词汇学简论摘要笔记
词汇学 _ 《现代汉语词汇》笔记
词汇学 | 《现代汉语词汇》笔记第⼀章绪论词汇学与词汇词汇学：以语⾔中的词汇为研究对象的学科，是语⾔学的分⽀之⼀词汇：语⾔中词语的总和，包括词和固定语固定语：语⾔中可以把词作为构成部分的、同词⼀样作为⼀个整体来运⽤的语⾔单位。
包括熟语和专⻔⽤语词汇学分类普通词汇学（⼀般词汇学）：研究词汇的普遍规律具体词汇学（个别词汇学）：如汉语词汇学、英语词汇学等汉语词汇学汉语历史词汇学：历时发展演变汉语描写词汇学：共时某时现象上古汉语词汇学中古汉语词汇学近代汉语词汇学现代汉语词汇学－本课内容词汇学的产⽣和发展（了解）前身：中国古代语⾔研究三“⼩学”—⾳韵学、训诂学、⽂字学古代语⾔学名著《尔雅》训诂学第⼀本义类词典《⽅⾔》⽤通⾔解释⽅⾔《释名》语⾔考理据《说⽂解字》第⼀本⽂字学书籍字形考理据“五四”—40年代以来词汇研究汉语词汇学建⽴与发展20c50y：汉语词汇学真正建⽴：涌现了⼀批专家与著作，确定研究的对象、任务和范围60y：研究⽅法更新，词语意义的结构70y：引进义素分析法80y：由定性研究逐渐转为定量研究21c初：计量分析主导词汇学研究总体情况词汇学研究内容：以现代汉语词汇为研究对象，研究词的性质、创造和结构、词义内容、词义发展、词的各种关系、词汇划分与关系等现代汉语词汇特点语素以单⾳节为主，词以双⾳节为主，但单⾳节词使⽤频率更⾼多⾳节词主要来源古代汉语：仿佛徘徊犹豫其他语⾔：咖啡巧克⼒沙发词语呈现双⾳化趋势为什么？内在驱动⼒：词义表达复杂化的需求与有限词形之间的⽭盾社会发展：旧词新义、⾳变构词、两个词复合构词语⾳系统简化（避免同⾳）明确表意：新产⽣的双⾳词意义明确；原有单⾳节词部分义项被取代⽽减少审美追求（双⾳节的韵律形式）句法词汇化受外来词影响结果：⻓度增加，表义明确途径单⾳节语素前或后加上辅助性相关成分：眼泪头发⽑笔松⿏⽉亮眉⽑单⾳节语素的前⾯或后⾯添加⼀个不表示具体意义的附加成分：⽼⻁阿姨桌⼦⽯头意义相同、相近或相对的单⾳节语素联合起来使⽤：国家意义寻找⽛⻮⽪肤忘记停⽌单⾳节语素重叠：哥哥妈妈爸爸仅仅静静紧紧星星单⾳节词替换成与原语素⽆关的双⾳节词：眼睛（⽬）筷⼦（箸）匣⼦（椟）⼤腿（股）三⾳节词省略其中⼀个因素照相机—相机外国语—外语电视机—电视四⾳节及其以上的词语缩略：对外贸易—外贸国有企业—国企复合词为主，内部构造与短语⼤体⼀致：并列偏正动宾动补主谓同义词数量多，同⾳语素多：适应不同需要，之间互补，具有多样性和可伸缩性词汇与⾮词汇界限模糊，切词困难语素构词理据性强，即语素义对词义有明显提示作⽤少量语素构成⼤量合成词缺少词形变化成语⼀般由四个⾳节组成⾳节相对⽽⾔较短量词、语⽓词丰富离合词多，使⽤频率⾼叠⾳词多，重叠形式较为丰富词汇学与语⾔学相关学科的关系（了解）与语⾳学：语⾳是语⾔的物质外壳，是词语的存在形式词的意义靠语⾳⼿段来表现，语⾳是词的⾳响形式。
《英语词汇学》笔记1-10章
Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. According to semanticists（意义学家）, a word is a unit of meaning.2. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’.3. Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency.4. Words may fall into content words and functional words by notion.5. Words may fall into native words and borrowed words by origin.6. The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.7. ‘all national character’（全民性）is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.8. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.9. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words.9. The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings.10. According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing, we can bring the loan-words under four classes: Denizens, Aliens, Translation-loans, Semantic-loans.11. The differences between sound and form are due to innovations made by linguists.12. Of all the five characteristics listed for the basic word stock, the most important is all national character.（全民性）13. Content words are changing all the time whereas functional words are stable.14. In Old English there was more agreement between sound and form.15. A word is a symbol that represents something else in the world.16. Some words in the basic words stock are said to be stable because they refer to the commonest things in life.17. In different language, the same concept can be represented by different sounds and the same sound can show different meanings.18. The internal reason for the difference between sound and form is the fact of more phonemes than letters in English.19. Native words are neutral in style and frequent in use.20. The expression of “long time no see”is translation-loan among the four classes of borrowings.名词解释：1. word(词): A word is a minimal free form of a Language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. vocabulary（词汇）: The term ‘vocabulary’is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book,a given disicipline and the words possessed by an individual person.3. Jargon（专门术语）: It refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particulararts, sciences, trades, and professions, communicate among themselves.4.Archaisms（古语词）: Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.5. Neologisms（新词语）: Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.6. borrowed words（外来词）: Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.7. Deizens（同化词）: Deizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are all assimilated into the English Language.8. Aliens（非同化词）: Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognisable as foreign in origin.9. Translation-loans（译借词）: Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.10.Semantic-loans（借义词）: Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language11. argot（黑话）: It generally refers to the jargon of criminals.12. content words（实词）: Content words denote clear notions including nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.13. terminology(术语): Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas.14. native words（本族语）: Native words, also known as Anglo-Saxon words, are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the German tribes.论述问答题：1. With the development of the Language, why do more and more differences occur between the Sound and Form?答：It is generally agreed that the written form of a natural Language is the written record of the oral form. But with the development of the Language, more and more differences occur between them, the reasons are as follows:①. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the Language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.②. Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.③. A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.④. Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. When English borrowed words from other Languages , it borrowed spelling as well.2. What are the obvious characteristics of the words of the basic word stock（基本词汇）?①. All national character.（全民性）②. Stability（稳定性）③. Productivity（多产性）④. Polysemy（多义性）⑤. Collocability（搭配性）Of course, not all the words of the basic word stock have these characteristics. Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but are semantically monosemous and have limited productivity and collocability. Therefore, ‘all national character’is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.3. Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features, what are they?答：①. Neutral in style（文体上中性）. Since native words denote the commonest things in human society, they are used by all people, in all places, on all occasions, and at all times. Therefore, they are not stylistically specific.②. Frequent in use（使用频繁）. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. The proportion of its use in relation to borrowings is perhaps just the opposite of its number.4. Illustrate the relationship between sound and meaning with examples.答：A word is phonetic symbol that stands for something in the world. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a things or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’. For example, woman is represented by the sound Frau in German, femme in French, and funv in Chinese.5. Explain neologisms（新词语）with examples.答：Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. For example, “emil”(electronic mail, the sending of messages via computer systems) is a word newly coined against the background of rapid development in information technology. The word “mouse” might examplify the words taking on new meanings : now a mouse is indispensable for computer users.6. How are English words generally classified? Elaborate on it.答：V ocabulary can be classified by different criteria into different types.①By use frequency（使用频率）, words may fall into the basic word stock（基本词汇）and nonbasic vocabulary（非基本词汇）. Basic vocabulary is small in number but forms the core of the language and enjoys the high frequency of use. Nonbasic vocabulary contains such words as terminology, jargon, which have a relatively limited use；②By notion（实义）, words can be divided into content words（实义词）and functional words （功能词即虚词）, content words have clear notions such as nouns, verbs. Functional words cover prepositions, articles, conjunctions, etc, whose major functions are to help make sentences；③By origin（起源）, words can be grouped into native words（本族语词）and borrowed words （外来语词）. Native words refer to the words of Anglo-Saxon origin, which are small in number but form the main stream of basic word stock. Borrowed words are words taken over from other languages and make up 80%of the whole English vocabulary. These three criteria are the most widespread and popular. There are other ways too, for example, by morphological structure, formality, emotionality, and so on.Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. Indo-European Language is made up of most of the Languages of Europe, the Near East, and India.2. The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages：Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian Languages.3. In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic.4. The surviving Languages show various of degrees of similarity to one another. The similarity bears a more or less direct relationship to their geographical distribution.5. Now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English（古英语）.6. The introduction of Christianity（基督教）at the end of the 6th century had a great impact on the English vocabulary.7. Old English （古英语）has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modren German.8. Until 1066, although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic.9. The Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.10. During the Middle English period, Britain had trade relations with the low countries, especially Holland.11. Middle English retained much fewer inflections. If we say that Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.12. As a result, Celtic made only a small contribution to the English vocabulary with such words as crag and bin and a number of place names like Avon, Kent, London, and Thames.13. After the invading Germanic tribes settled down in Britain, their Language almost totally blotted out Celtic .14. Old English is considered to be a highly-inflected Language.15. During the Middle English period three languages—English, French and Latin（英语，法语和拉丁语）---- existed simultaneously for over a century.16. Modern English（当代英语）began with the establishment of printing（印刷术）in England.17. Since the beginning of this century, word-formation has become even more important for the expansion of English vocabulary.18. Early Modern English refers to the language spoken from 1500 to 1700 .19. The major factors that promote the growth of modern English are the growth of science and technology, economic and political changes, the influence of other cultures and Languages .20. The four major foreign contributors to the English vocabulary in earlier times were French, Latin, Greek and Scandinavian .21. Though still at work today , borrowing can hardly compare with what it was in the past.22. It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic Language(Old English) to the present analytic Language.23. Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing.24. The word of “recollection” is formed by creation.25. The first people known to inhabit the British isles were Celts. Their languages were Celtic.26. Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words of Dutch origin in theMiddle English period.名词解释：1. creation（创造新词）: Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. In Modern times, creation is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.2. semantic change（旧词新意）: Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. borrowing（借用外来词语）: Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times.4. Old English（古英语）: It refers to the Language used from 450 to 1150.5. Middle English（中世纪英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1150 to 1500.6. Modern English（现代英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1500 up to the present.论述问答题：1. What are eight principal language in the Indo-European Language family（印欧语系）?答：They are Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian, Albanian, Celtic, Italic, Hellenic and Germanic.2. What are the causes of more new words appearing today?答：the rapid development of modern science and technology.；Social, economic and political changes.；The influences of other cultures and languages.；3. What are three main modes of vocabulary developments?答：Creation creates new words by using existing materials.Semantic change. An old form takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.Borrow words from other Languages.Chapter 3 Word Formation I重点知识锦集：1. It seems to be generally agreed that a word is the smallest unit of a Language that stands alone to communicate meaning.2. In other words, the morpheme is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words’.3. Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.4. The morpheme to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.5. Allomorphs as such do not occur at random, but are phonetically conditioned and thus predictable.6. Morphemes can be divided into free morphemes and bound morphemes.7. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words.8. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix.9. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.（内部曲折词缀和派生词缀）10. A monomorphemic word is a word that consists of a single free morpheme.11. Chiefly found in derived words, bound morphemes(黏着语素) include bound roots, inflectional affixes, derivational affixes.12. The plural morpheme ‘s’ is realized by /s/ after the sounds /t, p, k/ and by /z/ after /d, b, g, l/13. In the Eastern Set, Albanian and Armenian are each the only modern language respectively.名词解释：1. morpheme（语素）: the minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes.2. allomorphs（语素变体）: some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.3. free morphemes（自由语素）: Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.4. bound morphemes（黏着语素）: morphemes which can not occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words.5. bound root（黏着词根）: a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. It’s a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.6. affixes（词缀）: Affixes are forms that are attached to words or words elements to modify meaning or function.7. inflectional affixes（曲折词缀）: Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes.8. derivational affixes（派生词缀）: As the term indicates, derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to creat new words. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.9. root（词根）: A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. It is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.10. stem（词干）: A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.论述问答题：1. What are the differences between root and stem?答：①A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. The root whether free or bound generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.②A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in “iron”or of two root morphemes as ina compound like “handcuff”. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in “mouthful”. Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind cab be added.2. Analyze the morphological structure of the following words in terms of free morpheme and bound morpheme, then explain the differences between the two kinds of morphemes.UnhappilyIdealistic答:①Each of two words consists of three morphemes:unhappily(un+happy+ly), idealistic(ideal+ist+ic).②“happy”and “ideal”are free morphemes; un-, -ly, -ist and –ic are bound morphemes.③free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. Bound morphemes must be bound to other morphemes to form words.3. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out types of the morphemes. recollection, nationalist, unearthly.答：recollection, nationalist, unearthly1) Each of the three words consists of three morphemes:recollection(re+collect+ion), nationalist(nation+al+ist), unearthly(un+earth+ly).2) Of the nine morphemes, only “collect” “nation” and “earth” are free morphemes as they can exist by themselves.3) All the rest are bound morphemes as none of them can stand alone as words.Chapter 4 Word Formation II重点知识锦集：1. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.2. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixes falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.（前缀和后缀）3. Affixation is also known as derivation.4. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.5. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.6. We shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, etc.7. Compounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open.（连写的，加连字符号的，不连写的）8. Most compounds consist of only two stems but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationships within the words are considerably complex.9. Conversion is also known as functional shift.（功能转换）10. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs.11. The most productive, however, is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.12. Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion,（完全转换）others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion.（部分转换）13. Blending（拼缀法）is a very productive process and many coinages resulting from blending have become well-established.14. As far as the structure is concerned, blends fall into four major groups: head+tail, head+head, head+word, word+tail.15. The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns.16. Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and to newspapers and magazines.17. There are four common types of clipping: front clipping, back clipping, front and back clipping, phrase clipping.18. Both intialisms and acronyms have become very popular since the Second World War and thus extremely productive.19. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs.20. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal and some of them have not gained public acceptance.21. Open compounds look like free phrases as the elements forming each word are written separately.22. As a rule, the stress of compounds falls on the first element.23. A compound functions as a single grammatical unit, so the internal structure can not be changed.24. Conversion（转换法）refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.25. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted to nouns.名词解释：1. affixation（词缀法）: Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.2. prefixation（前缀法）: Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.3. suffixation（后缀法）: Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.4. compounding（合成法）: Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds.5. conversion（转换法）: Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.6. blending（拼缀法）: Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words.7. clipping（截短法）: Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping.8. acronymy（首字母拼音法）: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.9. initialisms（首字母缩略词）: Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.10. acronyms（首字母拼音词）: Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.11. back-formation（逆生法）: Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.论述问答题：1. In what aspects do compounds differ from free phrases?答：Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:1). Phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.2). Semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.3). Grammatical features. A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective.2. What is the best way to classify prefixes? Why?答：Prefixes do not usually change the word-class of the stem but only modify lts meaning.Although present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, they make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary. It might be the best way to classify prefixes by their non-class-changing feature.3. In what way are compound verbs generally formed? Give examples to illustrate your point.答：Compound verbs are created either through conversion or back-formation. This could be illustrated by two words, nickname and chain-smoker. Nickname, which is originally a noun, can be used as a verb through conversion. Chain-smoker, which is originally a noun, can turn into a verb through back-formation.4. What is the difference between partial and full conversion? Explain them with examples. 答：When converted to nouns, not all adjectives can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. When a noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of a noun, it can take an indefinite article or-(e)s to indicate singular or plural number. For example, adjective “white”can be fully converted to a noun “white”, which can take indefinite article: a white. When a noun partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with the definite article, and they retain some of the adjective features. For example, the poor, the rich.5. Both back-formation（逆生法）and back-clipping（截后留前）are ways of making words by removing the endings of words. How do you account for the coexistence of the two? Can you explain the difference?答：Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. It’s considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. For example, “loafer”may be assumed to derive from the verb “loaf”’on the analogy of known derivatives, such as “swimmer” from “swim” or “driver” from “drive”. By removing the supposed suffixes –er from “loafer”, a verb “loaf”’is coined. Majority of back-formed words are verbs. Back-clipping is different. The deletion occurs at the end of the word(usually a noun). Both the original long word and its short form remain in the same word class. In diffe rent context, one could be used in other’s place.6. After he comes back, he oiled machine.In above sentence, which word is the converted word? Explain the type of the conversion and the effect of the conversion.答：In this sentence, the word “oil”is the converted word. It is converted from a noun to a verb. When it was used as a noun, the meaning of it is that “油”. But in this sentence, it was used as a verb, the meaning is “给…加油”; As is often the case, a noun can be converted to a verb without any change. The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.Chapter 5 Word Meaning重点知识锦集：1. Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between Language and the world.2. The reference of a word to a thing outside the Language is arbitrary and conventional.（任意的和依照惯例的）3. Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer tosomething specific.4. Every word that has meaning has sense(not every word has reference).5. Different lexical items, which have different lexical meanings, may have the same grammatical meaning.（语法意义）6. Functional words, though having little lexical meaning, possess strong grammatical meaning.7. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.（概念意义和关联意义）8. Associative meaning（关联意义）comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective, collocative.9. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or pejorative.（褒义词和贬义词）10. To a large extent the affective meaning of the word depends on the context where the word is used.11. Motivation（理据）explains why a particular form has a particular meaning.12. Unlike conceptual meaning, associative meaning is unstable and indeterminate.13. By etymological motivation, we mean that the meaning of a particular word is related to its origin.14. The relationship between the linguistic sign and a referent is conventional.15. Content words have both meanings, and Lexical meaning（词汇意义）in particular.16. The word “miniskirt”is morphologically motivated.17. The word “laconic”is etymologically motivated.18. In the phrase “the mouth of the river”, the word “mouth”is semantically motivated.名词解释：1. concept（概念）: Concept, which is beyond Language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It’s universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, Language and so on.2. sense（语义）: Sense denotes the relationship inside the Language. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the Language.3. motivation（理据）: Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.4. onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）: In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example, bang, miaow, ha ha and the like are onomatopoetically motivated words. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning.5. morphological motivation（形态理据）: Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Quite often, if one knows the meaning of each morpheme, one can figure out the meaning of the word. For instance, “airmail” means to ‘mail by air’.6. semantic motivation（语义理据）: Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.7. etymological motivation（词源学理据）: The meanings of many words often relate directly。
英语词汇学引论(笔记) chapter 1
Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and LexicologyI.Linguistics1.DefinitionLinguistics is the scientific study of language.2.Scientific study method①observe②hypothesis③classify④test & conclude3.Features of scientific study①exhaustiveness②consistency③economy④objectivitynguage1.DefinitionLanguage is a system of arbitrary, vocal symbols by means of which the members of a speech community communicate, interact and transmit their culture.2.Functions·interrogative·expressive·informative·evocative·directive·performative·phaticrmation transmissionSemantic encoding↓Grammatical encoding↓Phonetic & phonological encoding (pitch, loudness, length, quality)↓Sending↓Transmission4.Origins of the calendarBabylonian→Egyptian→Greek→(750 BC)Old Roman1)Months·750 BCMarch MarsApril Goddess of love May Goddess of spring June God of marriage ※Quintillis Five※Sextillis Six September SevenOctober Eight November Nine December Ten·500 BCJanuary ‘door’February ‘festival’·46 BCQuintillis→July Julius Caesar Sextillis→August Augustus Caesar 2)DaysSunday God of Sun (Babylonian) Monday God of Moon (Norse) Tuesday Chief of all gods (Nor.) Wednesday God of commerce (Nor.)Thursday God of Thunder (Nor.) Friday God of Love (Nor.) Saturday God of Harvest (Bab.)III.Lexicology1.Basic terms and definitionsword (OE): talk, speakvocabulary (MLat): ①all words in a certain realm②words in specific context lexicon (lexis): words in a special language lexicology: origins + development + meanings of words 2.English Lexicology·morphonological structures·formation·semantic structure relations·usages·lexicography3.A poem~Spring, the sweetest spring, is the year’s pleasant King Then blooms each thing, then the maids dance in a ring Cold doth not sting, the pretty birds do singKoo-koo, juck-juck, puwe, to-witta-wooThe palm and may make country houses gay Lambs frisk and play, the shepherds pipe all day And we hear aye birds tune this merry layKoo-koo, juck-juck, puwe, to-witta-wooThe fields breeze sweet, the daisies kiss our feet Young lovers meet, old wives a-sunning sitIn every street, these tunes our ears do greet Koo-koo, juck-juck, puwe, to-witta-woo。
英语语言学概论第八章笔记
英语语言学概论第八章笔记Chapter 8 Socio-linguistics 社会语言学1.What is socio-linguistics? 什么是社会语言学？Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies language in social contexts.社会语言学是语言学的一个分支，它研究社会环境中的语言。
nguage variation 语言变异a)S peech community 言语社区In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are treated as members of social groups. The social group isolated for any given study is called speech community. A speech community thus defined as a group of people who form a community (which may have as few members as a family or as many member as a country), and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.社会语言学研究中，说话者被当作是社会群体的成员。
词汇学简论摘要笔记
1。
词汇学是以语言中的词和词汇作为研究对象的一门学科。
2。
词的意义的体现，则有事物、思维和语言结构三者。
因而词的基本分类，则有客体、特征、状态和代替之别。
据此研究，一在抓词的理据；二在抓词的变化，考察哪些意义变化引起哪些形式变化和哪些形式变化引起哪些意义变化。
即通过词的结构分析，串连语音、形态、语义的内在联系和词义系统相符的名词，确定词与词间的语源关系，从而寻求词根及其衍化轨迹。
现代词汇学的研究，不能再墨守传统训访学的方式和方法。
既要由上而下地从经籍递推到大众口语，又要根据大众的词汇逆溯到它们最初的来源。
这样，对词形结构的分析，词义发展的识别和语音衍化的探讨，才能有所创获。
3。
对于某一发展阶段上的语言体系的描写和研究又叫共时的或静态的研究；对于语言体系及其各个组成部分在历史上的发展变化的研究又叫历时的或演化的研究。
“共时性”(synchronie)和“历时性” (diachronie)这两个概念是瑞士语言学家索绪尔(Ferdinand de Saussurel857—1913)在他的《普通语言学教程》里首先提出来的。
索绪尔对“共时”和“历时”的解释是，“有关我们这门科学的静态方面的一切都是共时的，涉及演他的一切都是历时的”“共时和历时分别指一种语言状态和一种演化情况。
”汉译本《普通语言学教程》，商务印书馆，1980，页119. （P2）4。
个别语言词汇学又可以分为历史词汇学和描写词汇学。
前者研究语言的词汇在历史过程中的发展，后者研究在历史发展的某一阶段(一般是指现阶段)语言的词汇系统的状况和特点。
自然，二者也是相互为用，不可以截然划分开来的。
（P2）5。
若是研究一个民族的古代历久那就更加用得着词汇学(特别是历史词汇学)的知识。
正如当代语言学家丰克 (Wilfred Funk)在《词的来源和它们的传奇故事》(Word Origin and Their Romantic Stories，1950)中所说，“词汇也象个小窗户，通过它可以熟悉一个民族的过去。
英语语言学概论第五章笔记
There are words that bear the same meaning but express different emotions of the user, indicating the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about.
意念论认为，语言形式及其所代表的对象之间（即语言与现实世界之间）没有直接联系；确切地说，在理解语义时，是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。
3)Contextualism语境论
Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.
Autumn fall
Lift elevator
Flat department
Windscreen windshield
Torch flashlight
b)Stylistic synonyms – synonyms differing in style.
Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality. In other words, some words tend to be more formal, others casual, and still others neutral in style.
英语语言学笔记第三章
当人们在统计一篇文章或一段话中的频率时，看到一组名词如boy、boys或一组动词如check、checks、checked、checking，会分别把它们当作两个词、四个词计算。可是，在词典里它们各自被看作一个词，如这两个名词形式共用词根"boy"，四个动词形式全都共用词根"check"。因此，词是在一组形式之下的共同要素，是词汇的单位，是一个词条，或是一个词位。
为了减少"词"这一术语的含糊性，词位（lexeme）被假定为语言词汇系统中潜在于最小单位之下的抽象单位，而最小单位是在不同的语法环境中出现的。例如，"write"和"fat"分别是例3－3中两组词的词位。
例3－3
write fat
writes fatter
wrote fattest
writing
written
ⅱ.助动词
以前习惯于把助动词（auxiliary）看作动词。因为其特有的性质，很难让人们将它们看作动词，现在语言学家倾向于把它们当作一个单独的词类。下面我们比较一下助动词和其他普通动词的用法：
例3－10
否定I（can't）come.
* I（wantn't）come.
倒置（Is he）coming?
*（Keeps he）coming?
（4）词类
上面所说的类别似乎是普遍的。要划分词类，更现实的方法是分析词在语言中的不同的语法特征、语义特征和音系特征，或者根据形态变化和分布方面的形式相似性来给词分组。在传统语法中词类（part of speech）是封闭的。基于拉丁语法的传统，一般建立八个或九个词类，如"名词"、"代词"、"形容词"、"动词"、"副词"、"介词"、"连词"、"感叹词"和"冠词"。
自考英语词汇学稳过笔记
自考英语词汇学00832Chapter1【单词的角度】1.In visual terms: word is a meaningful group of letters printed or written horizontally in the peace of paper.2.In spoken language: word is a sound and combination of sound.3.In semanticists: a word is a unit of meaning .4.In grammarians: a word be a free form that can function in the sentences.【单词的定义】A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.1)a minimal free from of a language;2)a sound unity;3)a unit of meaning;4)a form that can function alone in a sentence.【音和义的关系】The connection of the sound and meaning is arbitrary and conventional, and \ * there is no. logical reJationshjp between sound and meaning. E.g woman-femme-funu【音和形不同的原因】Sound and form1.More phonemes than letters in English.2.Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling.3.Some of the differences are created by the early. scribes.识［记u二o\ .deliberately changed'not ended/n,v'+e)(printing&dictionary 选择题).4.Borrowing.【词汇的定义】Vocabulary not only can it refer to a total number of words in a language, but it can stand for all the words use in a particular historical period.(1,000,000)Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content.填空题【词汇的分类】①Use frequently----basic word stock：is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated for centuries and forms the common core of language.l.all national character 2. stability 3.productivity 4.polysemy 5.collocability 选择题多/记例子*) nonbasic vocabulary：(1. terminology consist of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas. E.g photoscanning.(2. jargon refers to specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts,science,trades and professions communicate among themselves. E.g hypo.(3. slang : belongs to the sub-standard language. (colourful,blunt,impressive,expressive)e.g bear.(4. argot:jargon of criminals. E.g dip.(5. dialectal words: used only by speakers of the dialect in question. E.g coo(cow)(6. archaisms: were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use(7. neologisms:are newly-created words or expression ,or words that have taken on new meanings. E.g E-mail.*(选择题)All national character: natural phenomena/names of plant and animal/human body and relations/action,domain,size,state/num,pron,conj,prep)②Notion (多为选择题)content words =notional words (n/v/a/adj/num)：denotes clear notions and thus are known as notional words.functional words =empty words =form words (prep/conj/aux/art/人称代词)数量小且稳定③Origin--- native words('Anglo-Saxon words 5 万-6 万’)[5+2]6.neutral in style.(neither formal nor informal) E.g begin7.frequent in useborrowed words=loan words =borrowing : words taken over from foreign language.(1. denizens：words borrowed early in the past and well assimilated into the English language.E.g cup-cuppa./2 aliens :are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. E.g kowtow./ 3.translation-loans :words and expression formed from the existing material in the English language and modelled on the patterns from foreign language.E.g long time no see/ 4.semantic-loans : are not borrowed with references to the form,but their meanings are borrowed. E.g dream)Charter2【词汇时期分类】Indo-European family (Europe+the Near East+India 选择题)因An eastern set (BIAA ) [in B with PPBLCRS] [in I with PBHR]二/^选择题多 因An western set (CIHG ) [in G with NLDS.北欧语言.scandination+GDFE]Middle English /1150-1500/Modern English /1500-1700-now/ synthetic language to analytic language0 现代英语发展来源 l.the rapid development of modern sciences and technology. 2.social,economic and political changes.3.influence of other cultures and language.这两货容易混淆!简答题0 现代英语发展模式:1 creation: refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots,affixes and other elements. 2 semantic change : means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.3 borrowing 主要贡献语言 E ,L ,G ,F ,S ).4.reviving archaic or obsolete words.常考Chapter 3【词素】 Morphemes : is the smallest functional unit in the composition of words.E.g. Denationalization .can. broken, into de-,nation,-al,-ize,-ation,each having meaning of its own,these fragments can’t be further divided,otherwise they would not make any sense.【单词素】monomorphemic words are morphemes that can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. (少考)【词素变体】Allomorph : realized by more than one morph according their position in a word. Free morpheme = free root“bound rootBound morpheme J _ prefix L affix derivational affix - suffixL Inflectional affix【自由词素】Free morpheme : morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free, these morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be use as free grammatical units in sentences.(free morpheme are free roots.)【复合词素】Bound morpheme:is a morpheme that occurs with at least one other morphemes. ( (Old English /450-1150 /full endings+Anglo-Saxonleveled endings【复合词根】Bound root carries the fundamental meaning just like free root, unlike free root,it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.【词缀】Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function./according to the function, affixes can be grouped into the.....《答题技巧【曲折词缀】Inflectional affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional.【派生词缀】Derivational affixes are affixes add to other morphemes to create new words.【词根】A root is that part of word-form that remains when all inflectional affixes and derivational affixes have been removed. E.g nation【词干】A stem can be defined as a form that affixes of any kind can be added. E.g internationalChapter 4一. 【词缀法】Affixation: defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stem. This process also know as derivation.Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stem. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem,but only modify its meaning. E.g ex-boyfriend (9个*见表格)Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stem, they mainly change the word class. E.g happy-happiness (4个*见表格)二 .【复合法】Compounding : also know as .composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.【复合词】Compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word. E.g .silkworm,honey—bee,. easy chair (compound can be written solid,hyphenated. and open)Compound 和free phrase 的区别/不同1.phonet ic features. E.g a ‘fat head(c) a fat ‘head(p)2.Semantic features.. E.g a green hand当做一个单词的意思用，意思和短语不一样3.grammatical features. E.g bad-mouth can used as a verb“he bad-mouthed me” 短语不能用作动词三. 【转类法】Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Also known as functional shift.【零派生】Zero-conversion: conversion is generally considered to be a derivational process whereby an item is adapted or converted to a new word without the addition of an affix. E.g simple single；paper；round【形转名】Adjective converts to nouns: unlike verbs, not all adjectives which converted can achieve a. full .noun, status.（全部转类）Full conversion: a noun fully converted from adjective has all characteristics of nouns.E.g a white;finals.（部分转类）Partial conversion: nouns partially converted from adjective do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with definite articles, what’s more, they retain some of the adjective features. E.g the poor=poor people, the poorer=【形转动】Most verbs converted from adjectives have both transitive and intransitive functions.E.g wet= ’make...wet’/ yellow =‘become yellow’【零派生和后缀法的区别】书本P56最后一段simple和single为例Both are adjectives, but single can be used as a verb without changing the form. In contrast, simple cannot function as a verb without adding an affix. The first instance is Zero-conversion which an item is adapted or converted to a new word without the addition of an affix. The second is Suffixation, the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stem, they mainly change the word class.【转类其他三种变化】In some case, conversion is accompanied by certain changes which affect pronunciation or spelling or stress distribution 重音. ’E.g use/s/n-/z/v, shelf/f/n-shelve/v/v, 'conduct（n）-con'duct（v）（少考）VA noun can be converted to a verb without any change. The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid. Concise and impressive （选择题）e.g elbow四.【拼缀法】Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. E.g somg=smoke+foghead+tail/head+tail/head+word/word +tail （记例子^）答题技巧medicare a. combination .of medical+care五.【截短法】Clipping is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. E.g bus from omnibus,exam,plane (to save time ; economical in writing)Front clipping/back clipping/front and back clipping/phrase clipping (选择题/填空题)答题技巧flu is. the. shortened from, of influenza六.【首字母拼音法】Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters.(首字母拼写法)Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. E.g UFO BBC CCTV.(首字母拼音法)Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g AIDS BASIC B-day.七.【逆生法】Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes, is considered to opposite process of suffixation. E.g beg from beggar. (informal)八 . 【专有名词】Words from proper name: sandwichWords that are commonized from proper nouns have rich cultural associations and thus stylistically vivid, impressive and thought-provoking.Chapter 5【词义的三层含义】The meaning of/meaning,选择题多1.Reference: is the relationship between language and the world. (the reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional, this connection is the result of generalization and abstraction)2.Concept: which is beyond the language,is the result of the human cognition,reflecting the objective world in the human mind.3.Sense:denotes the relationship inside the language. (it is also an abstraction. Every word that has meaning has sense not every word has reference. E.g but,if)-meaningWord form -pronunciation.Spelling【四大理据】Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.(选择题)1.Onomatopoetic motivation：in modern English some words whose sounds suggest, their meaning, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. E.g bang2.Morphological motivation: concerned the words whose ,morphologicaj. structures suggest,their meaning, for generally speaking, the meaning of a derived word or a compound is based on the meaning of word-building elements. E.g airmail3.Semantic motivation: refers to the mental association suggested by the conceptual meaning ofa word. E.g pen-sword4.Etymological motivation: the meaning of many words often relate directly to their origins, in other word, the history of a word explain the meaning of the word. E.g laconic(所有专有名词都是词源理据)【词义的类型】常考名词解释&填空题/8个1.Grammatical meaning： refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates the grammatical concept and relationship. (such as part of the speech of word,singular and plural meaning of nuns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms. Grammatical meaning of a word become important only when it is used in a actual context.)2.Lexical meaning.is that part of word meaning when grammatical meaning is removed. It embrace two components: conceptual and associative meaning.①Conceptual meaning: (know as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of the word-meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basic for communication as the same word has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same language. E.g sun 太阳②Associative meaning：is the secondary supplemented of conceptual meaning. It differs form conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate.a.Connotaive meaning: refers to the overtone or associations suggested by the conceptualmeaning. E.g home, motherb.Stylistic meaning : many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate fordifferent context. E.g charger 战马/horse [formal-neutral-informal]c.Affective meanin g :indicates the speaker’s attitude towards person or thing in question.E.g dog [appreciative:famous / pejorative:notorious]d.Collocative meaning : consists of associations a word acquires in its collocation. E.g.pretty/handsome, green-grammatical meaningmeaning le lexical meaning「conceptual meaning一「connotative meaning-associative meaning stylistic meaningaffective meaning一collocative meaningChapter 6词与词的关系一. 【一词多义】Polysemy：words that have two or more than two sense.1.【历时法】Diachronic approach: from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of the growth and development of the semantic structure of one and some word.'primary meaning:is the only first meaning that a word had when it was created.'derived meaning:with the advance of time and the development of language,it took more and more meanings.E.g face2.【共时法】Synchronic approach: synchronically, polysemy is viewed as a coexistence of various meaning of the same word in the certain historical period of time.' secondary meaning 选择题' central meaning: the basic meaning of a wordE.g gay【一词多义G发展方法】常考！1 .【辐射型】Radiation：it means each of the derived meanings is directly connected to the primary meaning. E.g neck,face2 .【连锁型】Concatenation : it refers to a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. E.g treacle【1 和 2 的不同点和关系】unlike radiation where each of the derived meanings is directly connected to the primary meaning,concatenation it refers to a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the origin there is no direct connection in between.Radiation and concatenation are closely related, being different stages of developmentleading to polysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many case, the two processes work together, complementing each other.(分析题)二.【同形同音异义】Homonymy : word different in meaning, but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.【类型】1.perfect homonyms: are words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.E.g bear 熊,bear 忍受2.homographs: are words identical only in spelling but different in both sound and meaning.E.g bow /ba。
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1。
词汇学是以语言中的词和词汇作为研究对象的一门学科。
2。
词的意义的体现，则有事物、思维和语言结构三者。
因而词的基本分类，则有客体、特征、状态和代替之别。
据此研究，一在抓词的理据；二在抓词的变化，考察哪些意义变化引起哪些形式变化和哪些形式变化引起哪些意义变化。
即通过词的结构分析，串连语音、形态、语义的内在联系和词义系统相符的名词，确定词与词间的语源关系，从而寻求词根及其衍化轨迹。
现代词汇学的研究，不能再墨守传统训访学的方式和方法。
既要由上而下地从经籍递推到大众口语，又要根据大众的词汇逆溯到它们最初的来源。
这样，对词形结构的分析，词义发展的识别和语音衍化的探讨，才能有所创获。
3。
对于某一发展阶段上的语言体系的描写和研究又叫共时的或静态的研究；对于语言体系及其各个组成部分在历史上的发展变化的研究又叫历时的或演化的研究。
“共时性”(synchronie)和“历时性” (diachronie)这两个概念是瑞士语言学家索绪尔(Ferdinand de Saussurel857—1913)在他的《普通语言学教程》里首先提出来的。
索绪尔对“共时”和“历时”的解释是，“有关我们这门科学的静态方面的一切都是共时的，涉及演他的一切都是历时的”“共时和历时分别指一种语言状态和一种演化情况。
”汉译本《普通语言学教程》，商务印书馆，1980，页119. （P2）4。
个别语言词汇学又可以分为历史词汇学和描写词汇学。
前者研究语言的词汇在历史过程中的发展，后者研究在历史发展的某一阶段(一般是指现阶段)语言的词汇系统的状况和特点。
自然，二者也是相互为用，不可以截然划分开来的。
（P2）5。
若是研究一个民族的古代历久那就更加用得着词汇学(特别是历史词汇学)的知识。
正如当代语言学家丰克 (Wilfred Funk)在《词的来源和它们的传奇故事》(Word Origin and Their Romantic Stories，1950)中所说，“词汇也象个小窗户，通过它可以熟悉一个民族的过去。
”有时候在缺乏其他史料的情况下，语言材料(主要是词汇材料)就成了研究古代历史上某一个问题的重要依据甚至是唯一依据。
（P7）6。
把语言材料应用于古代历史的研，在西方创始于德国语言学家雅各·格林(JakobGrimml785—1863)。
他的著名论点是：“我们的语言也就是我们的历史。
”（J。
Grimm：《K1einere Schriften》 (小品集)第1册，1864，页290.转引自阿巴耶夫：《语言史和民族史》，《民族问题译丛》1957年第12期，页13。
）（P7）7。
分别来说历史词汇学的知识能够帮助解决古代民族史上如下三方面的问题：1)民族起源，即一个民族的起源和形成过程如何，它跟哪些别的民族有亲属关系；2)民族文化历史，即一个民族在各个历史阶段上的文化水平及其主要特点如何；3)民族间互相交往和影响，即一个民族在历史上跟哪些别的民族发生过关系，它受到过它们哪些影响，又对它们有过哪些影响。
解决头一个问题主要依靠基本词汇的材料，而解决后两个问题就还要利用一般词汇的捞料，因为一个民族的物质生活和精神生活的特点及变化都会在语言的词汇中留下它们的痕迹。
（P8）8。
总括词的语言外部联系和语言内部联系两个方面，就可以看出一种语言的词汇是在历史上形成并不断发展的社会现象，它本身构成一个完整的体系；词和词之间、词和语言的其他要素之间以及词和客观现实之间都存在着不可分割的多种多样的联系。
P149。
任何事物或现象都具有多种特征或标志，可是人们给一个事物或现象命名，却只能选择它的某一种特征或标志作为依据。
由于这种选择在一定程度上是任意的，所以在不同的语言里同一事物获得名称的依据都可能有所不同。
这就是说，在不同的语言里表达同一概念的词可能具有不同的内部形式。
P2710。
P28由于语言里的某些词汇成分在历史发展过程中的消亡或者它们的语音、意义和形态的演变，一个词常常会跟它所由形成的词失去语义上的联系而“孤立”起来，从而它的内部形式也就变得模糊不明，甚至完全被人们遗忘。
这种现象就叫做词的内部形式磨灭或词源中断(de-etymologisation)。
虽然如此，我们借助于历史语言学和历史比较语言学的方法(如古音的重建、音变规律的确立、同族词或同根词的系联、亲属语言里同源词的比较)，已经模糊的词的内部形式往往是可以重新揭示出来的。
11。
P31词的内部形式在中国训诂学中叫做“名义”。
历代训诂学家，特别是清代学者段玉裁、王念孙、王引之和现代学者刘师培(1884一1920)、杨树达(1885—1956)等人，在这方面作过很多研究，取得了很好的成绩。
他们根据“音义相关”、“声近义通”的道理来探求事物的“得名之由”，这实质上就是我们现在所说的依据古音，系联同族词或同根词去揭示词的内部形式。
他们运用这种方法重新发现了许多词的业已模糊的内部形式。
如上所述词的内部形式的消亡会使本来互相关联的词失掉联系，那么词的内部形式的再现自然就意味着这些词之间的联系重新被我们认识。
显然这对于我们理解语言词汇的系统性和发展史是大有稗益的。
过去的训诂学家留结我们的这一份语言学遗产是值得我们很好地继承的。
12。
词义和概念P43。
词义是具有民族特点的语言范畴，而概念一般说来是各民族共通的逻辑范畴。
P44。
词义和概念的关系和区别。
(1)词是概念产生和存在的必要条件，但是并非每一个词都有概念作为自己的基础，尽管每一个词都具有意义。
(2)概念是一个思维的范畴，不带感情色彩；与此相反，许多词的意义却不仅反映客观事物，而且还表现对客观事物的态度。
这种蕴涵在词义里的对客观事物的感情态度(如尊重、羡慕、喜爱、赞许、轻蔑、厌恶、憎恨等)就叫做词义的感情色彩。
(3)属于思维范畴的概念一般说来各民族是共通的，而属于语言范畴的词义则具有明显的民族特点。
P45 (4)词义和概念的非同一性还表现在：一方面，一个概念可以由几个词构成的词组来表达，即一个概念由几个词的意义来表现，如“高元音”、“低元音”；另一方面，几个彼此联系的概念可以由一个词来表示，多义词的情况就是如此。
(5)一个词的意义跟语言里其他相关的词的意义共同形成—个意义体系；由于各个词义的互相制约，一个词的意义范围可能跟相应的概念的外延或内涵不相一致。
(6)许多概念本是界限分明的，但表达这些概念的词却可能把这些界限打破，使词义变成模糊的了。
13。
P50总括起来，词的词汇意义的类型可以列表表示如下A．历时的分类基本意义——引申意义词源意义——现行意义B．共时的分类a．语义学的分类直接意义——转移意义具体意义——抽象意义中心意义——边缘意义b．风格学的分类中性意义——带风格色彩的意义14。
P56。
词义变化有各种不同的分类法，其中最通行的是发生学分类法，即根据引起词义变化的原因来分类的方法。
按照这种分类法，词义的变化可以分为由语言外部的原因(如社会历史的原因)引起的变化和由语言内部的原因引起的变化两大类。
词义既然是表现概念的，它就不能不随着概念的变化而变化。
这就是说，人的思维的发展变化和词义的发展变化有着直接的联系。
人的思维从具体到抽象、从特殊到一般的发展都反映在语言里，反映在词义的变化里。
思维从具体到抽象的发展和从特殊到一般的发展是紧密联系的，抽象化的过程往往同时就是一般化的过程。
P57。
物质文化的发展、人对客观事物和现象的新的认识也是导致词义变化的原因。
随着文化和认识的发展，有的概念变得陈旧了或者消亡了，于是表示这些概念的词有的改变了自己的意义……有的就干脆死亡了。
人类在改造世界的过程中不断有新的发现和发明。
语言里反映这些新事物的手段除了创造新词以外就是赋予旧词以新的意义。
由于功能相同或相似而引起的名称的转移也因人类的创造发明有着联系。
达就是说，一种事物被另一种起着同样或类似作用的事物所代替，旧事物的名称就会转移到新事物上来。
例如，“布”：麻布或葛布——棉布，灯；油灯——电灯；……生产方式和社会状况的改变也会引起词义的变化。
此外，词义的变化或名称的转移还有人类心理的原因。
15。
P58。
词义变化的内部原因，即语言学的原因，是多种多样的，但是也可以归结为一条，这就是：任何一个词无论在语言里或言语里都不是孤立的，而是跟别的有关的词彼此联系着的；语言的词汇不是词的偶然的堆积，而是构成一定的体系：每当一个新词或新义加入语言的词汇体系，它就要跟词汇里已有的相关助词或词义相互影响，从而导致词义的变化。
16。
关于词义变化有三种分类法（1）发生学的分类法（2）心理学的分类法（3）逻辑的分类法17。
P60词义变化的逻辑分类法是德国语言学家赫尔曼．保罗(Hermann Paul l846——1921)在他的《语言史原理》(Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte，1880)里首先提出来的。
稍后法国语言学家布勒阿尔在他的《论语义学》(Essai de semantique，1897)里也有类似的论述。
到了本世纪，语义变化的这一种分类法又通过汪德里耶斯的《语言论》(Le langage，1921)等比较通俗而影响巨大的著作而得到了广泛的传播。
按照这种分类法，词义的变化分为四类：1)意义的缩小。
2)意义的扩大，3)意义的易位或转移，4)其他类型。
18。
所谓意义缩小就是指词义所表示的概念内涵增加，外延缩小，即旧意义相当于属概念而新意义则相当于种概念。
所谓意义扩大就是指词义所表示的概念内涵减少，外延扩大，即旧意义相当于种概念而新意义则相当于属概念。
19。
P68。
根据词的这种语义分类的原则从词所表达的概念出发来编制的词典，也就是按照词的意义分组编排的词典，叫做“概念词典”(conceptual dictionary)或“义典”。
我国最早的一部训诂书《尔雅》可以说就是一部雏形的概念词典。
20。
P94。
外来词按借用的来源和时代分类：1)先秦两汉时代来源于中亚诸语言的外来词；2)魏晋南北朝时代来源于梵语的外来词；3)唐宋元时代来源于突厥语、蒙古语的外来词；4)戊戌政变(1898)至辛亥革命(1911)时期来源于日语的外来词，5l) “五四”运动(1919)以后来源于英语的外来词；6)中华人民共和国成立以后来源于俄语的外来词；7)其他来源于南海诸语言和国内少数民族语言的外来词；等等。
21。
P98关于外来词还有一种特殊现象值得一提。
这就是甲语言借用了乙语言一个词，后来乙语言又把这个词重新借回去；由于在借用过程中发生了词义的变化和语音的传讹，这个“归侨”的声音面貌也就跟原来不一样了。
22。
P100。
所谓术语就是用来准确地表达某个知识部门、生产部门或文化部门所特有的概念的词和词组。
作为一类特殊的词，术语的特点首先表现在它的意义结构上。
即术语只包含具有明确的语义范围的称谓意义(自由意义)或直接意义。