词汇学笔记文档4
词汇学 _ 《现代汉语词汇》笔记
词汇学 | 《现代汉语词汇》笔记第⼀章绪论词汇学与词汇词汇学：以语⾔中的词汇为研究对象的学科，是语⾔学的分⽀之⼀词汇：语⾔中词语的总和，包括词和固定语固定语：语⾔中可以把词作为构成部分的、同词⼀样作为⼀个整体来运⽤的语⾔单位。
包括熟语和专⻔⽤语词汇学分类普通词汇学（⼀般词汇学）：研究词汇的普遍规律具体词汇学（个别词汇学）：如汉语词汇学、英语词汇学等汉语词汇学汉语历史词汇学：历时发展演变汉语描写词汇学：共时某时现象上古汉语词汇学中古汉语词汇学近代汉语词汇学现代汉语词汇学－本课内容词汇学的产⽣和发展（了解）前身：中国古代语⾔研究三“⼩学”—⾳韵学、训诂学、⽂字学古代语⾔学名著《尔雅》训诂学第⼀本义类词典《⽅⾔》⽤通⾔解释⽅⾔《释名》语⾔考理据《说⽂解字》第⼀本⽂字学书籍字形考理据“五四”—40年代以来词汇研究汉语词汇学建⽴与发展20c50y：汉语词汇学真正建⽴：涌现了⼀批专家与著作，确定研究的对象、任务和范围60y：研究⽅法更新，词语意义的结构70y：引进义素分析法80y：由定性研究逐渐转为定量研究21c初：计量分析主导词汇学研究总体情况词汇学研究内容：以现代汉语词汇为研究对象，研究词的性质、创造和结构、词义内容、词义发展、词的各种关系、词汇划分与关系等现代汉语词汇特点语素以单⾳节为主，词以双⾳节为主，但单⾳节词使⽤频率更⾼多⾳节词主要来源古代汉语：仿佛徘徊犹豫其他语⾔：咖啡巧克⼒沙发词语呈现双⾳化趋势为什么？内在驱动⼒：词义表达复杂化的需求与有限词形之间的⽭盾社会发展：旧词新义、⾳变构词、两个词复合构词语⾳系统简化（避免同⾳）明确表意：新产⽣的双⾳词意义明确；原有单⾳节词部分义项被取代⽽减少审美追求（双⾳节的韵律形式）句法词汇化受外来词影响结果：⻓度增加，表义明确途径单⾳节语素前或后加上辅助性相关成分：眼泪头发⽑笔松⿏⽉亮眉⽑单⾳节语素的前⾯或后⾯添加⼀个不表示具体意义的附加成分：⽼⻁阿姨桌⼦⽯头意义相同、相近或相对的单⾳节语素联合起来使⽤：国家意义寻找⽛⻮⽪肤忘记停⽌单⾳节语素重叠：哥哥妈妈爸爸仅仅静静紧紧星星单⾳节词替换成与原语素⽆关的双⾳节词：眼睛（⽬）筷⼦（箸）匣⼦（椟）⼤腿（股）三⾳节词省略其中⼀个因素照相机—相机外国语—外语电视机—电视四⾳节及其以上的词语缩略：对外贸易—外贸国有企业—国企复合词为主，内部构造与短语⼤体⼀致：并列偏正动宾动补主谓同义词数量多，同⾳语素多：适应不同需要，之间互补，具有多样性和可伸缩性词汇与⾮词汇界限模糊，切词困难语素构词理据性强，即语素义对词义有明显提示作⽤少量语素构成⼤量合成词缺少词形变化成语⼀般由四个⾳节组成⾳节相对⽽⾔较短量词、语⽓词丰富离合词多，使⽤频率⾼叠⾳词多，重叠形式较为丰富词汇学与语⾔学相关学科的关系（了解）与语⾳学：语⾳是语⾔的物质外壳，是词语的存在形式词的意义靠语⾳⼿段来表现，语⾳是词的⾳响形式。
词汇学笔记
课程代码：8268，广东省命题。
作者：胡玉生(本笔记仅适合广东自考生，熟记此笔记则可通过考试。
外省自考生仅供参考。
若考全国题则会超出广东省大纲,故本文参照全国大纲略有增加内容,并注有"另增加"字样。
)NOTES OF ENGLISH LEXICOLOGYC1. A General Survey to English Vocabulary1.1 Lexicology1.1.1 Definition ：Lexicology is a branch of linguistics,inquiring into the origins and m eanings of words.1.1.2 The Nature and Scope：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the m orphologicalstructures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, form ation and usages.1.1.3 The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with amd extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as m orphology, semantics,etym ology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicographay.1.1.4 The reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook,English Lexicology will definitely be benefical for students of English.A good knowledge of m orphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power.The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-m eaning and enable them to organize,classify and st ore words more effectively.The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of m eaning and usage,and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately.A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skils of using reference books and raise theirproblem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study1.2 The Development of English Vocabulary1.2.1 The Indo-European Family of Languages：It is one of the m ain family of languages in the world.Itcontains most European languages（e.g. English, German, French, Spanish, Italian, rusian etc.）and som e Asian languages(e.g. Hindi, Bangali,Urdu,Persian etc.)1.2.2 The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages1.2.2.1 The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Latvian,Russian,Bugarian,Polish,Czech etc.1.2.2.2 The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Sanskrit,Hindi,Urdu,Bengali,Persian etc.1.2.2.3 The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.1.2.2.4 The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.1.2.2.5 The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.1.2.2.6 The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguess,Romanian) etc.1.2.2.7 The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Gaelic,Welsh,Breton etc.1.2.2.8 The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：Englsih,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.1.2.3 The Seven Im portant Elements of English vocabulary development1.2.3.1 The Roman Conquest of the British Isles.1.2.3.2 The settlem ent of three Germanic tribes in the British Isles.1.2.3.3 The introduction of Christianity into England.1.2.3.4 The Scandinavian invasions.1.2.3.5 The Norman Conquest of England（诺曼征服）.1.2.3.6 The Renaissance(文艺复兴).1.2.3.7 The migration of English-speaking people to north America,Australia and South Africa.1.2.4 The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary@1.2.4.1 Old English Period or The Anglo-Saxon Period (OE,450-1100): The dialects of three German tribes is the basic of the establishment of the all national English.At this old English period,the most words are from the Germanic LanguageGroup,only little loan words,and seldom use loan words,often combine two n ative words into a new word to express complicated concepts or things.1.2.4.2 Middle English Period (ME,1100-1500): The Norman Conquest caused the French as the ruling language in England,thus large sums of words were loan into English,and large sums of English native words vanished at the sametime.From then on, English begins the history of borrowing words from other languages.1.2.4.3 Modern English Period (1500-present) The introduction of the printing art（印刷术）into Britain caused the united and steady form of English words established.1.2.5 The rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary and its cause.Neologis ms swept in at a rate much faster than that before World War II,thus caused the rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary. There are three causes:1.2.5.1 Marked progress of science and technology: Since World War II,treamendous new words in all fields of science of technology have been creating to the English vocabulary,such as radioactivity,chain reaction,ballistic missiles,etc.1.2.5.2 Socio-economic,political and cultural changes: New social habits and living conditions necessitate the introduction of new words,such as credit card, teach-in, saleswoman,black studies,open classroom,call-in,roller-hockey etc.1.2.5.3 The influence of other cultures and languages: The development of science and the rapid changes in society caused English borrowed large sums of word from other language,such as mao tai in Chinese,sputnik from Russian,autostrade from Italian, autopista from Spanish.1.3 The Composition of English Vocabulary1.3.1 The Native Element and the Foreign Element of the English Vocabulary1.3.2 The Basic Word-Stock(see1.5.1) and the Specialized Vocabularies(see 1.5.2)1.3.3 The Three Characteristic Features of the English Vocabulary@1.3.3.1 Copious(数量大):The vocabulary,in Webster"s New World English Dictionary（3 rd edition）is 450 thousands,is one of the most abundant language in the world.1.3.3.2Heterogeneous（来源广）:English is a mixed languaged,it’s greatly borrowed words continu ously to make itself be a perfect language in the development of 1500 years,especially in the occupied history.1..3.3 Varied（用法多）:English owns a character that the synoyms is especially rich,and the large loan words enrich the English to express.1.4 Word@1.4.1 Definition: A word may be defined as a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form,with a unity of sound and meaning capable of performing a given syntactic function. Words are also either spoken or written.1.4.2 Sound and Meaning:？？1.4.3 Sound and Form:？？1.5 Classification of English Words According to Different Criteria@1.5.1 By Origin: Native Words and Loan Words1.5.1.1 Native Words:Native words,as known as Anglo-Saxon words,are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. And the main part of words in the English basic word- stock are native words.1.5.1.1.1 The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock:1)All-National character（全民通用性）:words of the basic word stock belong to the people as a whole,not to a limited group.They are not limited to a certain region or to a certain profession.2)Stability（相对稳定性）:The word in the basic word stock are likely to remain unchanged,bececause these words denote the commonest thing necessary to life.This stability,however,is relative,for changes take place in it very slowly,over centuries,in contrast to rapid development of techincal words.3) Productivity（多产性）/Word-forming ability（构词能力）:Basic words are very active in forming new words.For example,the word "hand" can be used to form such phrases as "first hand,hand in hand,to show one"s hand,etc."4) Collocability（可搭配性）/Ability to form collocations（搭配能力）:The great majority of the basic word stock are nativewords.They are the ones used most frequently in everyday speech and writing , although borrowed words are immensely(巨大的) useful in enriching the vocabulary and making the language flexible and resourceful.增加5)Polysymy（多义性）:A ll the words in the basic word-stock are always polysyms,their semantic meaning were changed duaring the development history,thus they became polysyms.1.5.1.1.2 The importance of the basic word stock: It is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.It is the most important part of vocabulary.1.5.1.2 Loan words: are those words which borrowed from other languages.1.5.1.2.1.Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词):borrowed words which have changed their original pronunciation and spelling into English style pronunciation and spelling, and they always are wrongly considered as native words,such cup from Latin cuppa, port from Latin portus.2) aliens（非同化词）: borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling.e.g. decor（装饰）from French,kowtow（叩头）from Chinese.3) translation loans(译借词):words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.A：words translated according to the meaning（意译借词）,e.g. mother longue from Latin lingua materna,long time no see from Chinese haojiumeijian.B：words translated according to the sound （音译借词）,e.g. lama from Tibetian lama,kulak from Russian kyrak,ketchup from Chinese dialect ke-tsiap（番茄酱）.4) semantic loans（借义词）:Words whose meanings are borrowed and whose forms are not borrowed.e.g. dream originally means “happy,music” now borrows the meaning of dream from Scandinavian.1.5.1.2.2. Origins of loan words: from Latin,Greek,French,Scandinavian,German,Italian,Spanish,Portuguese,Arabic,Russian,Janpanese,Chinese.1.5.2 By level of usage:1.5.2.1 Common words（通用词）:Common or popular words are words connected with the ordinary things or activities necessary to everday life.1.5.2.2 Literary words（文学词）(archaic words古典词,poetical words诗歌词);Literary words are chiefly uesd in writing,especially in books written in a more elevated style,in official documents,or in formal speeches.1）archaic words(古典词):Words are no longer in common use,although retained for sepecial purpose.2）poetical words(诗歌词):Words that are traditionally used only in poetry.1.5.2.3 Colloquial words（口语词）:Colloquial words or expressions are used mainly in spoken English,as in con versation among friends and colleagues.1.5.2.4 Slang words（俚语词）:A slang is an unconventional forms uesd many informal communication, it’s of vigorous or taboo(禁忌) nature and it’s used depend on intimacy(亲密的).1.5.2.5 Technical words(terminology):Technical or special words or terminology refer to those words used in various special fields.Every branch of science,every profession or trade,every art and very sort of sports has its own technical terms.1.5.2.6 Jargon（行话）（另增加）:It refers to the special words for the people to used in a certain technology,a field or vocation.1.5.2.7 Argot（黑话）（另增加）:It generally refers to the jargon of criminals.1.5.2.8 Neologis ms（新词语）（另增加）:Neologisms means newly created words or expressions,or words that have taken on new meanings.For exmples,email(elelctronic mail,the sending of messages via computer systems) is a word newly coined against the background of rapid development in in formation technology.The word mouse might exemplifiy the words taking on new meanings: Now a mouse is indispensable for computer users.1.5.3 By notion（概念）: function words and content words.(p.26)1.5.3.1 function words: Function words are characteristics of their grammatical functions.They do not have much lexical mening of their own,and some are have no lexical meang at all. They serve to show the relationship between content word,they are often short words such as determiners, conjunctions, propositions, auxilliaries,articles,and so on.They don’t have much lexical meaning but only serve grammatically.For example,the word “to” in the sentence “He asked her to rest” really means nothing but only serves as an infinitve maker.Characters:1) Function words behave like grammatical signals or functional markers,expressing the kinds of connection between content words. 2) Function words belong to a relatively samll and permanent set of words,in comparison to content words. There are total 154 function words in English.1.5.3.2 content words: Content words are used to name objects,qualities,actions,process or states,etc.and they have independent lexical meaning,they are the nouns,main verbs,adjectives and adverbs of language.1.5.3.3The differences between function words and content words:Content words are quite natural for people to use in different occupations,different places and at different time.They b elong to an open list which is open in the sense that it is indefinitely extendible,and new lexical items are constantly being created,and no one could make a complete list of all the content words in English. However,function words are few in number,they constitute the most frequently used group of words.And the form and word meaning of function words always are not changeable and extendible.Content words as a class are characterized by low frequency of occurrence in comparison with function words.1.5.4 On the morphemic level（P.45,moved from C2）1.5.4.1 Simple words: Those consisting of a single morpheme,such as man,work,king;1.5.4.2 Derived（complex）words: Those which are the result of derivational process,such words are usually consist of free morpheme and one（or more than one) bound morpheme,such as fruitless,fruitful,unfruitful,unfruitfulness;1.5.4.3 compound words: Those which are composed of two or more free morpheme,e.g. deepstructure,spacesuit,forget-me-not, maid-of-all-work.C2. Morphology(词法, 形态学)@Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and word-formation rules.2.1 Open class and closed class（另增加）2.1.1 Open classes(开放性词类): refers to the group of the words in the vocaburary that are individal extendible,we can regulary add new words. They are mostly content words,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives, adverbs etc.They make up the largest part of the vocabulary.2.1.2 Closed classes(封闭性词类):refers to the word in the vocabulary that are relatively stable,with nonew words added to them over a longtime.They are mostly function words,such as article,prepositions, conjunc- tions,etc.They are few in number but most frequently used in a language.2.2 The internal Structure of an English Word（英语单词的内部结构The internal structure of an English word refers to2.2.1 Root,stem,base （see 2.2.5.2）2.2.2 Affix（词缀）: Prefix（前缀）, Suffix（后缀）（2.2.5.2）2.2.3 Morpheme(语素):It refers to the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language,not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.It may be a root,a stem, a prfix or a suffix, and a ending is also a morpheme.A morpheme is the basic element of meaning,can combine number of distinct(独特的)units of meaning.2.2.4 Allomorph(语素变体):An allomorph is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form,but at the same in function and meaning. ie.: - es: in "boses" and “-s" in "banks" are allomorph of the same morpheme"-s".2.2.5 Types of Morphemes2.2.5.1. Free Morpheme: A free m orpheme is one that can stand by itself,e.g. work.2.2.5.2.Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.2.2.5.2.1. Bound root : see below "" root and stem""2.2.5.2.2. Affix(词缀)1)Inflectional Morpheme(or inflectinal affix )(屈折语素/词素)An inflectional m orpheme is always attached to a com plete word only to change the grammatical meaning of the word,without hanging the lexical m eaning as well as the word class of theword.e.g."-ed" in "worked" and "-s" in" books".2)Derivational Morphem e(dirivational affix)(派生语素/词素):A derivational morphem e is always conjoined to other m orphemes to form a new word.It changes the lexical m eaning of the originalmorphem e and usually changes the grammatical class.e.g. “de-” in “desirable” and “-s” in “books”A) prefix: A prefix is a morpheme that occurs before m orphemes.B) suffix: A suffix is a morpheme that occurs after other m orpheme.An adjective suffix（形容词后缀）that is added to the stem, whatever classis belongs to , the result will be an adjective.2.2.5.2.3 root,stem and base（词根、词干和词基）:They are terms used in linguistics to designate(称呼) that part of a words that rem ains when all affixes have been remove d.1) Root: A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word,and it conveys the m ain lexical m eaning of the word.Free root: A root which can stand itself and can be used seperately to form a new word. A word consisting of one free root or one morhpeme is a simple word.e.g., m an,talk,red,etc. A free root is a free m orpheme.Bound root: A root which cannot stand itself and cannot be used seperately,but as an attachm ent to be added to a word to form a new word. such as “tain,ceive”.Bound roots must be used tog ether with other elem ents to form a word, e.g. “con+tain” = “contain”2) Stem: A stem refers to the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional m orpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes.e.g. "worker" in "workers" is a stem.3) Base(词基）:A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added;it m ay also be defined as ""a form to which a rule of word-form ation is applied.""This means that any root or stem can be term eda base.Such as,desirable is a base in undesirable.4) The differences between root,stem,base:A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word,no further analysis.Such as nation is a root in international.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphem es,can be further analyszed,it som etimes could be a root. e.g. desire is a stem in desired.A base is a form to which a rule of word-form ation is applied,it could be a root or a stem.Such as internation is a base in international.2.2.6 Relations among the internal structures1) The difference between a “suffix” and an “ending”:A suffix is a morpheme that occurs after other m orpheme,it"s a part of a word,cannot be cut ,otherwise the word m eaning is changed.Such -er is suffix in worker .But ending is an additional part of a verb which is used to express the changes in tense only,can be cut and the word m eaning is not changed.Such as -s is ending in worders,-ing in working,-ed in agree.2) The difference between a m orpheme and a syllable: A morpheme is not identical with a sylla ble.The form er is a linguistic unit of m eaning while the latter has nothing to do with m eaning. Besides,the syllabic structure of a word and its m orphemic structure often do not correspond.A morpheme may be represented by one syllable, such as in “boy” and“child”, or by two or more syllables,such as in “lady” and “crocodile”.In the word “disagreeable” there are five syllables but three m orphem es.2.3 Word-Form ation(2.3.1-2.3.3 at 45%three m ajor types;2.3.1-2.3.6(72%), 2.3.7-2.3.14 (28%) Word-formation or word-building is that branch of lexicology which studies the patterns on which a language,in this case the English language, coins new words.There are 13 word-formations except loan words and it will be 12 if except neoclassical form ation. Word-formation rules define the scope and m ethods whereby speakers of a language m ay create new words.2.3.1 Composition or Compounding (27%) （复合法）:(p.54)@2.3.1.1 Definition: Compounding consists of com bining two or more words into one which now expresses a single idea and functions as a separate lexical pounding is the m ost productive word-formation process in contem porary English.2.3.1.1.1 Orthographic criterion(书写标准) :Compounds are written in three ways,e.g. solid:airmail;hyphenated:air-conditioning; open: air force, air raid.2.3.1.1.2 Phonological criterion(语音标准) :2.3.1.1.3 Semantic criterion(语义标准) :2.3.1.2 Types of com poundings2.3.1.2.1 noun com pounds e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot2.3.1.2.2 adjective com pounds e.g. acid + head = acid-head2.3.1.2.3 verb com pounds e.g. house + keep = housekeep2.3.2 Affixation or Derivation (17.5%) （派生法或词缀法）@It is a process of form ing new words by the addition of a word element,such as a prefix,suffix,or com bining form,to an already existing word. e.g. :tele- --telephone, telescopeA com bining form is a bound morpheme,which was originally a full word in Latin or Greek,such as auto-（from GK autos self）.2.3.2.1 Prefixation@：It"s the form ation of new words by adding a prefix or c om bing form to the base. e.g. be- adj. -- v. becalm,belittle.2.3.2.1.1 Major living prefixes1)""nagative ""prefixes:un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc.2)""reversative or privative ""prefixes:un-,de-dis etc.3)""pejorative ""prefixes: mis-, m al-, pseudo- etc.4)""degree or size ""prefixes:arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc.5)""attitude ""prefixes:co-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.6)""locative ""prefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc.7)""time and order ""prefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.8)""number ""prefixes:uni-/m ono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc.2.3.2.1.2 Some productive prefixes :anti-,de-,mini-,non-,re-,super-,un-/in-/im-/il-/ir- etc.2.3.2.2 Suffixation@: It"s the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or a combining form to t he base,and usually changing the word-class of the base.e.g. boy n. + -ish -- boyish adj. boy n. + hood -- boyhood n.2.3.3 Conversion or Functional shift (10.5%) （转成法或功能转换法）@It"s a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the additon of an affix.e.g.: invade v. -- invasion n.(deverbal n.), attack v. -- attack n. , eye n. -- eye v.2.3.3.1 noun to verb conversion: e.g. radio n. -- to radio v.2.3.3.2 verb to noun conversion: e.g. cry v. -- cry n.2.3.3.3 adjective to verb conversion:1)intransitive verbs forming:to be, becom e,the quality denoted by the adjcetive.e.g slim adj.-slim v.2)transitive verbs m eaning: ""to cause som eone or something to be,gecom e,the quality denoted by the adjective"".e.g. free adj.--free v.2.3.3.4 adjective to noun converion: e.g. rich adj. -- rich v.2.3.3.5 other conversions : home n.-- adv. , through prep. --adj. , president adv.--adj. , pooh-poohed interj. -- v.He knows all the ins and outs of the whole business. (adv. -- n.)His talk contains too m any ifs and buts. (conj. --n.)2.3.4 Shortening (11%)（缩略法）:It refers to form a new word via shorten words or letters to a new words.2.3.4.1 Acronymy (9%) （首字母拼音法）@The process of form ing new words by joining the initial letters of nam es of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical term s.1). Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: It is a type of shortening,using the first letter of words to form a proper nam e,a technical term, or a phrase; an initialism is pronounced letter by letter. e.g. : BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)2). Acronym (首字母拼读词法):Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the nam e of an organization or a scientific term,etc.Acronym s differ from initialisms in that they are prounced as words rather than as sequences of letters. e.g. : NATO(the North Qtlantic Treaty Organization) pronuouced /`neitou/ but not /`en`ei`ti:`ou/.2.3.4.2 Clipping(2%)(截缩法)@：Clipping refers to a word-form ation process which involes the deletion of one or m ore syllables from a word(usually a noun),which is also availabe in its full form, e.g. plane from airplane,phone from telephone,etc.gym from gymnastics,taxi from taxicab.Clippings may be divided into four main types:1).Back clippings:2).Front clippings:3).Front and back cippings:4).Phrase cippings:2.3.5 Blending (6%) （混成法）@Blending is a process of word-from ation in which a new word is formed by com bining the m eanings and sounds of two words,one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms:e.g. : motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORT RAN2.3.6 Neoclassical Form ation (4%) （新古典词构成法）It denotes the process by which new words are formed from elements derived from Latin andGreek (as in telephone) e.g.:an antibacterial agent produced by bacterial --- bacteriolin, one hundreth of a second--- entisecond2.3.7 Words From Proper Name (2%) （专有名词转成法）It refers to the coinage of common words from proper names.They com e from all sources,from names of scientists,politicians and statesm en,trademarks,place nam es,literature,TV film s,movies, book titles etc. e.g. : sir watt siem ens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）2.3.8 Back-Form ation (1%) （反成法或逆成法）@Back-formation is a term use to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language. e.g. :beggar n. --- to beg, auditor --- to audit, donation - to donate2.3.9 Reduplication or Phrase Compounding (0.5%)（重叠法或短语合成法）It"s a word-formation by which a com pound wo rd s created by the repetition of1) one word like walkie-talkie(对讲机)，go-go;2) two alm ost identical words with a change in the vowe"s such as pingpong;3) two alm ost identical words with a change in the initial consonants ,as in teenyweeny.And m ost of reduplicatives are informal.Miscellaneous (20.5%) （其它类综合）2.3.10 Onomatopoeia拟声法:It"s a word-formation of forming new word by imitating the soundfrom animal and other natural phenomenon.e.g.:bang(砰的一声),jingle(叮当响),ding-dong(叮当作响）2.3.11 Gradation （元音替代法）It"s a word-formation of adding a vowe into the consonants fram e to form a new word.e.g. :s_ng--sing-sang-sung-song,b_r-bear-bore-born/borne-birth-baim-barrow-borrow2.3.12 Morphological Stress （重音变换法）It"s a word-form ation of changing the stress in a word to form a new word,and change the word-class and som etimes change the sem antic m eaning,but not change the spelling form. e.g.: `accentn. -- a`ccent v. , `record n. -- re`cord v.2.3.13 Two-Part Verbs(Phrase verbs) （双词合成法）It"s a word-form ation of com bining a simple verb and an adverbial particle to form a new word. e.g.: to ring + up - bring up(提出)，to give + up - give up(放弃)2.3.14 Borrowing Words(18.5%)（借词）:It refers to the words which borrowd from other languages. C3. Word Meaning and the sem antic Relations Between Words3.1 Word Meaning and semantic features@3.1.1 The m eanings of Meaning:3.1.1.1 Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word.It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction,but with the help of context,it can refer to som eting specific.3.1.1.2 Concept（概念）:It is beyond language is the result of human cognition,reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It has m any refering expressions.3.1.1.3 Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language.The sense of anexpression is its place in a system of sem antic relationships with other expressions in the language.3.1.2 Conventionality（常规）and Motivation: (理据)@3.1.2.1 Conventionality:It refers that words are conventional,arbitrary symbols;that is,there is no intrinsic(内在的) relation between the sound symbol and its sense.There is no way to explain why this or that sound-symbol has this or that m eaning beyond the fact that the people of a given community have agreed to use one to designate the other.For instance,the English call what Chinese call “fangzi” in “house”,the French call it “Maison” and the Russian “dom”.All these symbols are totally differ ent from one another,yet they all signify the sam e thing.3.1.2.2 Motivation:It refers to the connection between word-sym bol and its sense.Though the great majority of English words are conventional and arbitraty sym bols,there is a group of words that can be described as m otivated,that is there is a deirect connection between the sym bol and its sense.For example,onomatopoeic words such as “roar”, “bang” and “clash”,derived words and com pound words such as “readable”, “kilgram” and “daydream”,etc.1)Phonetic/Onom atopoeic m otivation（拟声理据）: Indicates the relatinship between sound and m eaning of word.Its sound suggests its m eaning. e.g. , cuckoo,squeak,quack,etc.@2)Morphological m otivation （形态理据）:Accounts for the connection between the m eaning of the word and the m eaning of each m orpheme in the word.The m eaings of m any words are the sum total of the morphem es com bined. e.g.,airmail,reading-lamp.@3)Semantic m otivation（词义理据）:e.g.,the m outh of the river,the foot of the m ountain,etc.@4)Etym ological m otivation （词源理据）:e.g.,pen,laconic,etc.3.1.3 Main Types of Meaning(p.147)3.1.3.1 Gramatical Meaning（语法意义）:It is indespensable in determining the position a word occupies in a sentence. It consists of word-class and inflectional paradigm(词类和屈折词形变化)1)Word-class: It describe the words lexicological meaning and also gives what is traditonally known as the part of speech of the word. e.g. m odern will be m arked as a noun.2)Inflectional paradigm:It refers to thegrammatical form s of a word which appear the different forms when used in actual speech. e.g. cat-cats; to walk,walks etc.3.1.3.2 Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）（或称语义的七种主要类型）:It is that aspect of sense proper to the word as a lexical item.1)Denotative m eaning(外延意义)/或称Conceptual m eaning(概念意义): It is the central factor in linguistic。
词汇学笔记
词汇学笔记NOTES OF ENGLISH LEXICOLOGYIntroduction0.1The Nature and Domain of English LexicologyLexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of word.English lexicology is a theoretically-oriented course. It is chiefly concerned with the basic theories of words in general and of English words in particular.0.2It’s Relation to Other DisciplinesLexicology embraces other academic disciplines, such as morphology, semantics, etymology, stylistics, lexicography.Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily through the use of morpheme construct.Etymology is traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words.Semantics is the study of meanings of different linguistic levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc.Stylistics is the study of style.Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form, meaning, origins and usages of words, but they have a pragmatic difference.0.3Methods of StudyThere are two approaches to the study of words, namely synchronic and diachronic.0.4 Aims and Significance of the courseChapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1.1 What Is a WordA word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.1.2 Sound and Meaning1.3 Sound and FormThe three reasons for the differences between sound and from.㈠the internal reason is that the English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound.㈡the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years.㈢some of the differences were created by the early scribes.1.4 VocabularyThe term “vocabulary” is use d in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for the words used in a particular historical period.1.5 Classification of Words 词汇的分类1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇The 5 characteristics of basic word stock: 基本词汇的5大特点①All national character 全民性② Stability 稳定性③ Productivity 多产性④ Polysemy 多义性⑤ Collocability 搭配性The 7 types of nonbasic word stock words: 非基本词汇的7大种类① Terminology 术语② Jargon 行话③ Slang 俚语④ Argot 黑话⑤ Dialectal words 方言词⑥ Archaisms 古语词⑦ Neologisms 新词1.5.2 Content Words and Functional Words 功能词和实义词①Functional words 功能词② Content words 实义词1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed Words 本地词和外来词The 2 characteristics of native words: 本地词的另2大特点（包括基本词汇的5大特点）① Ne utral in style 文体中性② Frequent in use 使用频繁The 4 types of borrowings: 外来词的4大类型① Denizens 同化词② Aliens 异形词③ Translation- loans 翻译借词④ Semantic- loans 语义借词Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary2.1 The Indo-European Language Family 印欧语系ScandinavianEastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian, AlbanianArmenianAlbanianBalto-Slavic: Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech,Bulgarian, Slovenian, RussianIndo-Iranian: Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany(the last three derived from deadlanguage Sanskrit) Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, GermanicGreek (derived from Hellenic)Celtic: Scottish, Irish, Welsh, BretonItalic: Portuguese, Spanish, French,Italian, Roumanian(Latin Romance language)Germanic: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish, Swedish(Northern European Language)GermanDutchFlemishEnglish 北欧日耳曼语系东部：巴尔特-斯拉夫语系，印度伊朗语系，亚美尼亚，阿尔巴尼亚亚美尼亚阿尔巴尼亚巴尔特-斯拉夫语系：普鲁士语，立陶宛语，波兰语，捷克语，保加利亚语，斯洛文尼亚语，俄罗斯语印度伊朗语系：波斯语，孟加拉语，印地语，吉普赛语（后三种语言源于已消失的梵文）西部：凯尔特语系，意大利语族，古希腊语言，日耳曼语系希腊语(源于古希腊语言)凯尔特语系：苏格兰语，爱尔兰语，威尔士语，布列塔尼语意大利语族：葡萄牙语，西班牙语，法语，意大利语，罗马尼亚语（拉丁语）日耳曼语系：挪威语，冰岛语，丹麦语，瑞典语（北欧语言）德语荷兰语佛兰芒语英语2.2 A Historical Overview of the English Vocabulary 英语词汇的历史概况2.2.1 Old English( 450-1150 ) 古英语2.2.2 Middle English( 1150-1500 ) 中古英语If we say that Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.2.2.3 Modern English(1500-up to now) 现代英语①Early Modern English (1500-1700) 早期现代英语② Late Modern English (1700- up to now) 后期现代英语2.3 Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary 当代英语词汇的发展2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development 词汇的发展方式：创词，旧词新义，借词English vocabulary develops through 3 channels: creation, semantic changes, borrowingCreation创词refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements.Semantic changes旧词新义means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.Borrowing借词has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times.Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contribute to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation I3.1 Morphemes 词素Morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.3.2 Allomorphs 词素变体Morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word are known as allomorphs.3.3 Types of Morphemes 词素的分类① free morphemes = free root 自由词素② bound morphemes 粘附词素3.3.1 Free Morphemes自由词素= 自由根词Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.3.3.2 Bound Morphemes 粘附词素：粘附词根，词缀：内部曲折词缀，派生词缀：前缀，后缀Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.Bound morphemes include 2 types: bound root and affix.Bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning , it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.Affixes include: inflectional and derivational affixesInflectional affixes: affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional.Derivational affixes: are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.Derivational affixes include: prefix and suffix.3.4 Root and Stem 词根和词干A root词根is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.A stem词干can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.Chapter 4 Word Formation II4.1 Affixation词缀法Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.4.1.1 Prefixation 前缀法Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.Prefixes can be classified into 9 groups on a semantic basis.①Negative prefixes 表示否定意义的前缀②Reversative prefixes表示逆向意义的前缀③Pejorative prefixes 表示贬义的前缀④Prefixes of degree or size 表示程度、大小等意义的前缀⑤Prefixes of orientation and attitude 表示倾向和态度等意义的前缀⑥Locative prefixes 表示方位意义的前缀⑦Prefixes of time and order 表示时间和顺序等意义的前缀⑧Number prefixes 表示数字的前缀⑨Miscellaneous 其他种类意义的前缀4.1.2 Suffixation 后缀法Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.Suffixes can be grouped into 3 types on a grammatical basis: noun suffixes, adjective suffixes, adverb suffixes and verb suffixes1. Noun suffixes include: denominal nouns, deverbal nouns, de-adjective nouns, noun and adjevtive suffixesDenominal nouns: a. Concrete:-eer, -er, -ess, -ette, -let 由n.转化来的名词b. Abstract: -age, -dom, -ery, -ery(-ry), -hood, -ing, -ism, -shipDeverbal nouns: a. nouns denoting people:-ant, -ee, -ent, -er(or), 由v.转化来的名词b. nouns denoting acting, result, process, state: -age, -al, -ance,-ation(-ition, -tion, -sion, -ion), -ence, -ing, -ment,De-adjective nouns: -ity, -ness, 由a. 转化来的名词Noun and adjective suffixes: -ese, -an, -ist n.和a.后缀2.Adjective suffixes include: denominal suffixes, deverbal suffixes.加在n.后的a.后缀，加在v.后的a. 后缀Denominal suffixes: -ed, -ful, -ish, -less, -like, -ly, -y, -al(-ial, -ical),-esque, -ic, -ous(-eous, -ious),Deverbal suffixes: -able(-ible), -ive(-ative, -sive),3. Adverb suffixes: -ly, -ward(s), -wise a.后缀4. Verb suffixes: -ate, -en, -(i)fy, -ize(-ise) v. 后缀4.2 Compounding 复合构词法Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.A compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.4.2.1 Characteristics of Compounds 复合词的特点The 3 characteristics of compounds.① Phonetic features 语音特点② Semantic features 语义特点③ Grammatical features 语法特点4.2.2 Formations of Compounds 复合词的构成There are 3 major classes of compounds① Noun compounds 名词复合词② Adjective compounds 形容词复合词③ Verb compounds 动词复合词4.3 Conversion 转类法There are 3 types of words that produced by conversion: nouns, verbs, adjectives,1. Conversion to noun 转换成n.的转类词① Verb to noun② Adjective to noun③ Miscellaneous conversion2. Conversion to verbs 转换成v.的转类词① Noun to verb② Adjective to verb③ Miscellaneous conversion3. Conversion to adjectives 转换成a.的转类词4.4 Blending 拼缀法Head + tail 词头+词尾Head + head 词头+词头Head + word 词头+词Word + tail 词+词尾4.5 Clipping 截短法There are 4 common types of clipping:① Front clipping 首部截短② Back clipping 尾部截短③ Front and back clipping 首尾部截短④ Phrase clipping 短语截短4.6Acronymy 首字母拼音法Words formed this way can be divided into: initialisms or acronyms.4.6.1 Initialisms 首字母缩略法Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.Letters represent full words: A.D., VOA, UFO, p./c.Letters represent constituents in a compound or just parts ofa word: TV, ID, GHQ4.6.2 Acronyms 首字母拼写法Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.: NA TO, AIDS, V-Day4.7 Back-formation 逆生法1. Abstract nouns 抽象名词2. Human nouns 人物名词3. Compound nouns and others 复合词及其它4. Adjectives 形容词4.8 Words from Proper Names 专有名词转化而来的普通名词1. Names of people 人名2. Names of places 地名3. Names of books 书名4. Tradenames 商标名Chapter 5 Word MeaningWord is the combination of form and meaning. By form we mean both its pronunciation and spelling.5.1 The Meanings of ‘Meaning’意义的意义5.1.1 Reference 所指Reference is the relationship between language and the word.5.1.2 Concept 概念Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5.1.3 Sense 意义The meaning of …meaning ? is perhaps what is termed …sense?.5.2 Motivation 理据Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.5.2.1 Onomatopoeic Motivation 拟声理据Some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises.5.2.2 Morphological Motivation 形态理据Compound and derived words are multi-morphological words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined.5.2.3 Semantic Motivation 语义理据Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word.5.2.4 Etymological Motivation 语源理据The meanings of many words often relate directly to their origins.5.3 Types of Meaning 意义的种类5.3.1 Grammatical Meaning and Lexical Meaning 语法意义和词汇意义Grammatical meanings refers o that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept of relationships such as part of speech of word (n. v. a. ad.), singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms.Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word meaning.Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.5.3.2Conceptual Meaning and Associative Meaning 概念意义和联想意义Conceptual meaning (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.Associative meaning comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective and collocative meaning.联想意义：内涵意义，文体意义，感情意义，搭配意义Chapter 6 Sense Rations and Semantic FieldSemantically, all words are related in one way or another.6.1 Polysemy 多义关系Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages.6.1.1 Two Approaches to Polysemy 多义关系的两个研究方法：历时方法，共时方法The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can be dealt with from two different angles: diachronic approach and synchronic approach.1. Diachronic approach历时方法In diachronic approach, other meanings apart from the primary meaning of a word were acquired by: extension, narrowing, analogy, transfer.2. Synchronic approach共时方法Synchronically, the basic meaning of a word is the core of word-meaning called the central meaning.6.1.2 Two Processes of Development 语义发展的两种模式：辐射型，连锁型The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses, traditionally known as: radiation and concatenation.Radiation辐射型is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.Concatenation describes a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains.Concatenation连锁型is the semantic process in the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in many cases, there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which theterm had at the beginning.6.2 Homonymy同形同音异义关系Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.6.2.1 Types of Homonyms 同形同音异义词的种类1. Perfect homonyms 完全同形同音异义词2. Homographs 同形异音异义词3. Homophones 同音异形异义词Of the three types, homophones constitute the largest number and are most common.6.2.2 Origins of Homonyms 同形同音异义词的来源There are various sources of homonyms: change in sound and spelling, borrowing, shortening.1. Change in sound and spelling 语言和拼写变化2. Borrowing 借用3. Shortening 缩略法6.2.3 Differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemant 同形同音异义词与多义词的区别Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation.One important criterion for differentiation of homonyms from polysemants is to see their etymology, the second principal consideration is semantic relatedness.6.2.4 Rhetoric Features of Homonyms 同形同音异义词的修辞特点As homonyms are identical in sound of spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humour, sarcasm or ridicule.6.3 Synonymy 同义关系Synonyms is one of the characteristic features of the vocabulary of natural languages.6.3.1 Definition of Synonyms 同义词的定义（异形异音同义）Synonyms can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.6.3.2 Types of Synonyms 同义词的类别：绝对同义词，相对同义词Synonyms can be classified into two major groups: absolute synonyms and relative synonyms.Absolute synonyms绝对同义词also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects.Relative synonyms相对同义词also called near-synonyms are similar or near the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning of different degrees of a given quality.6.3.3 Sources of Synonyms 同义词的来源①Borrowing 借词② Dialects and regional English 方言词③ Figurative and euphemistic use of words 比喻词和委婉语④ Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 与习语的巧合6.3.4 Discrimination of Synonyms 同义词的区别：外延上，内涵上，应用上The differences between synonyms boil down to 3 areas: denotation, connotation, and applicationDifference in denotation, synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning.Difference in connotation, by connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive colouring of words.Difference in application, many words are synonyms in meaning but different in usage in simple terms.6.4 Antonymy 反义关系6.4.1 Types of Antonyms 反义词的类别Antonymy is concerned with semantic opposition.Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning1. Contradictory terms, 互为矛盾的反义词these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning.2. Contrary terms, 相对反义词antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.3. Relative terms, 表示相互关系的反义词this third type consists of relational opposites such as parent/child.6.4.2 Some of the Characteristics of Antonyms 反义词的一些特点1. Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.In a language, there are a great many more synonyms than antonyms.反义词是按语义相反的情况进行划分的。
词汇学考试精简笔记-Charter1-4
词汇学考试精简笔记-Charter1-4Introduction0.1 The Nature and Domain of English LexicologyThe definition of Lexicology: (P1)Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words (WNWD), the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages. 0.2 The Relation to Other DisciplinesThe definition of Morphology: (P1)Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily through the use of morpheme construct.The definition of Etymology: (P2)Etymology is traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words.The definition of Semantics: (P2)Semantics is the study of meanings of different linguistic levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc.The definition of Stylistics: (P2)Stylistics is the study of style.The definition of Lexicography: (P2)Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form, meaning, origins and usages of words.The difference of Lexicography and Lexicology: (P2)A lexicographer’s task is to record the language as it is used so as to present the genuine picture of words to the reader, providing authoritative reference, whereas the student of lexicology is to acquire the knowledge and information of lexis so as to increase their lexical awareness and capacity of language use.Chapter 1Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1.1 What is a WordIn visual terms, a word can be defined as a meaningful group; according to semanticists, a word is a unit of meaning. (P6) 选择、填空The definition of Word: (P7) 名词解释A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.A word comprises the following points:1. A minimal free form of a language;2. A sound unity;3. A unit of meaning;4. A form that can function alone in a sentence.1.2 Sound and MeaningThe connection of Sound and Meaning两者之间的关系: (P7) 选择、填空The symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is no logical relationship, the relationship is conventional.Woman, for example, becomes ‘Frau’ in German, ‘Fremme’ in French and ‘Funu’ in Chinese.：体现了sound，meaning的关系1.3 Sound and FormThe reasons caused the difference between Sound and Form: 读⾳和拼写不⼀致的原因(P8-9 具体例⼦看书本) 简答题1. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does nothave a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.2. Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and insome cases the two have drawn far apart.3. A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.4. Finally comes the borrowing, which do not conform to the rules of English pronunciation and spelling.*Printing印刷术was established in the late 1500.Sound and form is imperfect: (P10)The written form of English is, therefore, an imperfect representation of the spoken form.1.5 Classification of Words*Three classifications of words: (P11) 选择、填空Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin.1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic VocabularyThe difference between BW and NBW: (P11)BW is in use in a high frequency; and NBW is not.The features of Basic Word (P11-12) 简答题●All national character 全民通⽤性●Stability 相对稳定性●Productivity 多产性●Polysemy ⼀词多义●Collocability 搭配性Therefore, ‘all national character’is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.The definition of Productivity: (P12)They can each be used alone, and at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes.The definition of Polysemy: (P12)Words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning because most of them have undergone semantic changes in the course of use and become polysemous.The definition of Collocability: (P12)Many words of the basic word stock enter quite a number of set expressions, idiomatic usages, proverbial sayings and the like.The types of Nonbasic word vocabulary (P13-15) 简答题●Terminology 专业术语●Jargon ⾏话●Slang 俚语●Argot ⿊话●Dialectal words ⽅⾔●Archaisms 古词语●Neologisms 新词语The definition of Terminology: (P13)It consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicine.●例⼦有：mathematics, music, education.The definition of Jargon: (P13)It refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business.●例⼦有：bottom line, bargaining chipsThe definition of Slang: (P14)Slang belongs to the sub-standard language亚标准语⾔, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words.Slang is created by changing or extending the meaning of existing words.The definition of Argot ⿊话: (P15)Argot generally refers to the jargon of criminals.The definition of Dialectal words: (P15)Dialectal words are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question.The definition of Archaisms: (P15)Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.The definition of Neologisms: (P15)Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.1.5.2 Content Words and Functional WordsThe difference between Content words and Functional words: (P16) 简答题●Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words.●Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As theirchief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words.1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed WordsThe definition of Native Words: (P17)Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes (⽇⽿曼部落).The 2 features of Native Words: (P17)1. Neutral in style (French or Latin are literary and in formal style) ⽂体中⽴，即任何场所可⽤2. Frequent in use使⽤频繁The definition of Borrowed Words: (P18)Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowing in simple terms. 三个⿊体字同义Four classes of Borrowed Words: (P19)1. Denizens 同化词Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now well assimilated into the English language.2. Aliens ⾮同化词Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling.3. Translation-loans 译借词、外来词Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.4. Semantic-loans借义词Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form.Chapter 2The Development of the English vocabulary2.1 The Indo-European Language FamilyThe Indo-European Language has approximately 3000languages and group into roughly 300language families on the basis of Basic Word and Grammar. It is made up of most of language of Europe, the Near East, and India.印欧三⼤语系(P23) Germanic family = Scandinavian languages斯堪的纳维亚语的;北北欧⽇⽿曼语系(P24)The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages.In western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic(希腊语的). (P24)2.2.1 Old English (450 – 1150) (P25)The Germanic tribes are the earliest.The introduction of Christianity had a great impact on the English vocabulary. It brought many new ideas and customs and also many religious terms such as abbot, candle, alter, amen, apostle.The common practice was to create new words by combining two native words, e.g. handbook. (P26)Old English is a highly inflected language.Skirt, skill, window, leg, grasp, birth, they, their, them, egg, these words are from Scandinavian origin.2.2.2 Middle English (1150 – 1500) (P26)Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English. 诺曼⼤帝带来了⼤量的法语词。
《英语词汇学》笔记1-10章
Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. According to semanticists（意义学家）, a word is a unit of meaning.2. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’.3. Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency.4. Words may fall into content words and functional words by notion.5. Words may fall into native words and borrowed words by origin.6. The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.7. ‘all national character’（全民性）is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.8. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.9. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words.9. The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings.10. According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing, we can bring the loan-words under four classes: Denizens, Aliens, Translation-loans, Semantic-loans.11. The differences between sound and form are due to innovations made by linguists.12. Of all the five characteristics listed for the basic word stock, the most important is all national character.（全民性）13. Content words are changing all the time whereas functional words are stable.14. In Old English there was more agreement between sound and form.15. A word is a symbol that represents something else in the world.16. Some words in the basic words stock are said to be stable because they refer to the commonest things in life.17. In different language, the same concept can be represented by different sounds and the same sound can show different meanings.18. The internal reason for the difference between sound and form is the fact of more phonemes than letters in English.19. Native words are neutral in style and frequent in use.20. The expression of “long time no see”is translation-loan among the four classes of borrowings.名词解释：1. word(词): A word is a minimal free form of a Language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. vocabulary（词汇）: The term ‘vocabulary’is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book,a given disicipline and the words possessed by an individual person.3. Jargon（专门术语）: It refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particulararts, sciences, trades, and professions, communicate among themselves.4.Archaisms（古语词）: Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.5. Neologisms（新词语）: Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.6. borrowed words（外来词）: Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.7. Deizens（同化词）: Deizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are all assimilated into the English Language.8. Aliens（非同化词）: Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognisable as foreign in origin.9. Translation-loans（译借词）: Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.10.Semantic-loans（借义词）: Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language11. argot（黑话）: It generally refers to the jargon of criminals.12. content words（实词）: Content words denote clear notions including nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.13. terminology(术语): Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas.14. native words（本族语）: Native words, also known as Anglo-Saxon words, are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the German tribes.论述问答题：1. With the development of the Language, why do more and more differences occur between the Sound and Form?答：It is generally agreed that the written form of a natural Language is the written record of the oral form. But with the development of the Language, more and more differences occur between them, the reasons are as follows:①. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the Language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.②. Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.③. A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.④. Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. When English borrowed words from other Languages , it borrowed spelling as well.2. What are the obvious characteristics of the words of the basic word stock（基本词汇）?①. All national character.（全民性）②. Stability（稳定性）③. Productivity（多产性）④. Polysemy（多义性）⑤. Collocability（搭配性）Of course, not all the words of the basic word stock have these characteristics. Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but are semantically monosemous and have limited productivity and collocability. Therefore, ‘all national character’is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.3. Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features, what are they?答：①. Neutral in style（文体上中性）. Since native words denote the commonest things in human society, they are used by all people, in all places, on all occasions, and at all times. Therefore, they are not stylistically specific.②. Frequent in use（使用频繁）. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. The proportion of its use in relation to borrowings is perhaps just the opposite of its number.4. Illustrate the relationship between sound and meaning with examples.答：A word is phonetic symbol that stands for something in the world. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a things or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’. For example, woman is represented by the sound Frau in German, femme in French, and funv in Chinese.5. Explain neologisms（新词语）with examples.答：Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. For example, “emil”(electronic mail, the sending of messages via computer systems) is a word newly coined against the background of rapid development in information technology. The word “mouse” might examplify the words taking on new meanings : now a mouse is indispensable for computer users.6. How are English words generally classified? Elaborate on it.答：V ocabulary can be classified by different criteria into different types.①By use frequency（使用频率）, words may fall into the basic word stock（基本词汇）and nonbasic vocabulary（非基本词汇）. Basic vocabulary is small in number but forms the core of the language and enjoys the high frequency of use. Nonbasic vocabulary contains such words as terminology, jargon, which have a relatively limited use；②By notion（实义）, words can be divided into content words（实义词）and functional words （功能词即虚词）, content words have clear notions such as nouns, verbs. Functional words cover prepositions, articles, conjunctions, etc, whose major functions are to help make sentences；③By origin（起源）, words can be grouped into native words（本族语词）and borrowed words （外来语词）. Native words refer to the words of Anglo-Saxon origin, which are small in number but form the main stream of basic word stock. Borrowed words are words taken over from other languages and make up 80%of the whole English vocabulary. These three criteria are the most widespread and popular. There are other ways too, for example, by morphological structure, formality, emotionality, and so on.Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. Indo-European Language is made up of most of the Languages of Europe, the Near East, and India.2. The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages：Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian Languages.3. In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic.4. The surviving Languages show various of degrees of similarity to one another. The similarity bears a more or less direct relationship to their geographical distribution.5. Now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English（古英语）.6. The introduction of Christianity（基督教）at the end of the 6th century had a great impact on the English vocabulary.7. Old English （古英语）has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modren German.8. Until 1066, although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic.9. The Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.10. During the Middle English period, Britain had trade relations with the low countries, especially Holland.11. Middle English retained much fewer inflections. If we say that Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.12. As a result, Celtic made only a small contribution to the English vocabulary with such words as crag and bin and a number of place names like Avon, Kent, London, and Thames.13. After the invading Germanic tribes settled down in Britain, their Language almost totally blotted out Celtic .14. Old English is considered to be a highly-inflected Language.15. During the Middle English period three languages—English, French and Latin（英语，法语和拉丁语）---- existed simultaneously for over a century.16. Modern English（当代英语）began with the establishment of printing（印刷术）in England.17. Since the beginning of this century, word-formation has become even more important for the expansion of English vocabulary.18. Early Modern English refers to the language spoken from 1500 to 1700 .19. The major factors that promote the growth of modern English are the growth of science and technology, economic and political changes, the influence of other cultures and Languages .20. The four major foreign contributors to the English vocabulary in earlier times were French, Latin, Greek and Scandinavian .21. Though still at work today , borrowing can hardly compare with what it was in the past.22. It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic Language(Old English) to the present analytic Language.23. Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing.24. The word of “recollection” is formed by creation.25. The first people known to inhabit the British isles were Celts. Their languages were Celtic.26. Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words of Dutch origin in theMiddle English period.名词解释：1. creation（创造新词）: Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. In Modern times, creation is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.2. semantic change（旧词新意）: Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. borrowing（借用外来词语）: Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times.4. Old English（古英语）: It refers to the Language used from 450 to 1150.5. Middle English（中世纪英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1150 to 1500.6. Modern English（现代英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1500 up to the present.论述问答题：1. What are eight principal language in the Indo-European Language family（印欧语系）?答：They are Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian, Albanian, Celtic, Italic, Hellenic and Germanic.2. What are the causes of more new words appearing today?答：the rapid development of modern science and technology.；Social, economic and political changes.；The influences of other cultures and languages.；3. What are three main modes of vocabulary developments?答：Creation creates new words by using existing materials.Semantic change. An old form takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.Borrow words from other Languages.Chapter 3 Word Formation I重点知识锦集：1. It seems to be generally agreed that a word is the smallest unit of a Language that stands alone to communicate meaning.2. In other words, the morpheme is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words’.3. Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.4. The morpheme to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.5. Allomorphs as such do not occur at random, but are phonetically conditioned and thus predictable.6. Morphemes can be divided into free morphemes and bound morphemes.7. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words.8. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix.9. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.（内部曲折词缀和派生词缀）10. A monomorphemic word is a word that consists of a single free morpheme.11. Chiefly found in derived words, bound morphemes(黏着语素) include bound roots, inflectional affixes, derivational affixes.12. The plural morpheme ‘s’ is realized by /s/ after the sounds /t, p, k/ and by /z/ after /d, b, g, l/13. In the Eastern Set, Albanian and Armenian are each the only modern language respectively.名词解释：1. morpheme（语素）: the minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes.2. allomorphs（语素变体）: some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.3. free morphemes（自由语素）: Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.4. bound morphemes（黏着语素）: morphemes which can not occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words.5. bound root（黏着词根）: a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. It’s a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.6. affixes（词缀）: Affixes are forms that are attached to words or words elements to modify meaning or function.7. inflectional affixes（曲折词缀）: Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes.8. derivational affixes（派生词缀）: As the term indicates, derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to creat new words. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.9. root（词根）: A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. It is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.10. stem（词干）: A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.论述问答题：1. What are the differences between root and stem?答：①A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. The root whether free or bound generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.②A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in “iron”or of two root morphemes as ina compound like “handcuff”. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in “mouthful”. Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind cab be added.2. Analyze the morphological structure of the following words in terms of free morpheme and bound morpheme, then explain the differences between the two kinds of morphemes.UnhappilyIdealistic答:①Each of two words consists of three morphemes:unhappily(un+happy+ly), idealistic(ideal+ist+ic).②“happy”and “ideal”are free morphemes; un-, -ly, -ist and –ic are bound morphemes.③free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. Bound morphemes must be bound to other morphemes to form words.3. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out types of the morphemes. recollection, nationalist, unearthly.答：recollection, nationalist, unearthly1) Each of the three words consists of three morphemes:recollection(re+collect+ion), nationalist(nation+al+ist), unearthly(un+earth+ly).2) Of the nine morphemes, only “collect” “nation” and “earth” are free morphemes as they can exist by themselves.3) All the rest are bound morphemes as none of them can stand alone as words.Chapter 4 Word Formation II重点知识锦集：1. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.2. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixes falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.（前缀和后缀）3. Affixation is also known as derivation.4. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.5. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.6. We shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, etc.7. Compounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open.（连写的，加连字符号的，不连写的）8. Most compounds consist of only two stems but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationships within the words are considerably complex.9. Conversion is also known as functional shift.（功能转换）10. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs.11. The most productive, however, is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.12. Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion,（完全转换）others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion.（部分转换）13. Blending（拼缀法）is a very productive process and many coinages resulting from blending have become well-established.14. As far as the structure is concerned, blends fall into four major groups: head+tail, head+head, head+word, word+tail.15. The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns.16. Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and to newspapers and magazines.17. There are four common types of clipping: front clipping, back clipping, front and back clipping, phrase clipping.18. Both intialisms and acronyms have become very popular since the Second World War and thus extremely productive.19. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs.20. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal and some of them have not gained public acceptance.21. Open compounds look like free phrases as the elements forming each word are written separately.22. As a rule, the stress of compounds falls on the first element.23. A compound functions as a single grammatical unit, so the internal structure can not be changed.24. Conversion（转换法）refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.25. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted to nouns.名词解释：1. affixation（词缀法）: Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.2. prefixation（前缀法）: Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.3. suffixation（后缀法）: Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.4. compounding（合成法）: Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds.5. conversion（转换法）: Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.6. blending（拼缀法）: Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words.7. clipping（截短法）: Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping.8. acronymy（首字母拼音法）: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.9. initialisms（首字母缩略词）: Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.10. acronyms（首字母拼音词）: Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.11. back-formation（逆生法）: Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.论述问答题：1. In what aspects do compounds differ from free phrases?答：Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:1). Phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.2). Semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.3). Grammatical features. A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective.2. What is the best way to classify prefixes? Why?答：Prefixes do not usually change the word-class of the stem but only modify lts meaning.Although present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, they make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary. It might be the best way to classify prefixes by their non-class-changing feature.3. In what way are compound verbs generally formed? Give examples to illustrate your point.答：Compound verbs are created either through conversion or back-formation. This could be illustrated by two words, nickname and chain-smoker. Nickname, which is originally a noun, can be used as a verb through conversion. Chain-smoker, which is originally a noun, can turn into a verb through back-formation.4. What is the difference between partial and full conversion? Explain them with examples. 答：When converted to nouns, not all adjectives can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. When a noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of a noun, it can take an indefinite article or-(e)s to indicate singular or plural number. For example, adjective “white”can be fully converted to a noun “white”, which can take indefinite article: a white. When a noun partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with the definite article, and they retain some of the adjective features. For example, the poor, the rich.5. Both back-formation（逆生法）and back-clipping（截后留前）are ways of making words by removing the endings of words. How do you account for the coexistence of the two? Can you explain the difference?答：Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. It’s considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. For example, “loafer”may be assumed to derive from the verb “loaf”’on the analogy of known derivatives, such as “swimmer” from “swim” or “driver” from “drive”. By removing the supposed suffixes –er from “loafer”, a verb “loaf”’is coined. Majority of back-formed words are verbs. Back-clipping is different. The deletion occurs at the end of the word(usually a noun). Both the original long word and its short form remain in the same word class. In diffe rent context, one could be used in other’s place.6. After he comes back, he oiled machine.In above sentence, which word is the converted word? Explain the type of the conversion and the effect of the conversion.答：In this sentence, the word “oil”is the converted word. It is converted from a noun to a verb. When it was used as a noun, the meaning of it is that “油”. But in this sentence, it was used as a verb, the meaning is “给…加油”; As is often the case, a noun can be converted to a verb without any change. The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.Chapter 5 Word Meaning重点知识锦集：1. Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between Language and the world.2. The reference of a word to a thing outside the Language is arbitrary and conventional.（任意的和依照惯例的）3. Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer tosomething specific.4. Every word that has meaning has sense(not every word has reference).5. Different lexical items, which have different lexical meanings, may have the same grammatical meaning.（语法意义）6. Functional words, though having little lexical meaning, possess strong grammatical meaning.7. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.（概念意义和关联意义）8. Associative meaning（关联意义）comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective, collocative.9. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or pejorative.（褒义词和贬义词）10. To a large extent the affective meaning of the word depends on the context where the word is used.11. Motivation（理据）explains why a particular form has a particular meaning.12. Unlike conceptual meaning, associative meaning is unstable and indeterminate.13. By etymological motivation, we mean that the meaning of a particular word is related to its origin.14. The relationship between the linguistic sign and a referent is conventional.15. Content words have both meanings, and Lexical meaning（词汇意义）in particular.16. The word “miniskirt”is morphologically motivated.17. The word “laconic”is etymologically motivated.18. In the phrase “the mouth of the river”, the word “mouth”is semantically motivated.名词解释：1. concept（概念）: Concept, which is beyond Language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It’s universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, Language and so on.2. sense（语义）: Sense denotes the relationship inside the Language. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the Language.3. motivation（理据）: Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.4. onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）: In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example, bang, miaow, ha ha and the like are onomatopoetically motivated words. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning.5. morphological motivation（形态理据）: Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Quite often, if one knows the meaning of each morpheme, one can figure out the meaning of the word. For instance, “airmail” means to ‘mail by air’.6. semantic motivation（语义理据）: Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.7. etymological motivation（词源学理据）: The meanings of many words often relate directly。
词汇学第四章
prefixation
a main type of word-formation by adding a prefix or combining form to the base. Usu. Modify the lexical meaning without changing the word-class of the word. Exceptions: be-; de-; en-; unanti-; inter-; post-; pre-, etc.
Stem: a. dealing with the inflectional morphemems b. the word form when the inflectional morphemes are removed e.g. undesirables desired
Base: a. a form to which a rule of word-formation is applied. b. any root or stem can be a base c. derivationally analysable d. both derivational and inflectional affixes can be added to a word e.g. undesirables root: desire; stem: undesirable, base: desirable
Semantic Features
a pot flower / a flower pot court martial; president elect, ambassador designate home letter / home voyage / home life / home economics, etc.
万艺玲词汇学笔记
词汇学复习要点：Chapter 1 词与词汇概说词（语言中最小的、能独立运用的有意义语言单位）1. 词汇固定语专名词语：北京大学青藏高原专门用语术语：病理切片有期徒刑行业语：大花脸自由体操熟语成语：望梅止渴愚公移山惯用语：碰钉子泼冷水谚语：路遥知马力，日久见人心歇后语：哑巴吃饺子——心里有数缩略语缩减而成的缩略语：清华解放军紧缩而成的缩略语：北大外长用数字概括的缩略语：三军五味2.词汇的划分（1）根据词在词汇系统中的地位分基本词汇一般词汇（2）根据词出现时间的先后分古语词新词（3）根据词应用的交际领域分书面语词汇口语词汇（4）根据词运用的区域分普通话词汇方言词汇（5）根据词是否借用分本族语词汇外来语词汇3.基本词汇的特点：第一，稳固性。
这些词在千百年前就出现，在历史上存在了很长时间。
第二，普遍性。
这些词表示的都是一些最常见的事物、现象和人们交际时最需要的概念，所以凡是使用汉语的人，不论什么阶层，从事什么行业，文化程度如何，生活在哪个地区，都毫无例外地要使用这些词来进行交际。
第三，能产性。
这些词可以构成新词，而且构词能力也很强。
例如“天”作为基本词汇可以构成“天空”、“天堂”、“天气”、“天鹅”、“今天”、“明天”、“冬天”、“春天”等词。
4.古语词和新词（看到词需要区分出哪些是古语词哪些是新词，记住书上的例子）：历史词语：皇帝、宰相、衙门、太守、八卦、精卫、太监、驸马、朝廷、虎贲（1）古语词（考的多）文言词：吾、尔、首、之、卒、亦、缄、尚（2）新词（考得少）：解放、红军、供给制、互助组、苏区、白区、儿童团、红领巾、教研室、下放、大跃进、铁人、赤脚医生、自留地、突击队、人民公社、生产队、试验田、下放干部、微机、热线、房改、打工、托福、追星族、商品房、休闲装、回头客、摇滚热、信用卡、安乐死、收视率、卡拉OK、T恤、老外、网吧、克隆、黑客、罚单、上网、芯片、双赢。
*新词的来源：①新事物出现以后，按汉语构词方式，用常用语素构成新词：热线、书店、电脑、立交桥、试管婴儿、打拼、封杀、芯片、录入用构词能力强的语素构成新词：上班族、工薪族、追星族、出国热、经商热、外语热、球迷、舞迷②音译外来词：托福、艾滋病、迷你直接带有英语字母的外来词：DVD机、卡拉OK、T恤③港台及方言词：物业、布艺、按揭、心仪、做秀、飙车、瘦身、帅哥、买单、搞掂、生猛、扮靓5.外来词（考查几率较小）：（1）吸收外来词的方式：音译和意译（2）分类①音译：沙发、咖啡、克隆、逻辑、拷贝、尼龙、华尔兹、白兰地。
词汇学知识点总结
词汇学知识点总结词汇学是研究词汇的学科，它是语言学的一个重要分支，涉及了语言的构成、变化和使用等方面。
词汇学对于语言的理解和应用具有重要的意义，它不仅可以帮助我们更好地掌握语言知识，还可以帮助我们提高语言运用能力。
在这篇文章中，我们将对词汇学的知识点进行总结，帮助读者更好地理解和掌握这一学科。
一、词的定义和分类词是语言中的最小意义单位，是构成句子和表达意思的基本单位。
按照在句子中的功能和语法特征，词可以分为实词和虚词两大类。
实词包括名词、动词、形容词、副词等，它们能够表示具体的事物或抽象的概念；虚词包括代词、连词、介词、助词等，它们通常用来连接或修饰实词，没有明确的词义。
二、词汇的构成词汇的构成是指词的组成方式和形态特征。
在词汇的构成中，我们可以看到一些常见的构词法，如前缀、后缀、派生、合成、转化等。
通过这些构词法，我们可以对词汇进行灵活组合和创造，丰富语言的表达能力。
1.前缀前缀是指加在词根前面的一个字，可以改变词的词义或语法特征。
比如，“un-”表示否定，“re-”表示再次，“pre-”表示在前面等。
2.后缀后缀是指加在词根后面的一个字，同样可以改变词的词义或语法特征。
比如，“-ing”表示进行时，“-ful”表示充满的意思，“-ment”表示名词化等。
3.派生派生是指通过词根和词缀的组合来创造和衍生新的词。
比如，“happy”是一个形容词，通过加上“-ness”后缀就可以派生出名词“happiness”。
4.合成合成是指两个或多个词汇组合在一起，形成一个新的词。
比如，“blackboard”由“black”和“board”两个实词组合而成。
5.转化转化是指一个词汇的词类发生改变，但词形不变。
比如，“work”可以作为动词，也可以作为名词，它的词形都不发生变化。
词汇的构成方式是多种多样的，通过学习这些构词法，我们可以更好地理解和掌握词汇的形态特征，有助于提高我们的语言表达能力。
三、词汇的语义特征语义是指词汇所携带的意义，它是语言交流和理解的基础。
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2. compound
‘lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically
and semantically as a single word’
---Quirk et al 1985
•Characteristics of compounds
•Phonological features:
In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first constituent whereas in noun phrase the second element is generally accented if there is only one stress. But it is not absolute as in bottle-green as well as in combing-form compound, socio-linguistic,
psycho-analysis.
2). Semantic features: every compound should express a single idea just as one word, i.e. it is idiomatic. e.g. green hand---inexperienced person
red meat---beef or mutton
3).grammaical features: the one-wordness of compounds can be seen in the way the expressions are handled morphologically.
e.g. He bad-mouthed me.
Plural forms of compound nouns usually take inflectional –s at the end, as in new-borns, three-year-olds, etc. But there are also exceptions if their one-wordness identity is apparent, as in brothers-in-law, lookers-on,etc.
4). Orthographical features: in most cases, compounds are written either ‘solid’ or ‘hyphenate’ as in flower-pot, flowerpot, flower pot. It largely depends on an individual’s preference. British speakers tend to hyphenate compounds while Americans like to write compounds like free phrases.
2. Formation of compounds
1). Noun compounds
subject+ verb daybreak dancing girl
verb+ object handshake meat delivery housekeeping
verb-adverbial Under this category, the adverbial can be subclassified as that of place, time, instrument and others.
Place: hiding-place drinking cup filmgoer table-talk
Time: sleep-walking day-dreamer night flight
Instrument: sewing machine handwriting gunfight
Others: shadow-boxing telephone call
Subject + object : air rifle power plant television screen
Subject + complement: girlfriend longboat chocolate bar safety-belt
2) Adjective Compounds
N + v-ing record-breaking
A + v-ing easy-going, high-sounding
N + a: warweary, thread-bare
A + a : bitter-sweet
N + v-ed :custom-built, town-bred
a(adv) +v-ed far-fetched, hard-won
n(a) +n-ed: short-sighted, lion-hearted
Num +n: ten-storey, four-leg
Num +n-ed: one-eyed, two-legged
Adv +v-ing: forth-coming
V-ed+adv: worn-out
⏹Adjective compounds can be paraphrased with reference to their internal grammatical relationship.
Verb+object: breath-taking life-giving
Verb+adverbial: fist-fighting home-made
Verb+predicative: sweet-smelling good-looking
noun-adverbial +adjective: homesick snow-white
Coordinating relation: sino-American phonetic-syntactic
⏹3) verb compounds
Through conversion: nickname(n)---to nickname moonlight(n)---to moonlight
Through backformation: lip-reading---to lip-read mass production---to mass-produce Exercise:
•What are the criteria by which to differentiate compounds from free phrases?
•Analyze the following compound words and explain their internal grammatical relationship. heartbeat brainwashing movie-goer baking power
far-reaching lion-hearted(非常勇敢的) boyfriend snap decision on-coming light-blue lovesick easy chair
Tax-free goings-on
⏹3) what are the usual methods to form compound verbs? Give examples
⏹4). Form compounds using the following either as the first or the second element of the compound as indicated and translate the words into Chinese.
well- -bound -work -worthy -woman –wide
-minded -style self- -related -proof once-
news- mock- -in-law home- half- ever-
-conscious -based。