现代劳动经济学中文课后习题答案
劳动经济学课后习题答案整理
劳动经济学课后习题答案整理劳动经济学人力0901出品个别题目未在书本上找到答案，请自行整理，谢谢～第一章导言1、劳动、劳动力、劳动经济学、劳动关系、人口经济学、人力资源管理如何理解。
劳动:在有些情况下，劳动是指“劳动力”。
而在其他情况下，它可能指劳动过程或一种有目的的工作或活动。
劳动在劳动经济学中的含义更多的是涉及劳动力。
劳动力:传统或者早期的概念是指从事体力劳动为主的“劳工”，即“工人阶级”或产业工人。
马克思理论把劳动力划分为生产部门的劳动者和非生产部门的劳动者。
知识经济时代脑力与体力劳动者的差别已不表现在劳动的本质特征上。
“员工”这一范畴被企业以及各类组织广泛使用。
劳动经济学:劳动经济学是对劳动力资源配置市场经济活动过程中的劳动力需求和供给行为，及其影响因素的分析和研究。
劳动关系:，除吸收劳动经济学的基本理论分析之外，借鉴社会学、法学、组织行为学和政治科学等学科领域成果，成为了一个跨学科训练的领域。
人口经济学:人口经济学研究人口的生产与再生产的经济问题。
自然人口增长的经济规律，特别是人口对物质资源消费的影响是其集中要研究的对象和任务。
它更多地将人作为消费者来看待。
人力资源管理:2、谈谈你对劳动经济学的研究表述的理解。
劳动经济学的研究特点:劳动经济学与普通经济学有所不同，前者将问题的注意力投向了人们工作的范围，后者主要是将人从消费者的角度加以观察和认识的。
对劳动力的需求是一种派生需求，是对产品的需求所派生和导引出的一种需求。
商品市场和资本市场的波动变化将影响劳动力市场。
因此，在研究劳动经济问题时，不能摆脱商品市场和资本市场来孤立进行劳动经济的分析和研究，即所谓不能就劳动来谈劳动，不能就劳动力来谈劳动力。
劳动经济学研究应注意的问题:(1)应加强对劳动力市场的经济学分析。
(2)应结合产品市场和资本市场来研究和处理劳动力市场的问题。
(3)不能脱离一个国家一定时期的劳动力市场上的制度和全球化及网络经济发展的背景。
劳动经济学课后练习题答案
第 1 页 共15 页 第一章劳动力的含义：劳动力是人所特有的一种能力。
劳动力是人所特有的一种能力。
劳动力是存在于活的人体中的能力。
劳动力是存在于活的人体中的能力。
劳动力是人在劳动中所运用的能力。
劳动力是人在劳动中所运用的能力。
劳动力是人在劳动中运用的体力和智力的总和。
劳动力需求：（如何理解劳动力需求的含义？） 所谓劳动力需求，是指一定时期内，在某种工资率下雇主愿意并能够雇用到的劳动力的数量。
有三个问题与劳动力需求的概念密切相关。
与劳动力需求的概念密切相关。
（一）（一） 劳动力需求是派生性需求劳动力需求是派生性需求 1、劳动力需求是生产活动的需求。
、劳动力需求是生产活动的需求。
2、劳动力需求是对物质产品和服务需求的一种派生需求。
需求。
（二）边际生产率理论是劳动力需求理论的支持理论之一之一（三）劳动力需求是意愿和支付能力的统一（三）劳动力需求是意愿和支付能力的统一 劳动力需求曲线：是用几何图形的形式表述劳动力需求的概念，劳动力需求曲线是一条从左上向右下倾斜的曲线，它充分说明了在其他条件不变的情况下，劳动力需求量与工资率之间的反向联系。
率之间的反向联系。
短期劳动力需求：所谓短期劳动力需求是指在资本存量不变，惟一可变的因素是劳动投入量时，即在资本投入量不会变化、技术条件也不变的条件下对劳动力的需求。
技术条件也不变的条件下对劳动力的需求。
长期劳动力需求：长期劳动力需求则是指在企业的一切生产要素，不论是资本、技术，还是劳动力要素都是可变的，还是劳动力要素都是可变的，即任何即任何条件都可能变化时对劳动力的需求。
条件都可能变化时对劳动力的需求。
劳动力需求弹性：（何谓劳动力需求弹性？） 劳动力需求弹性是一般需求弹性概念的属概念，也具有一般需求弹性的各种性质。
有一般需求弹性的各种性质。
按绝对值的大小，劳动力需求弹性可以呈现五种状态：态：（1）劳动力需求弹性等于零。
）劳动力需求弹性等于零。
（2）劳动力需求弹性小于1。
劳动经济学课后题答案
劳经复习资料第一章：1、谈谈你对劳动经济学研究表述的理解：劳动经济学的研究对象：第一：在效用最大化假设下，劳动力资源的投入产出机理。
第二：劳动经济学研究劳动力市场的运行和结果。
第三：劳动经济学是对劳动力资源配置的市场经济活动过程中的劳动力需求和供给的行为及其影响因素的分析和研究。
劳动经济学研究方法：第一：实证经济学分析方法：在一定的假设前提下，人们的行为是怎样的。
两个假设前提：稀缺性；理性第二：规范经济学研究方法：用一定的价值观去衡量经济效益的好坏和制度政策的利弊，分析经济行为人的选择该是什么的问题劳动经济学的研究特点：第一：将问题的注意力投向了人们的工作范围第二：研究劳动经济问题的时候，不能脱离商品市场和资本市场来孤立的进行劳动经济的分析和研究。
2、举例说明运用实证经济学或规范经济学研究现实劳动经济或者人力资源管理问题的价值。
规范经济学：从本质上讲，它的根本价值尺度是以互惠原则作为基础的出发点，互惠原则有三点：第一：市场交易活动所涉及的各方均受益，无人受到损失。
例如：企业高薪聘用经验丰富，能力足够强的外籍主管，对企业方来说此人将给企业带来相当大的价值，对个人来说将获取丰厚的回报。
第二：市场交易活动中，部分人受益但无人受到损失。
正如上例所说，在企业和个人双方均获得收益时，对于其他那些企业或者市场上的高管应聘者来说，并未因此受到损失。
第三：最为常见的既有受益者又有损失者，但总体上来说，受益者受益的程度或数量超过损失者损失的程度或数量。
例如在很多发达国家的劳动立法反对招聘中的学历歧视，对有的企业带来招聘成本的上升，但是对总体而言提高了社会人力资源配置的效率，利大于弊。
第二章：名词解释：1.派生需求（简答题）：是指对生产要素的需求，意味着它是由对该要素参与生产的产品的需求派生出来的，又称“引致需求”，即对一种生产要素的需求来自对另一种产品的需求。
2.劳动的边际成本：使用一单位量劳动力所耗费的成本，即工资3.劳动的边际收益：增加一单位量的劳动力所增加的收益，即劳动边际产品价值4.使用劳动要素的原则：增加一单位劳动的使用所带来的“边际收益”和“边际成本”必须相等5.竞争性劳动市场：产品和要素市场上供求的双方人数都很多，产品要素之间没有区别，产品和要素的供求双方都具有完全的信息并且可以充分自由的流动6.买方垄断企业：是指企业劳动力市场是垄断者，而在产品市场上是完全竞争者7.劳动的边际产品价值（就是劳动的边际收益）8.替代效应: 劳动使用量从LA降低到LB，资本使用量从KA上升到KB，即企业用资本代替了劳动。
现代劳动经济学课后【伊兰伯格】课后习题答案
INSTRUCTOR'S MANUALto accompanyEhrenberg & SmithModern Labor Economics:Theory & Public PolicyEighth EditionRobert S. SmithCornell UniversityRobert M. WhaplesWake Forest UniversityLawrence WohlGustavus Adolphus UniversityCopyright 2003 Addison-Wesley, Inc.All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission from the publisher, except testing materials and transparency masters may be copied for classroom use. For information, address Addison-Wesley Higher Education, Pearson PLC 75 Arlington Street, Suite 300, Boston, Massachusetts 02116.A NOTE TO THE INSTRUCTORThis Instructor's Manual is intended to summarize the content of the eighth edition of Modern Labor Economics: Theory and Public Policy in a way that explains our pedagogical strategy. Summarized briefly, we believe that labor economics can be best learned if students are (1) able to see the "big picture" early on, so that new concepts can be placed in perspective; (2) moved carefully from concepts they already know to new ones; (3) motivated by seeing the policy implications or inherently interesting insights generated by the concepts being taught. To this last end, we discuss policy issues in every chapter and, in addition, employ "boxed examples" to demonstrate in historical, cross-cultural, or applied managerial settings the power of the concepts introduced.The text is designed to be accessible to students with limited backgrounds in economics. We do employ graphic analyses and equations as learning aids in various chapters; however, we are careful to precede their use with verbal explanations of the analyses and to introduce these aids in a step-by-step fashion. To help students in the application of concepts to various issues, we have printed answers to the odd-numbered review questions for each chapter at the back of the book.We have also endeavored to put together a text that, while accessible to all, is a comprehensive and up-to-date survey of modern labor economics. There are 9 chapter appendices designed to be used with more advanced students in generating additional insights.In the first part of this Instructor's Manual, we present a brief overview and the general plan of Modern Labor Economics. We then present a chapter-by-chapter review of the concepts presented in the text. In the discussion of each chapter we list the major concepts or understandings covered, and in some cases suggest topics or sections that could be eliminated if time must be conserved. We also present our answers to the even-numbered review questions at the end of each chapter.An important part of this Instructor's Manual are the suggested essay questions related to each chapter. We present a few suggested essay questions for each chapter.Table of ContentsClick on the chapter title to jump directly to that page.Overview of the Text 1 Chapter 1 Introduction 4 Chapter 2 Overview of the Labor Market8 Chapter 3 The Demand for Labor14 Chapter 4 Labor Demand Elasticities20 Chapter 5 Quasi-Fixed Labor Costs and Their Effects on Demand26 Chapter 6 Supply of Labor to the Economy: The Decision to Work32 Chapter 7 Labor Supply: Household Production, the Family, and the Life Cycle37 Chapter 8 Compensating Wage Differentials and Labor Markets45 Chapter 9 Investments in Human Capital: Education and Training51 Chapter 10 Worker Mobility: Migration, Immigration, and Turnover57 Chapter 11 Pay and Productivity62 Chapter 12 Gender, Race, and Ethnicity in the Labor Market68 Chapter 13 Unions and the Labor Market77 Chapter 14 Inequality in Earnings84 Chapter 15 Unemployment88OVERVIEW OF THE TEXTINTRODUCTION/REVIEW: Chapters 1 and 2Chapter 1 - IntroductionAppendix 1A - Statistical Testing of Labor Market Hypotheses Chapter 2 - Overview of the Labor MarketChapters 1 and 2 introduce basic concepts of labor economics. They are written to be accessible to students without backgrounds in intermediate theory, and can, therefore, be used as building blocks when a professor must "begin at the beginning." If the course is being taught to economics majors with intermediate microeconomics as a prerequisite, these chapters may be skipped or skimmed quickly as a review.An appendix to Chapter 1 introduces the student to econometrics. The purpose of this appendix is to present enough of the basic econometric concepts and issues to permit students to read papers employing ordinary least squares regression techniques. We strongly recommend assigning Appendix 1A in courses requiring students to read empirical papers in the field. We also recommend (in footnote 3 of the appendix) an introductory econometrics text that could be assigned by instructors who wish to go beyond our introductory treatment.THE DEMAND FOR LABOR: Chapters 3-5Chapter 3 - The Demand for LaborAppendix 3A - Graphic Derivation of a Firm's Labor Demand Curve Chapter 4 - Labor Demand ElasticitiesAppendix 4A - International Trade and the Demand for Labor: Can High-Wage Countries Compete?Chapter 5 - Quasi-Fixed Labor Costs and Their Effects on DemandThe demand for labor is discussed first primarily because we believe that the supply of labor is a more complex topic in many ways. Before analyzing the labor/leisure choice and household production, we first introduce students to the employer side of the market. For instructors who desire to cover topics concerned with the decision to work first, however, we note that Chapters 6 and 7, which deals with that decision, are self-contained. Therefore, nothing would be lost if Chapters 6 and 7 were taught ahead of Chapters 3, 4, and 5.In Chapter 3 the principal question analyzed is why demand curves slope downward. In Chapter 4 we move to a discussion of the elasticity of demand, and analyze the determinants of the precise relationship between wages and employment. The concepts are used to analyze how technological change and foreign trade affect labor demand. Finally, Chapter 5 analyzes the quasi-fixed nature of many labor costs and the ways these costs affect the demand for labor.SUPPLY OF LABOR TO THE ECONOMY: Chapters 6 and 7Chapter 6 - Supply of Labor to the Economy: The Decision to WorkChapter 7 - Labor Supply: Household Production, the Family, and the Life Cycle Chapters 6 and 7 analyze the decision of an individual to work for pay. The traditional analysis of the labor/leisure choice is given in Chapter 6, while in Chapter 7 the decision to work for pay is placed in the context of household production. The essential features of the decision to work for pay are included in Chapter 6. In one-quarter courses or courses in which time is scarce, Chapter 7 could be skipped; however, doing so would eliminate analyses of family labor supply decisions as well as labor supply decisions in the context of the life cycle.As noted above, Chapters 6 and 7 are designed to be self-contained for the convenience of instructors who wish to teach labor supply ahead of labor demand.FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF EMPLOYMENT: Chapters 8-10 Chapter 8 - Compensating Wage Differentials and Labor MarketsAppendix 8A - Compensating Wage Differentials and Layoffs Chapter 9 - Investments in Human Capital: Education and TrainingAppendix 9A - A "Cobweb” Model of Labor Market AdjustmentAppendix 9B - A Hedonic Model of Earnings and Educational Level Chapter 10 - Worker Mobility: Migration, Immigration, and TurnoverOnce they have decided to seek employment, prospective workers encounter important choices concerning their occupation and industry, as well as the general location of their employment. Chapters 8 through 10 analyze these choices, with Chapters 8 and 9 focusing on industry/occupational choice and Chapter 10 on the choice of a specific employer and the location of employment. More particularly, Chapter 8 presents an analysis of job choice within the context of jobs that differ along nonpecuniary dimensions. Chapters 9 and 10 analyze issues affecting worker investments in skill acquisition (Chapter 9) and job change (Chapter 10), and both employ the concepts of human capital theory. All three chapters contain appendices of interest to instructors who wish to teach more advanced material.ANALYSES OF SPECIAL TOPICS IN LABOR ECONOMICS: Chapters 11-15 Chapter 11 - Pay and ProductivityChapter 12 - Gender, Race, and Ethnicity in the Labor MarketAppendix 12A - Estimating "Comparable Worth" Earnings Gaps: AnApplication of Regression AnalysisChapter 13 - Unions and the Labor MarketAppendix 13A - Arbitration and the Bargaining Contract ZoneChapter 14 - Inequality in EarningsAppendix 14A - Lorenz Curves and Gini CoefficientsChapter 15 - UnemploymentHaving presented basic concepts and analytical tools necessary to understand the demand and supply sides of the labor market, we now move to analyses of special topics: compensation, discrimination, unions, inequality, and unemployment. A complete analysis of all these topics requires an understanding of behavior on both the demand and supply sides of the market, and these chapters are built upon the preceding ten. No new analytical tools are introduced in these chapters.The chapters on unionism (Chapter 13) and discrimination (Chapter 12) deal with issues typically covered in labor economics courses, but they are more comprehensive than most other texts. It should be noted that the appendix to Chapter 12 includes an application of regression analysis. The chapter on inequality is unique and can be skipped without a loss in coverage of conventional material; however, it is written in a way that provides a review of material in previous chapters.CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTIONBecause the textbook stresses economic analysis as it applies to the labor market, students must understand the ways economic analyses are used. The basic purpose of Chapter 1 is to introduce students to the two major modes of economic analysis: positive and normative. Because both modes of analysis rest on some very fundamental assumptions, Chapter 1 discusses the bases of each mode in some detail.In our treatment of positive economics, the concept of rationality is defined and discussed, as is the underlying concept of scarcity. There is, in addition, a lengthy discussion of what an economic model is, and an example of the behavioral predictions flowing from such a model is presented. The discussion of normative economics emphasizes its philosophical underpinnings and includes a discussion of the conditions under which a market would fail to produce results consistent with the normative criteria. Labor market examples of governmental remedies are provided.The appendix to Chapter 1 introduces the student to ordinary least squares regression analysis. It begins with univariate analysis, introduced in a graphical context, explaining the concepts of dependent and independent variables, the "intercept" and "slope" parameters, the "error term," and the t statistic. The analysis then moves to multivariate analysis and the problem of omitted variables.List of Major Concepts1. The essential features of a market include the facilitation of contact between buyersand sellers, the exchange of information, and the execution of contracts.2. The uniqueness of labor services affects the characteristics of the labor market.3. Positive economics is the study of economic behavior, and underlying this theory ofbehavior are the basic assumptions of scarcity and rationality.4. Normative economics is the study of what "should be," and theories of socialoptimality are based in part on the underlying philosophical principle of "mutualbenefit. "5. A market "fails" when it does not permit all mutually beneficial trades to take place,and there are three common reasons for such failure.6. A governmental policy is "Pareto-improving" if it encourages additional mutuallybeneficial transactions. At times, though, the goal of improving Pareto efficiency conflicts with one of generating more equity.7. The concept that governmental intervention in a market may be justified on groundsother than the principle of mutual benefit is discussed (for example, governmentintervention may be justified on the grounds that income redistribution is a desirable social objective).8. (Appendix) The relationship between two economic variables (e.g., wages and quitrates) can be plotted graphically; this visual relationship can also be summarized algebraically.9. (Appendix) A way to summarize a linear relationship between two variables isthrough ordinary least squares regression analysis -- a procedure that plots the "best"line (the one that minimizes the sum of squared deviations) through the various data points. The parameters describing this line are estimated, and the uncertaintysurrounding these estimates are summarized by the standard error of the estimate. 10. (Appendix) Multivariate procedures for summarizing the relationship between adependent and two or more independent variables is a generalization of the univariate procedure, and each coefficient can be interpreted as the effect on the dependentvariable of a one-unit change in the relevant independent variable, holding the other variables constant.11.(Appendix) If an independent variable that should be in an estimating equation is leftout, estimates of the other coefficients may be biased away from their true values. Answers to Even-Numbered Review Questions2. Are the following statements "positive" or "normative"? Why?a. Employers should not be required to offer pensions to their employees.b. Employers offering pension benefits will pay lower wages than they would if they didnot offer a pension program.c. If further immigration of unskilled foreigners is prevented, the wages of unskilledimmigrants already here will rise.d. The military draft compels people to engage in a transaction they would notvoluntarily enter into; it should therefore be avoided as a way of recruiting military personnel.e. If the military draft were reinstituted, military salaries would probably fall. Answer: (a) normative (b) positive (c) positive (d) normative (e) positive4. What are the functions and limitations of an economic model?Answer: The major function of an economic model is to strip away real world complexities and focus on a particular cause/effect relationship. In this sense an economic model is analogous to an architect's model of a building. An architect may be interested in designing a building that fits in harmoniously with its surroundings, and in designing such a building the architect may employ a model that captures the essentials of his or her concerns (namely, appearance) without getting into the complexities ofplumbing, electrical circuits, and the design of interior office space. Similarly, an economic model will often focus on a particular kind of behavior and ignore complexities that are either not germane to that behavior or only of indirect importance.Models used to generate insights about responses to a given economic stimulus are often not intended to forecast actual outcomes. For example, if we are interested in bow behavior is affected by stimulus B, with factors C, D, and E held constant, our model may not correctly forecast the observed behavior if stimuli C through E also change.6. A few years ago it was common for state laws to prohibit women from working morethan 40 hours a week. Using the principles underlying normative economics, evaluate these laws.Answer: Laws preventing women from working more than 40 hours per week essentially blocked mutually beneficial transactions. There were women who wanted to work more than 40 hours a week, and there were employers who wanted to employ them for more than 40 hours a week. The restrictions upon their employment prevented these transactions from occurring and therefore made both the women and their potential employers worse off.8. “Government policies as frequently prevent Pareto efficiency as they enhance it.”Comment.Answer. Achieving Pareto efficiency requires the completion of all mutually beneficial transactions. Ideally, government would step in to provide information is that is blocking mutually beneficial transactions or to establish markets (or market substitutes) when markets do not exist. However, governments also have power to prevent transactions or distort prices, both of which can prevent the completion of mutually beneficial transactions. Government regulations can outlaw certain transactions that the parties to them would consider mutually beneficial (the text mentions laws that historically prevented women from working more than 40 hours per week). Government also has the power to distort prices by setting minimum wages, mandating premiums for overtime work, and so forth.Answers to Even-Numbered Problems2. (Appendix) Suppose that a least squares regression yields the following estimate:Wi = -1 + .3Ai, where W is the hourly wage rate (in dollars) and A is the age in years.A second regression from another group of workers yields this estimate:Wi = 3 + .3Ai - .01(Ai)2.a. How much is a 20-year-old predicted to earn based on the first estimate?b. How much is a 20-year-old predicted to earn based on the second estimate? Answer: a. W = -1 + .3x20 = 5 dollars per hour.b. W = 3 + .3x20 - .01x20x20 = 3 + 6 - 4 = 5 dollars per hour.Suggested Essay Questions1. Child labor is an issue that has been discussed a lot recently. From the perspective ofnormative economics, explain the problem with child labor.Answer: Pareto efficiency requires that transactions have mutual benefits, and this can be assured only if the transactions are voluntary and take place with complete information. Children may be compelled by their parents to work, and they have limited capacities to make informed decisions even in the absence of compulsion.2. A law in one town of a Canadian province limits large supermarkets to just fouremployees on Sundays. Analyze this law using the concepts of normative economics. Answer. There are no doubt large supermarkets that want to hire workers on Sundays (because there are consumers who want to shop on Sundays), and there are no doubt employees who could be induced – perhaps by higher wages – to work on Sundays. A law preventing such work prevents a mutually beneficial transaction.CHAPTER 2 - OVERVIEW OF THE LABOR MARKETOur goal in this text is to move students along very carefully from what they do know to the mastery of new concepts. It is our belief that students learn most efficiently if they can associate these new ideas with an overall framework, and it is the purpose of Chapter 2 to provide that framework. This chapter has both a descriptive and an analytical purpose. One aim is to introduce students to the essential concepts, definitions, magnitudes, and trends of widely used labor market descriptors. To this purpose, the chapter discusses and presents data on such topics as the labor force, unemployment, the distribution of employment, and the level of (and trends in) labor earnings. The second aim is to provide students with an overview of labor market analysis. To this end, we discuss basic concepts of demand and supply so that students will be able to see their interaction at the very outset.We start the overview with a discussion of demand schedules and their corresponding demand curves. Particular attention is given to the distinction between movement along a curve and shifts of a curve. Distinctions between individual and more aggregated demand curves are discussed, as is the distinction between short-run and long-run demand curves.A similar discussion and set of distinctions are made for the supply side of the market. After both the demand and supply sides of the market have been discussed and generally modeled, we turn to the question of wage determination and wage equilibrium. Forces that can alter market equilibria are comprehensively discussed, and the chapter's major concepts are reinforced by discussions of the effects of unions, the existence of disequilibrium, and the concept of being "overpaid" or "underpaid" (including a discussion of economic rents). The chapter ends with a discussion of unemployment across various countries.List of Major Concepts1. The labor market and its various subclassifications (national, regional, local; external,internal; primary, secondary) are defined.2. The "labor force" consists of those who are employed or who are seeking work, andmajor trends in labor force participation rates are discussed.3. The "unemployed" are those who are not employed but are seeking work (or awaitingrecall); trends in the unemployment rate are noted.4. Changes in the industrial and occupational distribution of employment are facilitatedby the labor market, which also facilitates adjustments to the "birth" and "death" of job opportunities.5. The distinction between nominal and real wage rates is made, and the calculation ofreal wages is illustrated.6. Distinctions among wage rates, earnings, total compensation, and income aredepicted graphically.7. The labor market is one of three major markets with which an employer must deal; inturn, labor market outcomes (terms of employment and employment levels) areaffected by both product and capital markets.8. The concepts underlying a labor demand schedule are associated with productdemand, the choice of technology, and the supply schedule of competing factors of production; scale and substitution effects are ultimately related to these forces.9. Underlying a supply schedule for labor are the alternatives workers have and theirpreferences regarding the job's characteristics.10. Distinctions between individual and market demand and supply curves are discussed.11. Movements along, rather than shifts of, demand and supply curves occur when wagesof the job in question change; when a variable not shown on the graph changes, the curves tend to shift.12. The interaction of market demand and supply determines the equilibrium wage.13. Changes in the equilibrium wage rate are caused by shifts in either the demand orsupply curves. Disequilibium will persist if the wage is not allowed to adjust to shifts in demand or supply.14. The concepts of "overpaid" and "underpaid" compare the actual wage to theequilibrium (market) wage rate.15. Individuals paid more than their reservation wage are said to obtain an "economicrent."16. The concepts of shortage and surplus are directly related to the relationship betweenactual and equilibrium wage rates.17. Unemployment rates, and especially long-term unemployment rates, have risen inEurope relative to the United States and Canada over the recent decade; this rise may reflect the existence of relatively stronger nonmarket forces in Europe.Answers to Even-Numbered Review Questions2. Analyze the impact of the following changes on wages and employment in agiven occupation:a.)A fall in the danger of the occupation.b.)An increase in product demand.c.)Increased wages in alternative occupations.Answer: (a) A fall in the danger of the occupation, other things being equal, should increase the attractiveness of that occupation, shifting the supply curve to the right and causing employment to rise and wages to fall.(b) An increase in product demand will shift the demand for labor curve to the right causing both wages and employment to increase.(c) Increased wages in other occupations will render them relatively more attractive than they were before and cause the supply curve to the occupation in question to shift to the left. This will cause employment in this market to fall and wages to rise.4. Suppose a particular labor market were in market-clearing equilibrium. What couldhappen to cause the equilibrium wage to fall? If all money wages rose each year, how would this market adjust?Answer: Starting from the position of equilibrium, a labor market could experience a fall in the equilibrium wage if either the demand curve shifts to the left or the supply curve shifts to the right. While market wages are usually stated in nominal terms, their relationship to the prices of both consumer and producer products is of ultimate importance. Therefore, both parties to the employment relationship are, in the last analysis, concerned with the real wage rate. The real wage rate can fall when the nominal wage rate is rising if prices of consumer and producer products rise even more quickly.6. How will a fall in the civilian unemployment rate affect the supply of recruits for thevolunteer army? What will be the effect on military wages?Answer: Supply curves to a given occupation are drawn holding alternative opportunities constant. If those opportunities become more attractive, the supply curve to the given occupation will shift left and tend to drive up wages. Thus, a fall in the unemployment rate will shift the army's supply curve to the left (there will be fewer recruits at each army wage rate), and the army's wages will be driven up.8. Suppose that the Consumer Product Safety Commission issues a regulation requiringan expensive safety device to be attached to all power lawnmowers. This device does not increase the efficiency with which the lawnmower operates. What, if anything, does this regulation do to the demand for labor of firms manufacturing powerlawnmowers? Explain.Answer: This regulation would cause the demand for labor curve of the firms that manufacture power mowers to shift to the left. The demand for labor is in part derived from product demand. Because it is more costly now to manufacture lawnmowers, the prices that will be charged to consumers will rise. This price increase will move the firm upward and to the left along its product demand curve. With less product demanded for any given wage rate paid to workers, the end result is a leftward shift of the labor demandcurve. (If, however, consumer preferences for greater safety were to shift the product demand curve to the right, employment losses would be mitigated.)10. Suppose we observe that employment levels in a certain region suddenly decline as aresult of (i) a fall in the region's demand for labor, and (ii) wages that are fixed in the short run. If the new demand for labor curve remains unchanged for a long period and the region's labor supply curve does not shift, is it likely that employment in theregion will recover? Explain.Answer: The initial response to a leftward shift in the labor demand curve in the context of fixed wages is for there to be a relatively large decline in employment. This decline in employment is larger than the ultimate decline in employment. The initial disequilibrium between demand and supply in the labor market should force wages down in the long run, and as wages decline firms will move downward along their labor demand curves andwill begin to employ more labor. However, employment in the region would recover to its prior level (assuming no subsequent shifts in demand or supply curves) only if the supply curve was vertical; if supply curves are upward-sloping, the declining wage will cause some withdrawal of labor from the market and employment will not recover to its prior level.Answers to Even-Numbered Problems2.Suppose that the supply curve for school teachers is Ls = 20,000 + 350W and thedemand curve for school teachers is Ld = 100,000 – 150W, where L = the number of teachers and W = the daily wage.a. Plot the demand and supply curves.b. What are the equilibrium wage and employment level in this market?c. Now suppose that at any given wage 20,000 more workers are willing to work asschool teachers. Plot the new supply curve and find the new wage and employment level. Why doesn't employment grow by 20,000?Answer: a. See the figure. Plot the Ld and Ls curves by solving for desired employment at given wage rates. If W = 500, for example, employers desire 25,000 workers (Ld = 100,000 – 150x500); if W = 400, they would desire 40,000. Since the equation above is for a straight line, drawing a line using these two points gives us the demand curve. Use the same procedure for the labor supply curve.。
(完整word版)劳动经济学课后答案
名词解释：1、派生需求：是由阿弗里德·马歇尔在其《经济学原理》一书中首次提出的经济概念，是指对生产要素的需求，意味着它是由对该要素参与生产的产品的需求派生出来的，又称“引致需求”。
对一种生产要素的需求来自（派生自）对另一种产品的需求。
其中该生产要素对这一最终产品会作贡献，如对轮胎的需求派生自对汽车运输的需求。
1.短期：在短期内可变的生产要素只有劳动力，技术和资本都是不变生产要素。
2.长期：在长期内，劳动力和技术是可变生产要素，只有资本是不变生产要素。
3.卖方垄断企业：指企业在产品市场上市垄断者，但在劳动市场上市完全竞争。
4.买方垄断企业：是指企业劳动力市场是垄断者，而在产品市场上是完全竞争者。
5.替代效应:劳动使用量从LA降低到LB，资本使用量从KA上升到KB，即企业用资本代替了劳动。
6.规模效应:由于工资率的提高，企业使用劳动的边际成本将上升，从而导致企业生产更少的数量，产量的下降将会导致使用劳动数量的下降，图中变现为从B点到C点的移动，劳动数量随之下降。
7.互补性生产要素：当生产要素A的价格下降，数量增加时，对生产要素B的需求上升，则称生产要素A与生产要素B是互补。
8.替代性生产要素：当生产要素A的价格下降，数量增加时，生产要素B的数量下降，则生产要素A是生产要素B的替代性生产要素。
9.劳动需求的工资弹性：a)劳动需求的工资弹性是指当工资率变化一个百分率所引起的劳动需求变化的百分率的比值。
b)公式：ed ＝－(△L/L)/(△W/W)＝－(△L/△W)/(W/L)1.ed为劳动需求的工资弹性，△L和△W分别是劳动需求数量L和工资率W的变动量。
10、劳动的边际产品价值：VMP=MP•P，指的是增加额外一单位劳动要素的投入所带来的收益。
（三）1.劳动力：是人的劳动能力，即人在劳动过程中所运用的体力和智力的总和。
在现代劳动经济学体系中，劳动力又特指在一定年龄范围内，具有劳动能力和劳动要求。
劳动经济学课后题答案
劳动经济学课后题答案劳经复习资料第⼀章：1、谈谈你对劳动经济学研究表述的理解:劳动经济学的研究对象:第⼀：在效⽤最⼤化假设下,劳动⼒资源的投⼊产出机理。
第⼆:劳动经济学研究劳动⼒市场的运⾏和结果。
第三：劳动经济学是对劳动⼒资源配置的市场经济活动过程中的劳动⼒需求和供给的⾏为及其影响因素的分析和研究。
劳动经济学研究⽅法:第⼀:实证经济学分析⽅法:在⼀定的假设前提下，⼈们的⾏为是怎样的。
两个假设前提：稀缺性；理性第⼆:规范经济学研究⽅法：⽤⼀定的价值观去衡量经济效益的好坏和制度政策的利弊，分析经济⾏为⼈的选择该是什么的问题劳动经济学的研究特点：第⼀：将问题的注意⼒投向了⼈们的⼯作范围第⼆：研究劳动经济问题的时候，不能脱离商品市场和资本市场来孤⽴的进⾏劳动经济的分析和研究。
2、举例说明运⽤实证经济学或规范经济学研究现实劳动经济或者⼈⼒资源管理问题的价值。
规范经济学:从本质上讲，它的根本价值尺度是以互惠原则作为基础的出发点，互惠原则有三点：第⼀：市场交易活动所涉及的各⽅均受益，⽆⼈受到损失。
例如：企业⾼薪聘⽤经验丰富，能⼒⾜够强的外籍主管,对企业⽅来说此⼈将给企业带来相当⼤的价值，对个⼈来说将获取丰厚的回报。
第⼆:市场交易活动中,部分⼈受益但⽆⼈受到损失。
正如上例所说,在企业和个⼈双⽅均获得收益时，对于其他那些企业或者市场上的⾼管应聘者来说，并未因此受到损失。
第三:最为常见的既有受益者⼜有损失者,但总体上来说，受益者受益的程度或数量超过损失者损失的程度或数量。
例如在很多发达国家的劳动⽴法反对招聘中的学历歧视,对有的企业带来招聘成本的上升,但是对总体⽽⾔提⾼了社会⼈⼒资源配置的效率,利⼤于弊。
第⼆章：名词解释:1.派⽣需求(简答题):是指对⽣产要素的需求，意味着它是由对该要素参与⽣产的产品的需求派⽣出来的,⼜称“引致需求”，即对⼀种⽣产要素的需求来⾃对另⼀种产品的需求。
2.劳动的边际成本：使⽤⼀单位量劳动⼒所耗费的成本，即⼯资3.劳动的边际收益:增加⼀单位量的劳动⼒所增加的收益，即劳动边际产品价值4.使⽤劳动要素的原则：增加⼀单位劳动的使⽤所带来的“边际收益”和“边际成本”必须相等5.竞争性劳动市场：产品和要素市场上供求的双⽅⼈数都很多，产品要素之间没有区别，产品和要素的供求双⽅都具有完全的信息并且可以充分⾃由的流动6.买⽅垄断企业:是指企业劳动⼒市场是垄断者，⽽在产品市场上是完全竞争者7.劳动的边际产品价值（就是劳动的边际收益）8.替代效应: 劳动使⽤量从LA降低到LB,资本使⽤量从KA上升到KＢ，即企业⽤资本代替了劳动。
劳动经济学课后题答案
劳经复习资料第一章：1、谈谈你对劳动经济学研究表述的理解:劳动经济学的研究对象:第一：在效用最大化假设下，劳动力资源的投入产出机理。
第二：劳动经济学研究劳动力市场的运行和结果.第三：劳动经济学是对劳动力资源配置的市场经济活动过程中的劳动力需求和供给的行为及其影响因素的分析和研究。
劳动经济学研究方法：第一:实证经济学分析方法:在一定的假设前提下，人们的行为是怎样的。
两个假设前提:稀缺性;理性第二:规范经济学研究方法：用一定的价值观去衡量经济效益的好坏和制度政策的利弊，分析经济行为人的选择该是什么的问题劳动经济学的研究特点：第一：将问题的注意力投向了人们的工作范围第二:研究劳动经济问题的时候，不能脱离商品市场和资本市场来孤立的进行劳动经济的分析和研究。
2、举例说明运用实证经济学或规范经济学研究现实劳动经济或者人力资源管理问题的价值。
规范经济学:从本质上讲，它的根本价值尺度是以互惠原则作为基础的出发点，互惠原则有三点:第一：市场交易活动所涉及的各方均受益，无人受到损失。
例如:企业高薪聘用经验丰富，能力足够强的外籍主管,对企业方来说此人将给企业带来相当大的价值，对个人来说将获取丰厚的回报.第二:市场交易活动中,部分人受益但无人受到损失。
正如上例所说，在企业和个人双方均获得收益时,对于其他那些企业或者市场上的高管应聘者来说，并未因此受到损失。
第三：最为常见的既有受益者又有损失者，但总体上来说，受益者受益的程度或数量超过损失者损失的程度或数量。
例如在很多发达国家的劳动立法反对招聘中的学历歧视，对有的企业带来招聘成本的上升，但是对总体而言提高了社会人力资源配置的效率，利大于弊。
第二章：名词解释：1.派生需求（简答题）：是指对生产要素的需求,意味着它是由对该要素参与生产的产品的需求派生出来的,又称“引致需求”，即对一种生产要素的需求来自对另一种产品的需求。
2.劳动的边际成本:使用一单位量劳动力所耗费的成本,即工资3.劳动的边际收益：增加一单位量的劳动力所增加的收益，即劳动边际产品价值4.使用劳动要素的原则：增加一单位劳动的使用所带来的“边际收益”和“边际成本”必须相等5.竞争性劳动市场：产品和要素市场上供求的双方人数都很多，产品要素之间没有区别，产品和要素的供求双方都具有完全的信息并且可以充分自由的流动6.买方垄断企业：是指企业劳动力市场是垄断者，而在产品市场上是完全竞争者7.劳动的边际产品价值（就是劳动的边际收益)8.替代效应：劳动使用量从LA降低到LB,资本使用量从KA上升到KB，即企业用资本代替了劳动。
劳动经济学课后习题答案
劳动经济学课后习题答案派生需求：是指对生产要素的需求，意味着它是由对该要素参与生产的产品的需求派生出来的，又称“引致需求”。
对一种生产要素的需求来自（派生自）对另一种产品的需求。
替代效应:劳动使用量从LA降低到LB，资本使用量从KA上升到KB，即企业用资本代替了劳动。
规模效应:由于工资率的提高，企业使用劳动的边际成本将上升，从而导致企业生产更少的数量，产量的下降将会导致使用劳动数量的下降，图中变现为从B点到C点的移动，劳动数量随之下降。
劳动需求的工资弹性：劳动需求的工资弹性是指当工资率变化一个百分率所引起的劳动需求变化的百分率的比值。
公式：ed ＝－(△L/L)/(△W/W)＝－(△L/△W)/(W/L)ed为劳动需求的工资弹性，△L和△W分别是劳动需求数量L和工资率W的变动量补性生产要素：当生产要素A的价格下降，数量增加时，对生产要素B的需求上升，则称生产要素A与生产要素B是互补。
1.替代性生产要素：当生产要素A的价格下降，数量增加时，生产要素B的数量下降，则生产要素A是生产要素B的替代性生产要素。
2.影响劳动需求的因素有哪些3.答：1、技术对劳动需求的影响2、时间长短对劳动需求的影响3、企业目标对劳动需求的影响4、社会制度安排对劳动需求的影响.补充：两种经济体制下企业劳动用工特点4.什么是派生需求定理答：在保持其他条件不变的情况下，下述情况将使得某类劳动需求曲线具有很高的劳动需求的工资弹性。
a)对利用该类劳动要素所生产的最终产品的需求弹性越大b)劳动投入与其他生产要素之间的可替代性越大c)其他生产要素的供给弹性越大d)该类劳动成本占总生产成本的比重越大。
5.试运用劳动需求原理分析最低工资对劳动市场的影响答：最低工资立法的经济学分析背景：最低工资立法是各国政府保护劳动者的一项重要法律，其中心目的是以法律形式来保证工薪劳动者通过劳动所获得的最低工资能够满足其自身及其家庭成员的基本生存需要。
19世纪末，新西兰和澳大利亚最早开始实行最低工资立法。
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现代劳动经济学中文课后习题答案第一章偶数复习题的答案2。
下面的语句是“积极的”或“规范”吗？为什么呢？a、雇主不应要求雇员提供养老金。
b.雇主提供退休金福利会支付较低的工资比他们如果他们没有提供退休金计划。
虽然非技术移民在这里已经有了工资C.如果进一步的非技术移民是预防措施，将上升。
d、军事草案迫使人们进行交易，他们不会自愿进入。
因此，应该避免招募军事人员的方式。
e.如果再提起征兵，军事工资可能会下降。
A:（I）规范性的（b）积极的（c）（d）规范性的（V）积极的4。
有什么功能和经济模式的局限？答：剥离的一种经济模式的主要功能是现实世界的复杂性和专注于一个特定的原因/效果关系。
在这个意义上的经济模式是类似于一个建筑师的建筑模型。
架构师可能是在设计一个适合与周围环境和谐的建设，并在这样一个建筑设计的建筑师可以聘请一个模型，捕捉要领没有进入管道的复杂性，他或她的关注（即外观），电气线路和内部办公空间的设计。
同样，一种经济模式，往往会集中在一个特定类型的行为，而忽略复杂，要么是没有密切关系，行为或间接的重要性。
用于产生对给定经济刺激的反应的洞察的模型通常不是用来预测实际结果的。
例如，如果我们的弓形行为受到保持不变的因素C、D和E的刺激，如果刺激C到E也发生变化，我们的模型可能无法正确预测观察到的行为。
6。
几年前，它是共同为国家的法律禁止从一个星期工作40小时以上的妇女。
使用规范经济学的基本原则，评估这些法律。
答：禁止女性每周工作超过40小时的法律基本上阻止了互利交易。
有些女性希望每周工作40小时以上，有些雇主希望每周雇佣她们40小时以上。
根据她们的就业限制，这些交易无法发生，因此女性及其潜在雇主的处境更糟。
8。
“政府的政策频繁防止，帕累托效率，因为他们加强了。
”评论。
答复为了实现帕累托效率，我们需要完成所有互利交易。
理想情况下，政府将加强信息提供，以防止互利交易，或在市场不存在时建立市场（或市场替代品）。
然而，政府也有权阻止交易或扭曲价格，这两者都可以阻止交易完成后的互利交易。
政府规定可以禁止某些交易，他们都会考虑互惠互利（这篇文章指的是历史上禁止妇女每周工作超过40小时的法律）。
政府还有权扭曲价格、设定最低工资、设定加班费等等。
偶数的问题的答案2.（附录）假设最小二乘回归产生以下估计：wi=-1+0.3艾，其中w是每小时工资率（美元），一个是岁。
从另一组工人的第二个回归收益率估计：wi=3+0.3艾-0.01（ai）2。
a、根据第一次估计，20年前的预测能赚多少钱？b.多少是一个20岁的预测，以赚取第二次估计的基础上呢？回答：（1）w=-1+0.3x20=每小时5美元。
b.w=3+0.3x20-0.01x20x20=3+6-4=每小时5美元。
建议的作文问题1。
童工是一个问题已经讨论了很多最近。
从规范经济学的角度，解释与童工问题。
答：帕累托效率要求交易双方都是互利的，只有当交易是自愿的时，才能确保信息的完整性。
孩子们可能会强迫父母工作，他们的能力有限，甚至在没有强迫的情况下做出明智的决定。
2。
在一个镇的一个加拿大省的一项法律，限制大型超市只有四个员工在周日。
使用规范经济学的概念来分析这部法律。
答复毫无疑问，大型超市应该在周日雇佣工人（因为消费者希望在周日开店）。
毫无疑问，员工可能会被诱导——可能是因为工资上涨——在周日工作。
阻止此类工作的法律阻止了互利交易。
第二章偶数复习题的答案2。
在某一职业的工资和就业的下列变更的影响分析：a.）占领的危险下降。
b）在产品需求的增加。
c.）增加工资的替代职业。
答：（一）被占领的危险已经减少。
在其他条件相同的情况下，我们应该增加职业吸引力，调整供给曲线，增加就业，降低工资。
（二）在产品需求的增加将转向曲线增加工资和就业的权利，造成对劳动力的需求。
（三）提高其他职业的工资将比以前更有吸引力，职业问题将导致供给曲线左移。
这将导致这个市场的就业率下降和工资上涨。
4。
假设一个特定的劳动力市场，在市场出清的均衡。
事业均衡工资下降，会发生什么？如果所有的货币工资增长每年，这个市场将如何调整？答：从均衡位置开始，我们可能会遇到劳动力市场均衡工资的下降。
如果需求曲线向左移动或供给曲线向右移动。
，虽然市场工资通常以名义价格表示，但它们与消费者和生产者的关系是产品价格的终极重要性。
因此，雇佣关系的双方归根结底都与实际工资率有关。
当实际工资率下降而名义工资率上升时，如果消费者和生产者的产品价格上升得更快。
6。
在民用失业率的下降将如何影响新兵义军的供应？军事工资会有什么效果呢？答：由给定职业的供给曲线得出的替代机会保持不变。
如果这些机会变得更具吸引力，那么供给曲线中的特定职业将转向左边，通常会推高工资。
因此，失业率的下降将转向军事供应曲线的左边（每名军人的工资率将减少新兵），军队工资将被推高。
8。
假设，消费者产品安全委员会问题的规定，要求一个昂贵的安全设备附加到所有电源割草机。
此设备不会增加剪草机运行的效率。
本规例制造大国割草机企业对劳动力的需求做什么，如果有的话？解释。
答：这项规定将导致人力割草机制造商的需求向左曲线移动。
劳动力需求是产品需求的一部分。
因为现在生产割草机的成本更高，它会向消费者收费，价格也会上涨。
这一价格上涨将使该公司沿着其产品的需求曲线向上和向左移动。
对于任何给定的工资率，使用较少的产品，最终结果是劳动力需求曲线向左移动。
（然而，如果安全性更高的消费者的偏好转向产品需求曲线的右侧，就业岗位的流失将得到缓解。
）10。
假设我们观察到，在一定区域内的就业水平突然下降（i），在该地区的对劳动力的需求下降，及（ii）在短期内固定工资。
如果劳动曲线的新需求保持长期不变，该地区的劳动力供给曲线不移位，是有可能在该地区的就业将恢复？解释。
答：一个在固定工资的情况下的劳动需求曲线向左移动的初步反应是有一个比较大的下降，就业的。
这种就业人数跌幅大于就业的最终下降。
最初在劳动力市场的需求和供应之间的不平衡应强制降低工资从长远来看，工资下降公司将沿着自己的劳动需求曲线向下移动，并开始雇用更多的劳动力。
然而，在该地区的就业将恢复到其之前的水平（假设没有后续的需求或供给曲线的变化），如果供给曲线是垂直的，如果供给曲线是向上倾斜的，下降的工资将导致一些劳动力从撤出市场和就业不会恢复到其先前的水平。
偶数问题的答案假设学校教师的供给曲线是ls=20000+350w和学校教师的需求曲线是ld2。
=100000-150w，其中l=教师人数，w=日薪。
a.剧情的需求和供给曲线。
b、这个市场的均衡工资和就业水平是多少？c.现在假设，在任何给定的工资20000多工人愿意工作作为学校的教师。
绘制新的供给曲线和找到新的工资和就业水平。
为什么没有就业增长20,000人吗？答：（1）见图。
在给定的工资率下求解就业问题所需的LD和LS曲线图。
例如，如果w=500，雇主的愿望是25000名工人（LD=100000-150x500）；如果w=400，他们的愿望是40000。
因为上面的公式是一条直线，所以画一条线，用这两点来给出需求曲线。
使用同样的过程，劳动力供给曲线。
b.要找到平衡，解决工资提供劳动量等于劳动力的数量要求：ls=20000+双方加150W，双方减20000。
输出功率为500W=350W=100000-150w=LD。
80,000w的解决。
双方除以500显示是w=每天160元。
堵w=$160到劳资双方的需求和供给方程表明，l=76000学校教师。
c、新的劳动力供给曲线ls'=40000+350W。
设置此值相当于向劳工部显示w=120元/天并结算；L=82000名学校教师。
就业没有增加2万人，因为供给曲线的变化导致工资下降，导致一些教师退出市场。
建议作文题1.美国学生为在“血汗工厂”条件下工作（在恶劣工作条件下工作时间长，工资低）的美国海外零售商组织了反对党大学服装，并出售了校园商店。
假设这项运动需要抵制血汗工厂的条件下提出的项目的形式。
（a）分析血汗工厂工人的重要劳动力市场结果。
在这些国家，使用需求和供给曲线来说明这一结果的驱动机制。
（b）假设，美国学生的行动是唯一的动力改善工资和在国外的工作条件，这些行动包括必须确保工人，他们是毫不含糊地更好？答复（1）在国外，当低薪工人的需求曲线向左移动时，他们对服装产品的需求就会减少。
这压低了工资和就业（假设供给曲线固定）。
为避免影响（I）、（b）在美国的学生必须愿意购买相同数量和质量的服装，以更高的价格-这是，他们必须愿意支付溢价报酬更好的服装工人。
2.厄瓜多尔是世界上最大的香蕉出口国。
它培养和收获了大量劳动力，包括许多儿童。
现在假设厄瓜多尔禁止在香蕉种植园使用童工。
利用经济理论中的“积极”模型，分析厄瓜多尔香蕉种植业的就业和工资情况。
使用你的工具分析需求和供应曲线。
答案。
香蕉种植园的取缔童工减少的劳动力，这些种植园的供应，供给曲线转移到左边。
有了一个固定的需求曲线，供给曲线的转变带动了下来的工资和就业的驱动器。
第三章偶数的复习题的答案2.假设美国军方招募志愿者有困难，正在考虑两种选择之一：增加报酬或恢复通风系统。
使用一些随机选择的方法来分析志愿者何时失去了获得民用生产成本的机会。
答案。
在选择雇主时，薪酬是一个重要的考虑因素。
因此，那些选择一个军事工作，有很多的平民就业机会，支付少于军事。
相反，那些选择仍然是平民很多工人的平民支付高于其军事薪酬。
由于利润最大化，当工人的边际收益的生产能力（mrpl）都是平等的工资（宽），我们可以假设，那些具有较高的工资也有了更高的民用mrpl。
因此，当社会上依靠军事志愿者，将失去的平民比它的输出，通过随机起草一份文职工作人员的数目相等。
（应该指出的薪酬不是唯一的考虑因素，在选择工作，和工人真的试图最大化其效用。
那些选择对军队的平民生活，将那些会得到最少的工具，从执行军事任务，如果后者有些是被迫成军，也有一个机会成本失去工人公用事业的社会！）4.假设监狱历史上没有付款，每个监狱清洁和准备食物所需的囚犯将执行，。
现在假设囚犯在监狱围栏内提供有偿工作，在工厂工作，清洁和食品准备现在由雇佣的非囚犯完成。
您希望看到执行这些任务时使用的技术差异吗？解释。