(完整版)英语语言学概论面子理论
面子论TheFaceTheory
Face
Timage
（个人形象）
Positive face (积极面子）
Negative face （消极面子）
Positive face
Positive face: the positive consistent self-image that people have and want to be appreciated and approved of by at least some other people.
• ( 2 ) “今晚我可以借用一下你的唱机吗 ? ”一个人对他的邻 居说道。“当然可以。你也想听 听 音 乐 吗 ? ” “ 不 , ” 他 回 答道, “今晚我想安安静静地休息一下。”
2 .威胁听话人的积极面子而产生的幽默
• ( 3 ) 妻子问丈夫: “你是喜欢我的温柔可爱呢, 还是我的聪 明美丽?”丈夫答: “我就喜欢你的这种幽默感! ”
威胁说话人的消极面子
7：麻 雀 问 乌 鸦 : “你 是什 么 鸟 ? ” 乌 鸦 说 : “我 是 凤凰 。” 麻 雀 : “有 你 这 么 黑 的 凤凰 ? ” 乌 鸦 白 了 麻 雀 一 眼 说 :“我是烧锅炉的凤凰! ”
损害说话人的积极面子
8：一 天 回 家 , 四 个 孩 子正 在 吵 闹 。 太 太 见 我 回 来 很 高兴 : “你 终 于 回 来 了 。 ” 我 以 为孩 子 们 怕 我 。 谁 知 太 太 接 着 说 :“家 中 只 有 你 听 话 , 乖 ! 快 去 帮我买袋盐。”
Thank you!
What is politeness?
• Politeness is showing awareness of another person’s face.(Brown and Levinson)
英语语言学概论期末复习【通用】.docx
第一章绪论1.1什么是语言1.2语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。
（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。
这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。
1.3语言的起源1.4语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。
将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。
法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。
汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。
1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。
汉语是典型的孤立语。
（2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。
在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。
日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。
（3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。
英语是不太典型的屈折语。
（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。
因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。
根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等1.5语言的功能1.5.1 一般功能1.5.2元功能（metafunction）1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）1.7语言学中的重要区分（1）语言（langue）和言语（parole/langage）索绪尔对语言和言语作出了区分。
面子理论在高中英语教学中的应用
学生不愿意 或不会回答 问题时，会 感到丢了面 子，从而产生 抵 触情绪而挫 伤学习的积 极性。因此 ，老师在提 问时应该尽量 避 免用命令的 语气，而最 好用委婉的 语气。如老 师让学生读句 子 Read the sentence.如果改为Would you like to read the sentence? 这 样平易的商量的语气和态度,学生没有任何压力并且会感到亲切, 这就维护了 学生的面子 ，能在很大 程度上提高 学生的参与的 热 情，拉近了师生之间的距离。
3 . 评价 评 价是 英 语课 程的 重要 组 成部 分， 包 括正 面评 价 和负 面 评价，肯定 和赞扬属于 正面评价， 是对学生积 极面子的维护 。 批评 和建 议 属于 负面 评价 ，是 对 学生 积极 面子 和消 极 面子 的 侵害。在课 堂教学中， 老师应该对 学生多给予 肯定和赞扬， 多 加以正面的 引导和激励 。通过评价 ，让学生在 学习英语的过 程 中不断体验 进步与成功 ，认识自我 ，建立自信 ，从而不断调 整 学习策略， 促进自主创 新能力、语 言运用能力 的全面发展。 因 此，适当的表扬对学生学习英语是大有裨益的。 批评 容易损害学生 的面子，使 他们产生情 绪和情感上的 波 动,甚至会影 响到学习的效果。老 师在批评学生的时候 ，既要使 批评产生预 期的效果， 又要顾及学 生的面子， 这就要求老师 在 批评的时候 讲究方法， 讲究策略以 减少对学生 面子的威胁， 有 利于老师更 好的展开工 作。因此老 师要适当， 合理地在批评 中 夹入表扬和建议，将学生面子的受损程度降到最低。 二、总结 总之 ，面子是营造 良好的课堂 教学气氛， 内化学生学习 动 机，保障教 学质量的重 要因素。作 为老师，要 想使课堂活动 顺 利进行，就 必须利用得 体的语言来 维护学生的 面子，多鼓励 少 批评，充分调动学生学习的积极性, 对促进学生全面发展具有重 要意义。 参考文献 [1 ]何 兆 熊.新 编 语用 学 概 要[ M ].上 海 :上 海外 语 教育 出 版 社,2000. [2]何 自然.语用 学与 英语学 习[M ].上海:上 海外语 教育出 版 社,1997. [3]Br own, P.& Levinson, S. Some Univer sa ls in Language
语言学教程Face theory
面子论
Introduction
In 1978,Brown and Levinson published the book Politeness:Some Universals in Language Usage（礼貌： 语言使用中的一些共性）, in which they developed Goffman's (1976) notion of face into the well-known Face Theory(FT for short).
Penelope Brown
Stephen C. Levinson
Introduction
In their view, politeness was the various rational behaviors of a Model Person to satisfy his face wants. A Model Person had two special properties--rationality and face.
Rationality（理性）: The application of a specific mode of reasoning-what Aristotle(1969) called ‘practical reasoning’（实用主义） -which guarantees inferences from ends or goals to means that will satisfy those ends.
有些言语行为具有固定的威胁面子的性质,本身会威胁到 面子，这些行为被称作“威胁面子行为”。
“Face ”in Chinese culture
The conception of face in Chinese culture is different from Brown and Levinson’s definition. Brown and Levinson declare that face is the selfimage in social life. It is obviously that they put great emphasis on individual. What they call FATs are those that threaten the face of the speaker or hearer. 中国人的脸，不但可以洗，可以刮，并且可以丢，可以赏，可以留。 —林 语堂 要脸，赏脸，丢脸，争脸，爱面子，丢面子，留面子，碍面子，有面子， 争面子，讲情面，不要脸，无脸见人，撕破脸皮，翻脸不认人，打肿脸充 胖子，不看僧面看佛面，死要面子活受罪。 阿Q 孔已己 饿死事小 失节事大
礼貌2--面子理论
Positive Face Threatening Acts:
speaker or hearer does not care about their interactor’s feelings, wants, or does not want what the other wants
Positive face is threatened when the
positive face： is "the desire (in some respects) to be approved of." 正面面子（积极面子）指希望得到别人的赞 同、喜爱以及认同。
Face- Threatening Acts (FTA)
According to Brown and Levinson, some illocutionary acts speakers perform are intrinsically face-threatening acts (FATs) because they run contrary to either their own face wants or others of their hearers.
2. An act that expresses some positive future act of the speaker toward the hearer. In doing so, pressure has been put on the hearer to accept or reject the act and possibly incur a debt. Examples: offers, and promises.
face is “means the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself or herself, or the emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize." In their view, face is divided into two categories: positive face and negative face.
语言学教程Face theory
Constitition of Face
Face the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself. It refers to that emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize.
Penelope Brown
Stephen C. Levinson
Introduction
In their view, politeness was the various rational behaviors of a Model Person to satisfy his face wants. A Model Person had two special properties--rationality and face.
“Face ”in Chinese culture
In Chinese culture and social life, “脸”or “面子”is used to control and modulate（调节） social acts. We can understand the implication of face as the following: 个人需要不要超过社会给予的身份地位，代表的是个人 从属于社会的价值观。 —顾曰国 Chinese attach more importance to individual’s subordination（从属） to the society, because Chinese culture is collectivity-centered（以集体为中心的）.
VII. 面子论Face Theory
Brown & Levinson 1987: 61
Positive face
(b) Positive face: the positive consistent self-image or “personality” (crucially including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants Positive face represents an individual’s desire to be accepted and liked by others.
Stephen C. Levinson
• Status: Director of The Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics (Germanybased) • Group Affiliation: Language and Cognition Group • Email: Stephen.Levinson@mpi.nl • Professional background: Linguistics, anthropology, cognitive anthropology
Penelope Brown
• • • • • • • Phone: +31 24 352 1441 Fax: +31 24 3521213 E-mail: pbrown@mpi.nl Status: researcher Group affiliation: Acquisition Group Professional background: Linguistic Anthropology, Language Acquisition, Mayan （玛雅语） Indians（印第安人）
(完整版)英语语言学概论--整理
Chapter 1 Language语言1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2. Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in theirnative language.3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and itsmeaning.4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.5. discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in theimmediate situations of its users.7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality ofstructure.8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next throughteaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.1. ★What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. ★What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Duality of structure.7) Interchangeability.3. Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the threefunctional components of adult language?I. Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:1) Instrumental function. 工具功能2) Regulatory function. 调节功能3) Representational function. 表现功能4) Interactional function. 互动功能5) Personal function. 自指性功能6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7) Imaginative function. 想象功能II. Adult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇1. general linguistics and descriptive linguistics (普通语言学与描写语言学) The former deals with language in general whereas the latter isconcerned with one particular language.2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics (共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of thelanguage and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The former copes with languages with a view to establishing atheory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学) The former studies only the structure of language system whereas thelatter deals with everything that is related to languages.5. langue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech communitywhereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6. competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latteris the use of language in concrete situation.7. speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.8. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) People actually says on a certain occasion to acertain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The former describes the horizontal dimension of a languagewhile the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10. verbal communication and non-verbal communication(言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language as a means of transmittinginformation is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1. ★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. ★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.6) Pragmatics. 语用学★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.1. articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2. acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3. auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. consonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where theopening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5. vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6. bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips. [p][b] [m] [w]7. affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates. [t X] [d Y] [tr] [dr]8. glottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9. rounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming a circular opening. [u:] [u] [OB] [O]10. diphthongs (双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.[ei][ai][O i] [Q u][au]11. triphthongs(三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly andcontinuously to a third one. [ei Q][ai Q][O i Q] [Q u Q][au Q]12. lax vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels. All the long vowelsare tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. ★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1) The position of the soft palate.2) The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3) The place of articulation.4) The manner of articulation.2. ★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1) The state of the velum2) The position of the tongue.3) The openness of the mouth.4) The shape of the lips.5) The length of the vowels.6) The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. ★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1) Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3) Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. ★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:1) Voiced.2) Nasal.3) Consonantal.4) Vocalic.5) Continuant.6) Anterior.7) Coronal.8) Aspirated.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1) High.2) Low.3) Front.4) Back.5) Rounded.6) Tense.1. phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.2. allophones (音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.3. phones (单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.4. minimal pair (最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.5. contrastive distribution (对比分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for anotherbrings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6. complementary distribution(互补分布) If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,then they are said to be incomplementary distribution.7. free variation (自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause anychange in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8. distinctive features (区别性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.9. suprasegmental features (超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are knownas suprasegmental features.10. tone languages (声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.11. intonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.12. juncture (连音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units.1. ★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1) Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account forhow they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2) Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries todescribe the regularities of sound patterns.2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1) The two forms are different in meaning.2) The two forms are different in one sound segment.3) The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4. ★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1) Contrastive distribution. Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distribution because substituting [m] for [n] will result in achange of meaning.2) Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] are in complementary distribution because theformer occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3) Free variation. In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/can be said to be in free variation.5. What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features in English?I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred toas segmental features.2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may apply to a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6. What’s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7. ★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1. morphemes (语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2. roots (词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes (词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3. inflectional affixes (屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.derivational affixes (派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4. empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchicallydefined series of constituents.6. immediate constituents(直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction.Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7. morphological rules (形态学规则) The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphologicalrules.8. word-formation process (构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of alreadyexisting linguistic resources.1. ★What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2. How are morphemes classified?1) Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes.2) Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3. ★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a) All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b) All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4. What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero mor ph?a) Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b) Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function and position.a) Functionally:i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b) In term of position:i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6. What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example:a) un- + adj. ->adj.b) Adj./n. + -ify ->v.c) V. + -able -> adj.d) Adj. + -ly -> adv.1. syntagmatic relations (横组关系) refer to the relationships between constituents in a construction.paradigmatic relations (纵聚合关系) refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations (等级关系) refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis(标记法直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers (短语标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing (方括号标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3. constituency (成分关系)dependency (依存关系)4. surface structures (表层结构)refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression, derived from deep structure by transformationalrules.deep structures (深层结构) deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures. 5. phrase structure rules (短语结构规则)are a way to describe a given language's syntax. They are used to break a natural language sentencedown into its constituent parts.6. transformational rules (转换规则)7. structural ambiguity (结构歧义)1. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?They are different from each other in four aspects:1) Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deep structures correspond to the meaningful groupingof sentences.2) Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3) Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings of sentences.4) Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2. Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1) PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2) T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3. What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we st art with surface structures or with deep structures? How differently are theygenerated?To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules) while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).4. What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5. What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1) Syntagmatic relations2) Paradigmatic relations.3) Hierarchical relations.1. Lexical semantics (词汇语义学) is defined as the study of word meaning in language.2. Sense (意义) refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Reference (所指) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.4. Concept (概念) is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5. Denotation (外延) is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression independent of context and situation.6. Connotation (内涵) refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of, a linguistic unit.7. Componential analysis (成分分析法) is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components.8. Semantic field (语义场) The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, within whichwords interrelate and define each other in various ways. The areas are semantic fields.9. Hyponymy (上下义关系) refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.10. Synonymy (同义关系) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11. Antonymy (反义关系) refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12. Lexical ambiguity (词汇歧义)13. Polysemy (多义性) refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14. Homonymy (同音(同形)异义关系) refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.15. Sentence semantics (句子语义学) refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1. What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? And how does he classify semantics?In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2. What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning?1) Object, 2) concept, 3) symbol, 4) user, 5) context.3. What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory of semantic theory in defining meaning of words?4. What are the sense relations between sentences?1) S1 is synonymous with S2.2) S1 entails S2.3) S1 contradicts S2.4) S1 presupposes S2.5) S1 is a tautology, and therefore invariably true.6) S1 is a contradiction, and therefore invariably false.7) S1 is semantically anomalous.1. Speech act theory (言语行为理论)2. Cooperative principle and its maxims (合作原则及其准则)3. Politeness principle and its maxims (礼貌原则及其准则)4. Conversational implicature (会话含义)5. Indirect speech act (间接言语行为)6. Pragmatic presupposition (语用学预设)7. Relevance theory (关联理论)8. Illocutionary act (言外行为)9. (Horn’s) Q-Principle and R-Principle10. Perfrmative verbs (施为句动词)1. Make comments on the different definitions of pragmatics.2. What are the main types of deixis?3. Explain the statement: context is so indispen sable in fully understanding interpreting the speaker’s meaning.4. How are Austin’s and Searle’s speech act theories related to each other?5. What’s the relationship between CP and PP?6. What do you know about presupposition triggers in English? Explain them briefly with examples.7. What is ostensive-referential communication?8. Explain the obvious presupposition of speaker who say each of the following:1) When did you stop beating your wife?2) Where did Tom buy the watch?3) Your car is broken.9. What do you think of the fol lowing statement? “Tom participated in spreading rumors” entails “Tom engaged in spreading rumors”.Chapter 9 话语分析1. text(语篇) = discourse 语篇是指实际使用的语言单位，是一次交际过程中的一系列连续的话段或句子所构成的语言整体。
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Two types of face theory
Brown and Levinson (1987) proposed that there are two kinds of face which are distinguishable yet related: positive face and negative face.
1) face concern dimension:self-face concern, other face concern or mutual face concern.
2 face need dimension :positive face need and negative face need
的行动自由和个人空间。所以发话人使用来暗示对方没有义务非要对
发话人的询问做出答复的方式，给听话人选择的自由，使听话人的负
面面子得到满足。
The reasons for protecting positive and negative face
In terms of positive and negative face needs, individuals in different cultures may also vary in the degree to which they value each of them. Because autonomy and uniqueness are more strongly valued in individualistic cultures than in collectivistic cultures (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Individualists, compared to collectivists, may be more concerned with protecting negative face (TingToomey, 1988). Collectivists, compared to individualists, maybe more concerned with protecting positiv e face (Ting-Toomey, 1988).
面子理论的中英文化差异
同：中英语中都有委婉语来间接表达人们忌讳的现象；人 们在交流中尽量保持礼貌原则，不伤对方的面子。
异：1、中英语对于面子的理解本身就存在差别。事实上 礼貌并非中国特有，全世界每个民族都有其文化背景下的 礼貌规范。只是民族间有着千差万别的表达方式而已。面 子作为其中最重要的一方面也是一样的。和西方的理解不 同，我国学者顾曰国提出了中国的四项礼貌原则特征：尊 重（respectfulness）、谦逊（modesty）、态度热情 （attitudinal warmth）和文雅（refinement）
Brown and Levinson解释说面子是一种情感投资， 它可能会丢失、保持、或得到捍卫。但是，它总 是交往中不断被关注的对象。我们不难发现这一 概念和我们传统文化中的“丢面子”、“给面子” 等概念极为相似。在我们的文化传统中说丢面子 就意味着我们在谈话中受到了羞辱，遭受了尴尬 局面。根据Brown and Levinson的理论，面子就 是公众形象。它可以被分为“正面面子”和“负 面面子”。
Face theory（面子理论）
——12英语2班：丁王婷 陈楠 刘燕妹 庞林艳 高志鹏 翟晓波
面子理论简介
早在 1955 年高夫曼（Goffman）就提出了 “面子（face work）这一概念。高夫曼认为面子 问题的关键就在于交际会话中双方要尽力保护自 己和对方的面子。
1978 年，布朗和莱文森在高夫曼的理论基础 上进一步提出了他们“面子理论”。他们的贡献 就是提出了面子理论跨越不同文化的特点。他们 相信“面子这一抽象概念是具有普遍性的”。 “其中心思想就是要理解相互交往中对不同行为 所采取的策略，而这些行为是建立在人们为了满 足某种需要基础上的”。
Positive face is “the positive consistent self-
image or “personality‟ (crucially including the de
s
-Байду номын сангаас
ire that this selfimage be appreciated and approved
of) claimed by interactions”.
Negative face is “the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to concentration.
例一：A: It's cold today, isn't it? B. Yes, it is.
Face Negotiation Theory
TingToomey's (1988) face negotiation theory is based on the work of Goffman (1959)and Brown and Levinson's (1987) politeness theory. The face negotiation theory is developed to explain the cultural similarities and differences in face concerns as a behavioral guidance for conflict strategies. The theory proposes that there are two conceptual dimensions:
例二：A: Excuse me, Sir, would you like to tell me when would the match begin?
B. It will begin at 8 o'clock.
在例一中，讲话人得到了听话人的同意，他的正面面子得到了满
足。在例二中，当说话人问及比赛何时开始时，他势必要打扰听话人