胡壮麟语言学教程第五版PPT精选文档
英语语言学及应用课件PPT胡壮麟史上最全面
Hale Waihona Puke Phoneme(音位): phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value; the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.
1. Bilabial双唇 ; 2. Labiodental唇齿的; 3. Dental or
interdental齿音和齿 间; 4. Alveolar齿龈音 ; 5. Palatoalveolar腭齿音; 6. Palatal 腭音; 7. Velar软腭音; 8. Uvular小舌音; 9. Glottal声门.
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What is linguistics
Linguistics, the scientific study of language, concerns itself with all aspects of how people use language and what they must know in order to do so.
The diagram of single vowel classification by applying the two criteria so far mentioned:
I Language as a Formal System
The study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. is called phonology音系学.
Chapter 5 大学语言学概论第5章ppt课件
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2. Linguistic model of the
conceptualist view
• SEMANTIC TRIANGLE • THOUGHT/REFERENCE
• 1. 形式与意义直接相关 ，用实线连接。意义通过 符号形式来表达，形式是 语义的载体。
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1. Definition
• Contextualism（语境论）： is a view
concerning meaning which holds that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context. According to this view, one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.
• 2. 意义是在各观事物的 基础上概括而成的，是客 观事物在头脑中的概括反 映，两者也有直接联系， 用实线连接。
• 3. 形式和所指之间没有
SYMBOL/FORM REFERENT 必然的联系，故而两者间
用虚线连接，所以同一事
(Ogden and Richards 1923: 物可以用不同的形式来表
• Or what is exactly meant by “thinking of a concept”?
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6. Question
• What do you think of when you hear or see the words:
Chapter 8 Pragmatics 语用学 语言学教程 胡壮麟.ppt
(c) The room was wanted for a meeting.
பைடு நூலகம்
(2) I can’t work under untidy circumstances.
are acts.
8.1.1 Performatives and constatives Austin (How to Do Things with Words,
1962) Consider these sentences: a) I name this ship Elizabeth. b) I bequeath my watch to my brother. c) I now pronounce you man and wife. d) I bet you sixpence it will rain
A. (i) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and
(ii) the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.
B. The procedure must be executed (i) correctly and (ii) completely.
Possible contexts:
(a) A request to someone to tidy up the circumstances.
(b) It was an excuse for not wanting to do something there.
英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版)
英语语言学教程（胡壮麟版）Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic.1.What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Ch inese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.2.Design Features of Language.“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability(1)Arbitrariness: By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings andsounds.(2)Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units ofthe primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization.(3)Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand anindefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered.(4)Displacement: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to thefact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too.(5)Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generationto generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker.(6)Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and areceiver of messages.3.Functions of Language.Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative.(1)Phatic function: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certainatmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas).Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function.(2)Directive function: The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearerto do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the result when you finish.”(3)Informative function: Language serves an “informational function” when used to tellsomething, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood).(4)Interrogative function: When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogativefunction”. This includes all questi ons that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc.(5)Expressive function: The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal somethingabout the feelings or attitudes of the speaker.(6)Evocative function: The “evocative function” is the use of langu age to create certain feelings inthe hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please.(7)Per formative function: This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions.4. What is linguistic?“Linguistics” is the sc ientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities. 5. Main branches of linguistics.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, psycholinguistics etc. 6. Important distinctions in linguistic.(1) synchronic study vs. diachronic studyThe description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic).(2) Speech vs. writingSpeech is primary, because it existed long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.(3) Descriptive vs. prescriptiveA linguis tic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.(4). langue vs. paroleF. de Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, . to discover the regularities governing all instances of paroleand make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.(5). competence vs. performanceAccording to N. Choms ky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. (6). linguistic potential vs. linguistic behaviorThese two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M. A. K. Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says . his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain per son is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).Chapter 2 Phoneticsis phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics.(1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process.(2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain.(3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulatory phonetics.2. The IPAThe IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.3. Place of articulationIt refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance ofa consonant.4. Manner of articulationThe “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated.5. Phonology“Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.6. Narrow transcription and broad transcription.The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable ofdistinguishing one word from another in a given language.7. Phone Phoneme AllophoneA “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we he ar and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced: [pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different [p]s, readily making possible the “narrow transcription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning.A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, ., the different ., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different [p] s in the above words is the allophones of the same phoneme [p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out bya phonologist.8.Minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two forms (i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, ., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what English phonemes are. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language.9. Free variationIf two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”.10. Complementary distributionWhen two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after [s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme.11. Assimilation rule.The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar.12. Deletion ruleThe “deletion rule” tell us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented.13. Suprasegmental phonology and suprasegmental features“Suprasegmental phonology” refers to the s tudy of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, length and pitch, stress, intonation.Chapter 3. Morphology1.Morpheme and MorphologyThe “morpheme” is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.“Morphology” is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules b y which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology.2.Types of Morphemes.(1)free morpheme and bound morphemeA “free morpheme” is a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself, such as ‘bed”, “tree”, etc. A “bound morpheme” is one that appears with at least another morpheme, such as “-s” in “beds”, “-al” in “national” and so on.All monomorphemic words are free morphemes. Those polymorphemic words are either compounds (combination of two or more free morphemes) or derivatives (word derived from free morphemes).(2). root; affix; stemA “root” is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. It is the part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed.“Affixes”is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound. (prefix, suffix, infix)A “stem” is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added.(3). Inflectional affix and derivational affix.Inflectional affixes: do not change the word class, but only added a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem.Derivational affixes: often change the lexical meaning and word class.Inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, and derivational affixes can be prefixes (sub-, de-) or suffixes (-er, -able).3. Inflection“Inflection” is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.4. Word formationIn its restricted sense, refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be future sub classified into the compositional type (compound) and the derivational type.5. Lexical change(1) lexical change proper(特有词汇变化)A. InventionB. Blending: blending is relative complex from of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.C. Abbreviation: a new word is created by cutting the final part, the initial part, or both the initial and final parts accordingly.D. Acronym: acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which have a heavily modified headword.E. Back-formation: it refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.F. Analogical creation: it can account for the co-existence of the forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.G. Borrowing:a. loanwords: the borrowing of loanwords is a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, in some causes, to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.b. loanblend: it is a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.c. loanshift: it is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, and the form is native.d. loan translation: a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.(2). Morpho-syntactical change （形态句法变化）A. morphological change: the words have changed their formsB. syntactical change(3). Semantic change （语义变化）A. broading: a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relative general one.B. narrowing: it refers to a process in which the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.C. meaning shift: the change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction.D. fork etymology: it refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term on from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.(4). Phological change （音位变化)Refers to changes in sound leading to change in form.a. loss（语音的脱落）b. addition （语音的增加）c. metathesis（换位）d. assimilation （同化）(5). Orthographic change （书写法变化）Chapter Four. Syntax1. Syntax.“Syntax” is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.2. Sentence.L. Bloomfield defines “sentence” as an independent linguistic form not include d by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic from, i. e., it is not subordinated to a larger linguistic form, and it is a structurally independent linguistic form. It is also called a maximum free form.3. Syntactic relations.“Syntactic relations” refer to the ways in which words, word groups or phrases form sentences; hencethree kinds of syntactic relations: positional relations, relations of substitutability and relations of co-occurrence.a.“Positional relation”, or “word order”, refers to the seq uential arrangement to words in a language.It is a manifestation of a certain aspect of what F. de Saussure called “syntagmatic relations”, or of what other linguists call “horizontal relations” or “chain relations”.b.“Relations of substitutability” refer to classes or sets of words substitutable for each othergrammatically in same sentence structures. Saussure called them “associative relations”. Other people call them “paradigmatic/vertical/choice relations”.c.“Relations of co-occurrence”, one means that words of different sets of clauses may permit orrequire the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations and partly to paradigmatic relations.3.Grammatical constructionGrammatical construction: it can be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional function in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.4.IC analysis and immediate constituents.“IC analysis” is a new approach of sentence study that cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. This kind of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing what they really are. What remain of the first cut is called “immediate constituents”, and what are left at the final cut is called “ultimate constituents”.5.Endocentric and exocentric constructions“Endocentric construction” is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, ., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable “centre” or “head”. Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the head.“Exocentric construction”, opposite of endocentric construction, refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as whole; that is to say, there is no definable centre or head inside the group. Exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate (verb + object) construction, and connective (be + complement) construction.6.Coordination and subordination.They are two main types of endocentric construction.Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two of more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as “and” ,“but” and “or”. Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. (three basic types of subordination clause: complement clause, adjunct clause, relation clause.)7. Syntactic function(1) Subject: “subject” refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case. In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the doer.a. Grammatical subject: it refers to a noun which can establish correspondence with the verb and which can be checked by a tag-question test, ., “He is a good cook, (isn’t he?).”b. Logical subject: the original object noun phrase occupies the grammatical space before a verb, the space that a subject normally occupies, the core subject, now the object of a preposition, is called the logical subject.(2). Predicate: A “predicate” refers to a major constituent o f sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject are considered together. ., in the sentence “The monkey is jumping”, “is jumping” is the predicate.(3) Object: “object” refers to the receiver or goal of an action and it is further classified into two kinds: direct object and indirect object. In some inflecting languages, an object is marked by case labels: the “accusative case” for direct object, and the “dative case”for direct object, and the “dative case” for indirect to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pronouns). ., in the sentence “John kissed me”, “me” is the object. Modern linguists suggest that an object refers to such an item that it can become a subject in passive transformation.8. CategoryThe term “category” in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, ., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc.(1)Number: “Number” is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying suchcontrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs.(2)Gender: “Gender” displays such contrasts as “masculine”, “feminine”, “neuter”, or “animate” and“inanimate”, etc., for the analysis of word classes. When word items refer to the sex of the real-world entities, we natural gender (the opposite is grammatical gender).(3)Case: “Case” identifies the syntactic r elationship between words in a sentence. In Latin grammar,cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”, etc. In English, the case category is realized in three ways: by following a preposition and by word order.(4)Agreement (or Concord): “Concord” may be defined as requirement that the forms of two or morewords of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category or categories, ., “man runs”, “men run”.9. Syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relationSyntagmatic relation: it is a relation between one item and other in a sequence, or between elements which are all present, such as the relation between “weather” and the others in the following sentence “If the weather is nice, we’ll go out.”Paradigmatic relation: it is also called Associative, a relation between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent. It is also known as the vertical relation or choice relation.10. Phrase; clause and sentence.A “phrase” is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of “clauses”. Traditionally, it is seen as part of a structural hierarchy, falling between a clause and word, ., “the three tallest girls” (nominal phrase). There is now a tendency to make a distinction between word groups and phrases. A “word group” is an extension of a word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged. Thus we havenominal group, verbal group, adverbial group, conjunction group and preposition group.A “clause” is group of words with its own subject and predicate included in a larger subject-verb construction, namely, in a sentence. Clauses can also be classified into two kinds: finite and non-finite clauses, the latter referring to what are traditionally called infinitive phrase, participle phrase and gerundial phrase.Sentence is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought. Bloomfield (1935) defined the sentence as “one not included by virtue of any grammatical construction in any larger linguistic form.”11. RecursivenessIt mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category. By “recursiveness” we mean that there is theoretically no limit to the number of the embedded clauses in a c omplex sentence. This is true also with nominal and adverbial clauses, ., “I saw the man who killed a cat who…a rat which…that…”(1)Conjoining: “Conjoining” refers to a construction where one clause is co-ordinated or conjoined withanother, e. g., “John bought a cat and his wife killed her.”(2)Embedding: “Embedding” refers to the process of construction where one clause is included in thesentence (or main clause) in syntactic subordination, ., “I saw the man who had killed a chimpanzee.”12. Beyond the sentence(1) Sentential connection: the notion of hypotactic and paratactic relations can also be applied to the study of syntactic relations between sentences.a. “Hypotactic relation” refers to a construction where constituents are linked by means of conjuncti on, . “He bought eggs and milk.”b. “Paratactic relation” refers to constructions which are connected by juxtaposition, punctuation or intonation, e. g., “He bought tea, coffee, eggs and milk” (pay attention to the first three nouns connected without “and”).(2). Cohesion:Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse of text rather than with syntax, it refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text.Textual cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesive devices: conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collection, lexical repetition, reference, substitution etc.Chapter Five. Meaning1.Semantics:“Semantics” refers to the study of the communication of meaning through language. Or simply, it is the study of meaning.2.What is meaning?Though it is difficult to define, “meaning” has the following meaning: (1) an intrinsic property; (2) the connotation of a word; (3) the words put after a dictionary entry; (4) the position an object occupies in a system; (5) what the symbol user actually refers to; (6) what the symbol user should refer to; (7) what the symbol user believes he is referring to; (8) what the symbol interpreter refers to; (9) what the symbol interpreter believes it refers to; (10) what the symbol interpreter belie ves the user refers to…linguists argued about “meaning of meaning” fiercely in the result of “realism”, “conceptualism/mentalism”, “mechanism”, “contextualism”, “behaviorism”, “functionalism”, etc. Mention ought to be made of the “Semantic Triangle Theory” of Ogden & Richards. We use a word and the listener knows what it refers to because, according to the theory, they have acquired the same concept/reference of the word used and of。
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学 语言学教程 胡壮麟
Definitions of Semantics
Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning. (Dai & He, 2002, p. 67) Term coined by Bré (1897) for the al subdiscipline of linguistics concerned with the analysis and description of the so-called „literal‟ meaning of linguistic expressions. (Bussmann, 1996, p. 423) Semantics is the study of linguistic meaning: the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. (Wen, P. 210)
5.1 Meanings of „Meaning‟
Scholars like Ferdinand de Saussure have stressed that the study of linguistic meaning is part of the general study of the use of sign systems, and this general study is called semiotics.
2) It is not possible for some words to find referents in the world, such as the words but, and, of, however, the, etc. 3) Speakers of English understand the meaning of a round triangle although there is no such graph.
语言学 chapter5(胡壮麟版)---group 4
The classification is not comprehensive, or it still has something unclear, because the seven meanings are inseparable. Generally, the affective meaning for the often are usingthe existence of connotative meaning, social meaning or rational meaning; With a sense of meaning is sometimes rational transfer performance, and so on. Therefore, our sense of significance to facilitate the classification is analyzed and studied, and they can't arbitrary isolation and dividing them. And, our main concern is the actual communication effect, this will involve a pragmatic category, which requires more we grasp the meaning from the general went up.
Q2. Why does G. Leech recognize 7 types of meaning?
• Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981) classified seven types of meaning:
– Conceptual meaning – Connotative meaning – Social meaning – Affective meaning – Reflected meaning – Collocative meaning – Thematic meaning
胡壮麟语言学教程第五版PPT精选文档
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(6) Collocative meaning
The associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.
Meaning has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers, logicians and linguists. E.g. Plato & Aristotle.
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Logicians and philosophers have tended to concentrate on a restricted range of sentences (typically, statements, or ‘propositions’) within a single language.
etc. Singularity: the style of Dickens, etormal, official residence: formal abode: poetic home: general
steed: poetic horse: general nag: slang gee-gee: baby language
Linguistic semantics vs. Logical semantics/philosophical semantics
Pragmatics:
The meaning of utterances
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2. Semantic Meaning
(NEW)胡壮麟《语言学教程》(第5版)配套题库【考研真题精选+章节题库】
7. One of the important distinctions in linguistics is _____ and performance. （人大2006研） 【答案】competence 【解析】语言能力指理想的语言使用者关于语言规则的语言知识，语言 应用指语言交际中关于语言规则知识的实际使用。
因为大多数动物的“语言”需要“即时刺激控制”。
18. The most serious defect concerns the use of semantic markers like (Human) and (Male), which, more usually called semantic components are elements of an artificial _____.（北京邮电大学2014研） 【答案】metalanguage 【解析】本题考查成分分析的弊端。通过语义特征来进行成分分析的一 大弊端是这些意义特征使用的是人工化的元语言，元语言本身的含义也 需进一步解释。
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Logicians and philosophers have tended to concentrate on a restricted range of sentences (typically, statements, or ‘propositions’) within a single language.
Any characteristic of the referent, identified subjectively or objectively, may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression which denotes it.
Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.
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(2) Connotative meaning
The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.
Linguistic semantics vs. Logical semantics/philosophical semantics
Pragmatics:
The meaning of utterances
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2. Semantic Meaning
Semantics is the study of meaning in language.
The linguistic approach is broader in scope, aiming to study the properties of meaning in a systematic and objective way, with reference to as wide a range of utterances and languages as possible.
Associative Meaning
Collocative meaning
Thematic meaning
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(1) Conceptual meaning
Also called ‘denotative’ or ‘cognitive’ meaning.
Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.
Chapter Five Meaning
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1. The Study of Meaning
Semantics:
The meaning of words: Lexical semantics
The meaning of sentences: Propositional meaning, compositional meaning
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What is the meaning of life?
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What does ‘capitalist’ mean to you?
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What does ‘cornea’ mean? The transparent, convex, anterior portion of
the outer fibrous coat of the eyeball that covers the iris and the pupil and is continuous with the sclera.
A multitude of additional, non-criterial properties, including not only physical characteristics but also psychological and social properties, as well as typical features.
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Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:
Conceptual meaning
Connotative meaning
Social meaning Affective meaning Reflected and meaning
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Step mother
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(3) Social meaning
What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstae ‘real world’ experience one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it.
Unstable: they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.
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3. The meaning of meaning
C. K. Ogden & I. A. Richards (1923).
The Meaning of Meaning.
John means to write. A green light means to go.
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Health means everything. His look was full of meaning.