是根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同来源和相似性的大小对语言进行的分类。
也叫“语言的亲属关系分类”。
从语言的“共时”角度来划分不同的语言,可以建立“语言的形态分类”,也叫“语言的结构类型分类”。
可分为“形态语”和“孤立语”,或者分成“综合性语言”和“分析性语言”。
4.语系、语族;屈折语、孤立语;综合性语言、分析性语言【识记】谱系分类层级:语系、语族、(语支)、语言、方言、次方言(土语)。
语系是根据语言有无历史同源关系划分出来的语言类别,是语言谱系中最大的类。
语系的下一级叫作“语族”,同一语族的语言不但有相同的来源,相似点也更多。
形态语(综合性语言)指通过词的形态变化来体现各种结构意义的语言。
包括“屈折语、黏着语”等小类。
如俄语、维吾尔语。
孤立语(分析性语言)指没有形态变化的语言。
如汉语。
屈折语主要是句子中某些词本身有丰富的形态变化,是形态语中的一个小类。
语言学概论自学考试 知识点总结 详细版
第一章语言和语言学第一节认识人类的语言1.人类的语言跟动物的“语言”相比较，有哪些显著特点？P50（1）“内容更多”。
人在各种场合都可以说话；人也可以用各种方式说话；人还可以说各种各样的话。
（2）“用处更大”。
交际功能；标志功能；记录功能；思维功能；认知功能。
（3）“能够创造”。
人类的语言有极强的生成能力和极高的运转效率；其他动物无论自身多么完善，都无法做到这一步。
人类与其他动物区别最重要的标志就是人类具有语言能力，只有人类才有语言。
2.为什么不能以“相互能听懂”为标准来区别方言和语言？P51-52【简】单以“相互能够听懂”为标准来确定方言和语言不但会将复杂的问题简单化，而且很可能会在政治上引起严重后果。
如果单凭这一条标准来衡量，则英国人、美国人、澳大利亚人，加拿大人等，说话相互能听懂，因此他们所说的话就都应视为英语的“方言“才对，然而这样处理，他们在民族感情上是不能接受的。
另外，北欧的瑞典，挪威，丹麦三个主权国家的语言差别很小，相互都能听懂，如果按“相互能听懂”来处理，这三个国家使用的就是同一种语言，至少是同一种语言的各个方言，但这三个国家又是不同的民族，应当承认他们使用的是不同的语言。
因此，不能以“相互能够听懂“为标准来区别方言和语言。
3.简述“语言的谱系分类”和“语言的形态分类”P53【名/简】不同的语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面有所不同，根据这些特点可以将语言分为“语言的谱系分类”和“语言的形态分类”。
1)从语言“历时”演变角度来划分不同的语言，就可以建立“语言的谱系分类”，也叫“语言的亲属关系分类”。
根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同的来源和相似性的大小对语言进行的分类，就是语言的谱系分类。
2)从语言“共时”状态角度来划分不同的语言，就可以建立“语言的形态分类”，也叫做“语言的结构类型分类”。
4.语言的谱系分类是个层级系统，从大到小分别是：P53语系——语族——（语支）——语言——方言——次方言（土语）5.“语言”和“言语”P54 【名/简】“语言”—说话使用的工具（比如英语、汉语）。
语言学概论 (00541)知识点汇总(第一章)
语言学概论（00541）知识点汇总第一章语言和语言学（一）语言和民族、国家的关系★★1.一个民族使用一种语言，这种说法（不正确）2.一般而言，一个民族使用同一种语言，语言是民族的重要标志3.同一民族使用多种语言，不同民族使用同一语言的现象客观存在。
语言不是识别民族的可靠标志（二）语言特点和语言类型★★★1.从语言历时演变角度来划分不同的语言，可以建立语言的（谱系分类）2.与英语亲缘关系最近的是（德语），都属于印欧语系-日耳曼语族3.根据语言是否有形态变化，可以分为分析性语言即（孤立语）和形态语即（屈折语、黏着语）4.汉语属于（分析性语言/孤立语），没有丰富的形态变化，主要由词序和虚词来体现各种结构意义5.德语、俄语属于形态语中的（屈折语），日语、朝鲜语、维吾尔语、芬兰语属于（黏着语）（三）“语言”和“言语”★★1.区分“语言”和“言语”的主要目的是（明确语言学的研究对象）2.（语言）是由有限材料、有限规则组成的系统，是社会的，如“语言能力是每个正常人都具有的”3.（言语）是具体的、无限的、个人的，如《红楼梦》的语言、“法官认为证人说的话可信”中的“话”（四）“口语”和“书面语”★★★1.口语就是有声的口头语言，任何一种语言都有口头存在形式，它是书面语产生的基础。
2.书面语：是用文字记录的语言形式，是文字产生后在口语的基础上产生的，书面语是经过加工、提炼和发展了的口语的书面形式。
3.书面语与口语基本一致，但不是口语绝对忠实的记录，也不是口语的机械记录和重复。
（五）“能指”和“所指”★★★★★1.属于符号的是（语言、文字、红绿灯、旗语）2.符号中能够指称某种意义的成分被称为（能指），符号所指的意义内容是（所指）3.语言符号的能指是（语音），语言符号的所指是（意义）4.首先提出“能指”和“所指”这对概念的语言学家是（索绪尔）5.能指和所指的关系是（不可分割）的，一旦分开，语言符号就不存在了。
（六）“约定”和“任意”★★★★★1.交通信号灯中红灯表示“停”的意思，红灯和“停”之间的关系是（约定的）2.语言符号的任意性是指（语言符号的物质实体和意义内容之间没有必然联系），即：声音和意义之间没有必然联系的理据关系，在语言符号产生之初，它的声音和意义的结合是任意的，是由社会约定俗成的，它们之间的关系是不可论证的3.语言符号具有可变性的根本原因在于语言符号的（任意性）4.语言符号的强制性是指（个人不能任意改变已经约定的符号）（七）“线性”和“离散”★★★1.语言结构的线性特征：语言符号的结构必须是按照时间顺序成一条线的样子排列。
(完整版)《语言学纲要》知识点整理
《语言学纲要》知识点整理导言1.语言学的研究对象是（语言）。
2.语言学的三大发源地是（中国)(印度）(希腊—罗马).古印度宗教典籍梵文古希腊拉丁语语法学中国文言文典籍小学3.什么是“小学”？分析字形的文字学、研究字音的音韵学、解释字义的训诂学，被视为经学的附庸，统称“小学"。
4.语言学是(19）世纪成为独立的学科的，其标志是（历史语言学）。
第一章语言的功能1.语言的功能是多方面，从宽泛的意义上讲，大致都可归入语言的(）功能和（）功能两个方面。
2.语言的社会功能包括（信息传递功能）和(人际交往功能）。
第二章语言是符号系统1.什么是符号？符号的特点是什么？符号是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号、标记。
甲能代表乙或指称乙，甲就有条件成为乙的符号。
（1）符号的形式和意义是不可分离的，二者的结合才构成符号，没有无意义的符号形式.（2）符号的形式和意义是一般性的。
（3）符号的形式和意义之间没有本质上的、自然属性上的必然联系。
2.为什么说语言具有符号性？1）语言包含形式和内容两方面。
“音“是语言符号的物质表现形式，“义”是语言符号的内容。
2)音义的不可分离性.语言中的语素、词、短语、句子等均有意义,也均有发音。
3)形式指示意义的一般性。
4）形式和意义结合的任意性。
3.如何理解语言符号的任意性？4方面语言符号的任意性指的是,作为符号系统的成员，单个语言符号的语音形式和意义之间没有自然属性上的必然联系，只有社会约定的关系。
1）同一意义，在不同语言中的语音形式不同.举例略。
2)同一意义，在同一语言不同历史时期的语音形式不同。
举例略。
语言符号在形成初始，音与义的结合是不可论证的,在社会交际过程中自然形成。
但一旦形成，全体成员必须遵守,任何人都无权擅自改动。
也即初始的任意性,使用的强制性。
4.什么是语言符号的线条性?语言符号在使用中以符号序列的形式出现，符号只能一个跟着一个依次出现，在时间的线条上绵延，不能在空间的面上铺开.5.（组合关系）和(聚合关系）是语言系统中最基本、最根本的结构关系。
简明语言学概论知识点集总
语言学第一章1. Linguistics is generally known as a systematic and scientific study of language.2. The study of language as a whole is what we call general linguistics which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models, and methods applicable in any linguistic study.3. There are five core areas or main branches of linguistics, namely, phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics.4. Phonetics refers to the study of the nature, production, and perception of speech sounds.5. Phonology is the study of the sound systems of individual languages and of the nature of such systems generally.6. Morphology concerns the internal structure of words and interrelationships among words. And it studies the minimal units of meaning—morphemes and word formation rules.7. Syntax is the study of grammatical relations between words and other units within the sentence.8. Semantics refers to the study of meaning of language.9. Pragmatics (语用学) is also concerned with the study of meaning and emphasizes the study of meaning in context.10．Sociolinguistics refers to the study of language in relation to society.11. Psycholinguistics refers to the study of language in or from the viewpoint of psychology.12. Cognitive linguistics（认知语言学）emphasizes the continuity of language with the workings of the mind in general and seeks to ground a theory of language in accounts of cognition.13. If a linguistic study describes and analyses the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.14. If a linguistic study aims to prescribe what is judged to be correct, it is said to be prescriptive.15. The synchronic study of a language means the description of a particular “state”of that language, and an account of its structure either at present or at some specific moment in the past, considered in abstraction from its history.16. Diachronic study of a language means the description of its historical development“through time”.17. Langue refers to the linguistic competence of the speaker, i.e. the abstract linguistic systems shared by all members of a speech community.18. Parole refers to the phenomena or data of linguistics, i.e. the realization of language in use.19. Competence refers to a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.20. Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.21. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.22. Design features: a number of defining properties that distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.23. Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between linguistic form and its corresponding meaning.24. Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structure, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.25. Creativity refers to the creative power of language. The power or resourcefulness of human language is due to its property of duality and its recursiveness.26. Displacement means that human language can talk about objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment communication.27. Cultural transmission refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker.第二章音系学1. Pharyngeal cavity: glottisOral cavity: tongue, teeth, lips, alveolar ridge, hard palate, velum, uvularNasal cavity2. In phonetics, the tongue is divided into five parts: the tip, the blade, the front, the back, and the root.3. The majority of sounds used in languages of the world are produced by pulmonic egressive airstream mechanism.4. /p/, /t/, /k/, /s/, /s/-plural, /t/-past-tense are voiceless sounds; /z/-plural, /d/-past-tense are voiced sounds.5. Broad transcription: it is a kind of phonetic transcription with letter-symbols only. The transcription with letter-symbol together with diacritics is what we call narrow transcription.6. Differences between consonants and vowels:(1) A consonant is produced with a partial or complete air flow obstruction in the oralcavity, while a vowel is produced without such an obstruction.(2) All the vowels in English are oral, but some of the consonants are oral and some are nasal.(3) All vowels are voiced, but consonants can be voiced or voiceless.7. Coarticulation(协同发音) refers to simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.8. A phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment, which refers to the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication.9. A phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit, it is a unit of distinctive value. It is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.10. aspirated 送气的unaspirated 不送气的unreleased 没有完全送气的/p/ is a phoneme in the English sound system, and it can be realized differently as aspirated and unaspirated in different contexts.11. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones of that phoneme. (音位变体: 无意义变化)12. Phonemic contrast(音位对立)：If phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast. /p/ and /b/ in /pit/ and /bit/ (意义有变化)13. Complementary Distribution (互补分布)：If they are allophones of the same phoneme, they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution. So the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.14. Minimal Pair (最小对立体)：When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.15. /p/ /b/ /t/ /k/ /d/ /g/ are phonemes in English. All these sound combinations together constitute a minimal set./i:/ /i/ /e/ /u:/ /ei/ /ai/ /au/ are phonemes.16. Phonological Rules:(1) A—B/CA changes toB under the condition C.(2) A—B/__C(3) A—B/C__Nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are typical phonological processes t hat can be represented by the following rules17. Suprasegmental features (超分段特点) refer to those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.18. syllable (σ) = onset+nucleus+codaCV(C)19. The maximal onset principle:English permits at most three consonants to form an onset.According to the maximal onset principle, the maximal sequence t hat occurs at the beginning of a word in English is a three consonant cluster that begins with “s”. The second could be any of the three voiceless stops p, t, or k, and the third consonantcould be any of the three approximants l, r, or w.20. Pitch, length, and loudness are components of stress. In English, there are three levels of stress are recognized. They are primary, secondary, and unstressed.第三章词法学1. The open-class words are those belonging to the major part of speech classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs), which in any language tend to be large and “open-ended”. Closed-class words are those belonging to grammatical, or function classes (such is articles, prepositions, conjunctions), which in any language tend to include a small number of fixed elements.2. Morphemes are the minimal units of word building in a language; they cannot be broken down any further into recognizable or meaningful parts.3. Morphemes are categorized into two classes: free morphemes and bound morphemes.4. A free morpheme can stand alone as an independent word in a phrase, such as the word table in John sat at the table.5. A bound morpheme cannot stand alone but have to be attached to another morpheme.6. Certain bound morphemes are known as affixes. The morphemes that can only occur before other morphemes are called prefixes, and after, suffixes.7. The morpheme to which an affix is attached is the base (or stem) morpheme and it can free or bound.8. The morphemes such as –en, -able, and –ize, etc. are called derivational morphemes, as when they are conjoined with morphemes, a new word is derived. (派生词素：后缀一般改变词性前缀一般不改变词性)9. There are also some bound morphemes which are, for most part, grammatical markers, designating such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. They are termed as inflectional morphemes. (曲折词素) Such as –s, -ed, -ing verb endings10. Words fall into two general classes, simple and comlex.11. The creation of new words(1) Coinage (创造)Coinage refers to the process in which previously nonexistent words keep entering a language.(2) BlendingBlending refers to the new words that are formed from existing ones by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining theinitial parts of the two words.(3) ClippingClippings refer to “clipped”abbreviations such as ad for advertisement, fax for facsimile, etc. (cutting the final part, cutting the initial part, cutting both the initial and final parts) There are also orthographic abbreviations such as Dr. for doctor, where the pronunciation remains the same.(4) Acronyms (词首字母缩略词)Acronym refers to a word that is made up from the first letters of the name of anorganization.(5) Back-formation (逆构词法）Back-formation refers to the very type of word-formation where a new word is formed by subtracting or deleting an affix thought to be part of the word. It is also called inverse derivation.(6) BorrowingDirect borrowing: words are borrowed directly from another language.Indirect borrowing: it occurs when an expression in one language is translated literally into another language.(7) Semantic change (语义改变)Change in part of speech; metaphorical extension; broadening; narrowing; semantic shift; reversal.(8) Changing in part of speechGrammatical category of words can be changed through time.(9) Metaphorical extensionWhen a language does not have the right expressions for certain purposes, speakers often take an existing meaning and extend it in a recognizable way. Though a new word is not created as such, a new usage has entered the vocabulary. (ship, navigation, sailing, floating, captain)(10) BroadeningBroadening refers to another way a meaning of a word can be extended besides metaphorical extension.(11) NarrowingConversely, the meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.(12) Meaning shift(13) ReversalsReversals of meaning can occur when words are used to mean the opposite of their original meaning.(14) CompoundsA compound refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, laptop, etc. (词性一般由后面的词决定)Generally speaking, the part of speech of the whole compound is the same as the part of speech of the rightmost member of the compound, which is termed as the head of the compound.第四章句法学1. A description of the grammar of any natural language, therefore, requires us to recognize that all words in that language belong to a restricted set of grammatical categories. In English, noun, verb, adjective, and adverb, etc. are different categoriesof words as each category shares a set of common grammatical properties. The grammatical categories are morphological and syntactic.2. Lexical categories refer to words traditionally termed as contentives, or content words. They include noun, verb, preposition, adjective, and adverb.3. Functional categories, or function words, functors, refer to words that serve primarily to carry information about the grammatical function of particular types of expressions within the sentence. They include particle (小品词), auxiliary (助动词), determiner (限定词), pronoun (代词), and complementizer (补足语).4. Contentives usually have obvious descriptive content. Functors have no descriptive content, but functional content.5. According to Andrew Radford, if a word has an antonym, it is a contentive.6. Determiner refers to a word like a/the/this/that which is typically used to modify a noun, but which has no descriptive content of its own. There are two kinds of determiners, quantifying determiners and referential determiners. Quantifying determiners are determiners like all/some which denote quantity, and referential determiners are determiners like the/this/that/my which are used to introduce referring expressions. (det)7. Determiners can not only be used to modify a noun expression, but can also be used on their own. Such determiners are traditionally categorized as pronouns. Pronominal determiners.8. Auxiliary refers to items such as will/would/can/could/shall/may/might/must/ought. (AUX)9. Auxiliary differs from verbs in a number of ways. P6110. Infinitive particle behaves like functors such as an auxiliary. (I)11. A complementizer refers to a special kind of word which is used to introduce complement clauses. (finite clause & infinite clause)12. Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, is the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents—word groups, which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.13. IC analysis emphasizes the function of the intermediate level—word group, seeinga hierarchical structure (纵向结构) of the sentence as well.Advantages: Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, and ambiguities, if any, will be revealed.Problems: (1) Problems exist as to the segmentation of a construction, i.e. dividing a sentence i nto its constituent elements. According to IC analysis, the division is in binary, but it is not always possible. (2) Constructions with discontinuous constituent pose technical problems for tree diagrams in IC analysis.14. Phrase structure grammar is part of the early standard transformational generative grammar (TG grammar). In its classic form, a transformational grammar has a phrase structure grammar in its base component. It is a grammar that assigns to a sentence a type of structure that can be represented by a single phrase structure tree.(a) S—NP +AUX+VP(b) NP—DET+(adj)+NP+(CP)+(PP)(c) VP—V+NP+PP(d) CP—COMP +SThe phrase structure can generate a potentially infinite number of noun phrases. PP—P+NP15. Embedding is one of the ways in which a finite set of rules can generate an infinite number of set of structures.VP—V+S16. Right branching: prepositional phrase is located on the right branch of a noun phrase, which is itself on the extreme right branch of a PP. Structures like this general sort are called right branching.17. In the PS rules for possessive n oun phrases, we find a different kind of noun phrase structure with modifier of the noun phrase locating in the opposite direction. NP—Poss+NPoss—NP+Affix18. X-bar theory:An attempt to constrain the set of possible PS rules.The idea is that phrasal categories all have heads that belong to the same category as the phrasal category.The general phrase structure rule for phrasal categories would be XP—X Comp, where X stands for the head of the phrase and Comp stands for complement. The rule schema captures another generalization of English syntax that the head of a phrase is to the left of its complement.19. Specifiers (指示语): Specifiers refer to the elements that occur before the head (a determiner, a quantifier, and so on).It occurs at the left boundary of their respective phrases. They are attached to the top level of phrase structures, to the left of the head.20. Complements:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed subcategorization. A certain lexical item requires a certain type of complement. Complement clause can be introduced by a functional word termed complementizer.CP complement phraseThe construction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called a matrix clause.X-phrase—(specifier)(mod)X(complement)(mod)21.Infl P(=S)=NP(specifier)+Infl(tense/an auxiliary)+VP(complement)22. Auxiliary (or Head) MovementAuxiliaries hold the position of Infl, thus become the head of each sentence.The inversion rule is stated as follows: move Infl to C of CPHead to head movement: applying the inversion rule and moving the auxiliary verbs from the Infl position to the C position of CP, correct derivations of the yes-no“e”.question can easily be achieved. Trace is usually marked by a symbol23. Do-insertionDo insertion inserts interrogative do into an empty Infl position.Move the interrogative do into the C position.24. Wh-movementAn Aux-movement rule is applied first to move the auxiliary in the head C position of CP, and then a raising rule is applied to move the wh-word from the complement position of the VP to the specifier of CP position, the initial position of sentence.25. Particle movementGiven a verb+particle construction, the particle may be shifted away from the verb, moved immediately to the right of the object noun phrase, and attached to the VP mode.26. C-COMMAND:constituent commanda c-commandsb if a does not dominate b and everyc that dominates a also dominatesb.C-command refers to the relation between an element and another of the same level and under the same node in a tree diagram, and any others under the latter element as well.B c-commands C, E, F, but not D, which is dominated by B; andC c-commands B, D, but not E, F. Since there is no branching at B code,D may be raised to B ’s position, and has the same c-command relations as B.Conditions:It must be a head.It must be related to the other directly, not interrupted by any third element.27. Binding TheoryBinding refers to the relation between a quantifier and a variable, that is, a variable is bound by a quantifier.In the generative approach, binding refers to the relation between different referring word and the subject of a sentence containing it.The term anaphor is used to include only reflexives like myself and reciprocals like each other.CA BAB CE FDA.An anaphor is bound in its governing category.B. A pronominal is free in its governing category.C.An r-expression is free.第五章语义学1. Linguistic meaningLanguage mteaning--Dialect meaning—regional/socialidiolect meaning2. Speaker meaningLiteralNonliteral--irony sarcasm metaphor3. The denotational theory of meaning: the meaning of each expression is the object it denotes, its denotation.4. naming theory: if one focuses on some expressions in a language, one is likely to conclude that their meaning is the thing they refer to.5. Mentalist theory of meaning: the meaning of each expression is the idea associated with that expression in the minds of speakers.Meaning as imagesMeaning as concepts6. Concept theory (or triangle theory)According to the theory, there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. The meaning is obtained through the mediation of concepts in mind.7. Homonymy is the name for unrelated senses of the same phonological word. Homography: senses of the same written word.Homophony: senses of the same spoken word.8. Both homonymy and polysemy deal with multiple senses of the same phonological word, but polysemy is invoked if the senses are judged to be related.。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性）Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence（抽象）Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance（具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。
7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue（抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole（具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
2.几种观点和现象的提出者：⑴瑞士语言学家F.de Saussure :Langue和parole的区别⑵美国语言学家N.Chomsky:in1950针对Saussure’s langue&parole提出Competence和performance⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家Sapir---language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.Hall----language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.Chomsky---from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.⑷美国语言学家Charles Hockett :提出了语言的识别特征design features3.the word ’language’ preceded by the zero-article ,it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language.Language一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。
4.in order to discover the nature of the underlying language system ,what the linguists has to do first if to study language facts.nguage is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facts, so it's hardly possible for the linguistics to deal with it all at once. 判断题6.Frist drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in languages.最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。
三、问答题1.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?Phonetics----it’s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.Morphology---It’s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language. Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words.Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.2.why do we say language is arbitrary?Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, it’s only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance.A typical example to illustrate the ‘arbitrariness’ of language is ‘a rose by any other name would smell as sweet’.3. what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spokenlanguage date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。